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Preface. 


HERE  are  many  valuable  books  for  the  farmer 
already  in  the  market,  but  the  author  believes 
^,  that  there  is  both  room  and  a  call  for  another 
work  devoted  specially  to  the  interests  of  the  class 
to  which  nearly  half  of  the  population  of  the  country 
belongs.  The  present  is  a  time  of  rapid  progress,  and 
the  man  who  makes  no  effort  to  keep  up  with  the  times 
will  soon  be  left  far  behind  his  competitors. 
.  Times  have  changed  since  a  work  of  this  description 
•has  been  published.  Foreign  markets  have  been 
opened,  and  the  wants  of  home  consumers  have  been 
greatly  modified.  New  theories  of  tillage  and  new 
methods  of  fertilization  and  cultivation  have  been 
advanced  and  tested.  Competition  has  become  closer, 
and  the  necessity  for  a  better  style  of  farming  has  been 
made  evident.  Farmers  have  also  become  more  willing 
to  read  and  study,  and  have  found  that  the  practical 
agricultural  writer  is  both  a  helper  and  a  friend. 

This  book  is  not  sectional  in  its  character,  but  treats 
of  the  various  interests  of  farmers  in  all  parts  of  the 
country.     It  contains  the  results  of  an  immense  amount 


4  PREFACE. 

of  Study  and  Investigation.  The  best  authorities  have 
been  freely  consulted,  and  the  author  has  endeavored  to 
secure  accuracy,  bring  the  work  down  to  the  present 
time,  and  make  it  practical  and  instructive.  Special  care 
has  been  taken  to  make  It  attractive  and  valuable  to  the 
boys  and  young  men  who  are  coming  upon  the  stage  of 
active  life,  and  are  soon  to  be  the  farmers  of  the 
country. 

This  will  be  found  a  comprehensive  work.  An  effort 
has  been  made  to  bring  into  one  volume  a  vast  amount 
of  information  which  will  be  of  practical  value.  The 
subjects  treated  are  not  confined  to  a  single  class,  as  is 
the  case  with  too  many  books,  but  embrace  evejy  dcpart- 
iitent  of  farm  business. 

Not  only  the  leading  principles,  but  many  of  the 
minor  matters,  which  writers  often  overlook,  but  which 
have  an  Important  bearing  upon  the  happiness  and  suc- 
cess of  the  farmer,  are  also  noted.  There  are  many 
suggestions  which,  it  is  hoped,  will  prove  extremely  use- 
ful to  the  beginner,  while  there  is  much  which  will  merit 
the  consideration  of  those  who  have  been  long  In  the 
service. 

The  teachings  of  this  book  have  been  adapted  to 
the  present  co7idition  of  the  agricultural  inte7'csts  of  the 
comttry,  and  are  designed  to  show  how  the  farmer  of  to- 
day can  achieve  success  in  his  work.  The  Interests  of 
the  wife  and  children  have  not  been  forgotten,  and  it  is 
believed  that  in  the   pages  of  this  work  each  member 


PREFACE.  5 

of  the  household  can  find  something  of  personal  in- 
terest. 

The  author  is  a  practical  farmer,  acquainted  with  the 
details  of  farm  management,  and  thoroughly  used  to 
manual  labor.  He  has  had  many  years  experience  as 
a  writer  for  the  Agricultural  Press,  and  his  articles  have 
been  very  favorably  received.  He  has  also  had  exten- 
sive opportunities  for  observation  in  different  sections  of 
this  country  and  Canada. 

Written  by  a  farmer,  for  farmers  and  their  families,  the 
Book  is  sent  out  with  the  hope  that  it  will  prove 
interesting  and  useful  to  all  who  shall  read  its  pages. 


Acknowledgments. 


The  Author  tenders  his  sincere  thanks  to  the  many  friends 
who  in  various  ways  have  encouraged  and  aided  him  in  his 
work. 

Special  acknowledgments  are  due  to 

Rev.  J.  H.  Seelve,  D.  D.,  President  of  Amherst  College, 

Hon.  Levi  Stockbridge,"^ 

Prof.  C.  A.  Goessman,      l^^  *^^   Massachusetts 

Prof.  S.  T.  Maynard,      J    Agricultural  College. 

T.  B.  Miner,  Esq.,  Linden,  N.  J., 
J.  B.  Brown,  Esq.,  New  York  City. 
Also  to  many  gentlemen  and  firms  who  have  aided  in  illus- 
trating the  book,  and  whose  names  appear  in  connection  with 
the  plates. 

Aid  has  been  received  from  the  printed  works  of 
Hon.  X.  A.  Willard,  of  New  York, 
Prof.  E.  W.  Stewart,  "      "        " 
Joseph  Harris,  "      "        " 

Prof.  S.  W.  Johnson,  of  Connecticut, 
George  E.  Waring,  Jr.,  of  Rhode  Island, 
F.  D.  CoDURN,  of  Kansas, 
Prof.  E.  ]M.  Pendleton,  of  Georgia, 
and  many  other  well-known  writers   to  whom    due   credit  is 
given,  and  from  the  leading  agricultural  papers  in  the  country. 

(6) 


Contents. 


PART  I— Agriculture  and  Mechanics. 

FARMING  AS  AN  OCCUPATION. 

Original  work  of  men— Suited  to  the  needs  of  mankind— Honorable  and  useful 

calling No  occupation  equivalent  to  character — Influence  upon  National 

prosperity — Independence  of  the  farmer— Farming  can  be  made  profitable.  1 9-24 

WHERE  TO  FARM. 

A  story  and  its  lessons— A  common  mistake— Change  not  always  improvement 

Law  of  Compensations — Change  of  methods  often  better  than  change  of 

place— Difficulties  and  their  remedies— The  "Old  Homestead  "—Location 
of  farm  laborers — Young  men  in  cities — Exceptions  to  the  principles  stated — 
Location  should  not  be  changed  thoughtlessly 24-35 

LARGE  OR  SMALL  FARMS. 

Farmers  want  too  much  land — Special  ability  required  to  manage  a  large  farm 

Latf^er  farms  needed  West  and  South  than  at  the  East — Size  of  farm  should 

be  modified  by  amount  of  help— Advantages  of  small  farms — Disadvantages 
of  small  farms  and  advantages  of  large  ones  compared — Small  farmers  should 
co-operate — Amount  of  capital  should  influence  in  determining  size  of  farm 
— All  the  capital  should  not  be  invested  in  land 3^44 

FARM  BUILDINGS. 

Buildings  necessary — Number  required — Expensive — Not  wise  to  do  without 

Location — House  should  be  near  the  road — Relative  position    of  other 

buildings — Size  of  buildings — Large  buildings  costly — Small  buildings  incon- 
venient— Size  should  be  regulated  by  the  needs  of  the  owner — Height  of 
buildings — Adaptation  to  purposes  which  they  are  designed  to  serve — Plans 
for  buildings— Cost^-Repairs— Painting  buildings — The  House — Modifica- 
tion of  Plans — Neatness  and  Comfort — Warmth — Windows — Doors — Floors 
— Stairs — Roofs — Chimneys — Eave  troughs  —  Blinds  —  Piazza — Lightning- 
rods — Ventilation — Interior  arrangements — The  cellar — The  Barn — The 
Granary — The  Hog  house — Hen  house — Wagon  shed — Wood  house — Closets 
and  vaults — Tool  house — Repair  shop — Store  house 44-I21 

THE  CAPACITY  OF  A  FARM. 

Actual  production  not  sure  test  of  capacity — Real  capacity  not  always  known — 
Should  be  determined  by  experiment — Too  much  should  not  be  attempted  at 
a  time — Land  suited  to  special  crops — Owner  should  find  which  pay  the 
best 121-127 

ANALYSIS  OF  SOILS. 

Analysis  not  as  useful  as  was  once  supposed — Many  important  points  cannot  be 
determined  by  its  aid — Analysis  of  plants  more  satisfactory — Combined  with 

experience  and  observation  proves  a  great  aid 127-13I 

(7) 


8  CONTENTS. 

PLANT  LIFE  AND  GROWTH. 

Great  mystery  involved — Evidence  of  a  Creator — Conditions  of  growth — Con- 
dition of  the  soil — Depth  of  covering  the  seed — Method  of  growth  by  roots 
— Leaves  important  organs — Diseases  and  insects  destructive  to  plants — 
Changes  of  soil — Modification  of  plants — Size — Time  of  ripening — Produc- 
tiveness— Reproduction — Life  of  plants — Flowers — Fertilization — Practical 
bearings 132-150 

FERTILIZERS. 

Plant  growth  a  formative  process — Organic  and  inorganic  elements  required — 
The  sources  of  supply — Atmosphere — Water — Soil — Sub-soil — These  sources 
sufficient  if  crops  not  removed — Insufficient  if  crops  are  taken — Elements  of 
plants  must  be  restored  to  the  soil — Sources  of  supply — Animal  excrement — 
Composting — Green  manuring — Sod — Complete  and  incomplete  fertilizers — 
Wood  and  coal  ashes — Marl — Common  salt — Piaster — Bones  and  mineral 
phosphates — Lime — Guano — Sulphate  of  ammonia — Fish  refuse — Leaves — 
Waste  products — Commercial  fertilizers — Special  fertilizers — Bulk  not  a  cri- 
terion of  value — Application  of  fertilizers — Quantity  to  be  used — The  sum- 
mer fallow — Covering  the  soil 151-202 

TILLAGE. 

Claims  which  have  been  made  for  tillage — Tillage  supplies  plant  food — Objec- 
tions to  tillage  answered — Crops,  not  tillage,  exhaust  the  soil — Tillage  and 
manure  should  be  used  together — Skill  and  judgment  required — Treatment 
must  vary  with  the  character  of  the  soil — Results  of  tillage  satisfactory — Till- 
age before  seeding — Tillage  should  be  adapted  to  wants  of  the  crop  under 
cultivation — Good  implements  required 203-2 1 5 

THE  CHOICE  OF  CROPS. 

A  wise  choice  essential  to  success — Farmer  must  grow  what  he  can  sell — Prin- 
ciple never  to  be  sacrificed — Knowledge  of  the  market  required — Character 
of  the  soil  a  modifying  power — Use  of  special  fertilizers — Cost  and  value  of 
the  crops  to  be  compared — Crops  which  can  be  used  at  home 215-225 

ROTATION  OF  CROPS. 

Benefits  of  rotation — Why  it  gives  good  results — Crops  to  be  grown — Rotation 
of  crops  at  the  SouTH — The  grass  crop — Pasturage — Rotation  of  crops  not 
to  supersede  the  use  of  manure 225-232 

MONEY  CROPS. 

Many  expenses  must  be  met  with  cash — Home  production  and  exchange — 
Something  more  required — A  special  money  crop  should  be  grown — Crop  for 
this  purpose  must  be  chosen  with  reference  to  soil  and  market — General 
principles  of  selection 232-235 

FARM  AND  FODDER  CROPS. 

Classification — Sowed  Crops — Barley — Varieties — Soil — Seeding — Harvest- 
ing— Buckwheat — Soil — Sowing — Harvesting— Flax — Sowing — Harvest- 
ing— Preparing  for  market — Hemp — Method  of  cultivation — JUTE — Oats — 
Varieties — Seed — Soil — Not  an  exhausting  crop — Fertilizers — Machines  for 
sowing — Quantity  of  seed — Harvesting — Peas— Rice — Rye — Methods  of 
growing — Wheat — Varieties — Good  seed — Fertilizers — Methods  of  sowing 
—Wheat  Drill— Wheat  Hoe— Enemies— Harvesting— Planted  Crops— 
Beans— Soil — Cultivation — Harvesting — Broom  Corn— Fertilizers — Plant- 
ing— Cultivation — Harvesting  and  curing — CoFFEE — CoTTON — First  export- 
ation— Present  value  —  Climate — Varieties — Soils  —  Plowing — Fertilizers — 
Planting— Cultivation — Enemies — Securing  the  crop — Preparing  for  market 
— Use  of  the  seed — Corn — Varieties — Yield — Soils — Fertilizers — How  ma- 


CONTENTS.  9 

nure  should  be  applied— Planting— Cultivation— Harvesting— Fodder— Stalks 
in  the  field— Husking — Enemies — Diseases — The  stalk  crop — Hops— Soil — 
Cultivation— Staking— Harvesting— Drying— Onions  —  Grown  from  sets- 
Rareripe— Potato  onion— Shallot— Top  onion— The  common  onion— Good 
seed— Fertilizers— Preparation  of  the  soil— Sowing— Cultivation— Gathering 

CurintT—Preparing  for  market— Storing— Growing  seed— Varieties— The 

Peanut— Climate— Soil— Planting— Cultivation-Harvesting— Potatoes— 
Difficult  to  introduce— Irish  Potato— Soils— Fertilizers— Plowing— Selec- 
tion of  seed — Planting — Cultivation— Destroying  the  Colorado  beetle — Har- 
vesting the  crop— Storing— Varieties— Sweet  PoTATO^Where  grown— 
Obtaining  plants— Preparing  the  soil— Transplanting — Cultivation — Harvest- 
ing—Storing— SUGAR— Sources  of  supply— Ribbon  cane— Cuttings— Prep- 
aration of  the  soil— Setting  the  cuttings— Cultivation— Harvesting— Machin- 
ery required— Sorgo  and  Imphees— Methods  of  planting,  cultivation,  and 
harvesting— The  Beet  Root— Varieties— Preparation  of  the  land— Sowing 
—Culture'— Harvesting-Storing— The  Sugar  Maple— Obtaining  sap — 
Manufacture  of  sugar — Tea — Will  succeed  at  the  South — Methods  of  grow- 
ing and  curing— Tobacco— Varieties— Soil— Seed-Bed— Sowing— Weed- 
in|— Preparing  and  manuring  the  land  —  Transplanting  —  Cultivation — 
Enemies— Topping— Suckering— Cutting— Curing— Stripping— Packing  — 
Chinese  Yam— Forage  Crops— Grass— Valuable  crop— Varieties— Prep- 
aration of  the  soil— Sowing  and  covering  the  seed — Care  of  grass  land — 
Fertilizers— Cutting  and  curing  the  crop— Storing— Growing  seed— Bromus 
— Clover— Sowing  the  seed— Catting  and  curing  the  crop— Growing  seed 
White  clover— Alsike  clover — Grain  crops  for  fodder — Lucerne — Valua- 
ble at  the  South— Sowing— Cutting— Millet— Value— Methods  of  gro,\-ing 
—Prickly  Comfrey— Root  Crops— Value  of  roots— Artichoke— Yield 
— Method  of  growing — Varieties— Beet— Soil — Sowing — Fitting  the  land — 
Cultivation— Mangold  Wurtzels—Harvebting—CHUFA— Carrot— Prepara- 
tion of  the  soil — Sowing — Cultivation — Varieties — Harvesting — Storing  — 
Growing  seed — Parsnip — Turnip — Preparing  the  land — Sowing — Culture — 
Gathering— Storing— Growing  seed— Ruta  Baga— Varieties  of  the  turnip.  235-407 

DRAINING. 

Various  methods — Open  ditches — Ridge  cultivation — Underdraining — Materials 
for  underd rains — Brush — Turf — Stones — Tiles — The  Mole  plow — Soils  which 
need  draining — Average  rain-fall — Evaporation — Heat  required  to  dry  a  wet 
soil — Benefits  of  draining — Enables  the  farmer  to  plant  early — Prevents  in- 
jury to  crops — Tends  to  prevent  drought — Tends  to  make  a  location  heathful 
— Prevents  winter-killing  of  grain — Increases  the  efficiency  of  fertilizers — 
Draining  at  the  South — Profit  secured  by  draining  wet  land 40S-419 

THE  WATER  SUPPLY. 

Good  water  necessary  for  comfort  and  health — Sources  of  sujiply — Springs — . 
Cisterns — Wells — Ponds  and  brooks — Wells  in  pastures — Driven  wells — The 
money  value  of  good  water  on  the  farm 419-431 

HOME  PRODUCTION. 

I'Tecessary  to  highest  success — Involves  but  little  risk — Adopted  by  pioneers — 
Examples  in  all  communities — The  specialty  system — Practical  workings — • 
Exaggerated  ideas  of  the  cost  of  farm  crops — Specialties  tend  to  exhaust  the 
soil — Home  production  leads  to  a  system  of  rotation  of  crops — Tends  to  main- 
tain the  fertility  of  the  soil — Secures  independence  to  the  farmer — Practical 
workings  of  home  production  and  the  specialty  system  compared — S]iecial-. 
ties  involve  considerable  risk — Diversified  farming  the  safest  and  most  pro- 
fitable   431-446 

OVER-PRODUCTION. 

3Ter-produclion  a  great   evil — Wise   selection   of  crops   required — Frequent 


IQ  CONTENTS. 

changes  injurious — Remedy  for  evils  of  over-production  to  be  found  in  the 
securing  of  a  higher  grade  of  products — The  best  will  always  sell 447-449 

GOOD  SEED. 

No  one  thing  will  insure  the  production  of  good  crops — The  selection  of  seed 
important — Too  often  neglected — Qualities  of  good  seed — Vitality — Seed 
should  be  carefully  stored — Injury  caused  by  an  excess  of  moisture — Vigor — 
Many  seeds  weak — Will  grow  but  will  not  be  very  productive — Seed  from 
the  strongest  plants  should  be  selected — Permanence  of  Characteristics 
— Important  quality — Secured  by  careful  selection  of  seed — Considerable  time 
required — Early  Maturity — Time  of  maturing  can  be  modified — Purity 
— A  great  deal  of  seed  deficient  in  this  respect — Mixed  seed  inferior  to  that 
which  is  pure — Grain  that  is  mixed  sells  for  a  lower  price — Profit  to  be 
secured  by  using  pure  seed — Productiveness — A  valuable  quality — A  large 
proportion  of  seed  does  not  possess  this  characteristic — Experiments  with  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  corn — The  best  seed  should  always  be  obtained— The  use  of 
poor  seed  will  involve  heavy  loss 450-462 

THE  SELECTION  OF  SEED. 

Care  required  to  produce  good  seed — Careful  selection  of  plants — Protection 
from  adverse  influences — Improvements  can  be  made — Modifying  power  of 
cultivation  shown  in  difTerer.ce  between  the  potato  and  tomato — How  to  secure 
good  seed — How  improvements  can  be  effected — Choice  of  plants  for  seed — 
Seed  plants  to  be  grown  by  themselves — Inferior  plants  should  be  removed 
— Gathering  and  storing  seed 462-474 

ECONOMY  OF  LABOR. 

Fanners  economical  in  use  of  money — Labor  equivalent  to  money — Labor  not 
always  economized — Methods  by  which  it  is  wasted — Use  of  poor  tools — 
Inefficient  teams — Neglect  to  do  work  at  the  proper  time — Frequent  changes 
— Want  of  skill — Carelessness — Doing  work  too  nicely — Inconvenient  build- 
ings and  badly  arranged  famis 475-480 

FARM  TEAMS. 

A  team  needed  on  every  farm — Best  animals  for  the  purpose — Relative  cost 
and  value  of  horses,  mules,  and  oxen — Number  of  animals  should  be  propor- 
tioned to  the  work  required 481-483 

FARM  FENCES. 

Fences  necessary' — Expensive — Cost  money  and  waste  land — Roadside  fences 
— Different  styles  of  fence — Rail  fence — Post  and  rail — Post  and  board — 
Stone  wall — Hedge — Embankment — Wire  fence — Fences  should  be  well 
made 484-489 

FARM  ROADS. 

Farm  roads  a  great  convenience — Farmer  can  make  them — Method  of  con- 
struction— Objections  answered — Time  and  labor  saved  and  accidents  pre- 
vented by  having  good  roads 490-492 

TIMBER  CULTURE. 

Timber  a  great  necessity — Setting  timber  trees — Varieties — Influence  of  forests 
upon  rain-fall,  climate,  and  soil — Influence  upon  the  health  of  the  people. 492-495 

POWER  ON  THE  FARM. 

Various  kinds  of  power  for  farm  purposes — Dog  or  sheep  power — Horse  and 
Wind  power  compared — Steam  power  for  driving  farm  machines — Steam 
power  for  tilling  the  soil 496-500 


CONTENTS.  11 

FARM  IMPLEMENTS. 

Machines  on  the  farm — Classes  required — Plows  of  various  kinds — Roller — 
Harrows  and  pulverizers — Horse-Fork — Threshers — Clover-head  gatherer — 
Fanning  mill — Corn-husker — Corn-harvester — Gorn-sheller  —  Farm  mill — 
Cider  mill — Root-cutter  —  Straw-cutter  —  Sickle-grinder  —  Stump-puller  — 
Hoisting  machine — Forge — Saws — Scales — Pump — Household  machines — 
Washing  machine — Clothes-wringer — Mangle — Sewing  machine — Machines 
do  not  save  labor  but  transfer  it — Prevent  waste  and  save  time  and  health .  501-524 

Pm  llT^ve-Stock. 

LIVE-STOCK  ON  THE  FARM. 

Importance  of  live-stock  interest — Capital  invested — Purposes  which  animals 
serve — Classes  which  should  be  kept — Only  good  animals  are  profitable..  .527~S3* 

THE  HORSE. 

Value  to  mankind — Qualities  of  farm  horse — Good  disposition — Strength — 
Endurance — Activity — BREEDING — Disqualifications  for  breeding — Old  age 
—Unsoundness — Bad  temper — Influence  of  the  sire — Treatment  of  the 
breeding  mare — Care  of  the  colt — Castration — Only  thorough-bred,  or  high 
grade,  stallions  should  be  kept — Nicking  and  docking — Breaking  and  train- 
ing— Uniform  kindness  to  be  shown — A  thorough  training  desirable — Age  for 
working — Feeding,  driving,  and  caring  for  the  horse — The  stable — Shoeing 
— Diseases  of  the  horse — Should  not  be  ignorantly  treated — Colic — Manner 
of  bleeding — Inflammation  of  the  bowels — Costiveness — Worms — Stoppage 
of  the  water — Good  care  will  usually  prevent  disease — Treatment  of  old 
horses 531-575 

THE  MULE. 

Parentage — Breeding — Care  when  young — Castration — Breaking  and  Training 
— Kind  treatment — Points  of  superiority 575-579 

CATTLE. 

Valuable  to  man — Different  breeds — Characteristics — The  Short-Horn — The 
Ayrshire — The  Jersey — The  Devon — The  Hereford — The  Dutch — The 
Holstein — The  Alderney — The  Guernsey — The  Swiss — The  Brittany — 
Native  cattle  of  the  South-West — Which  breed  to  keep — Are  thorough-breds 
required  ? — How  to  improve  farm  stock — Care  and  food — Drying  off  the  Cow 
■ — Care  at  time  of  calving — Care  of  the  calf — Castration — Training  steers  for 
work — Care  of  the  Bull — Winter  management  of  Cattle — The  stable — Early 
feeding — Quantity  of  food — Feeding  often — Quality  of  food — Water — Salt 
— Lice — Diseases  and  accidents — Preventive  measures — Abortion — Choking 
— Garget — Hoven — "  Horn  Ail " — Milk  fever — Importance  of  good  care .  .579-628 

THE  DAIRY. 

All  farmers  interested  in  dairy  business — Present  depression — Prospect  for  the 
future — Good  cows  should  be  kept — Inferior  cows  should  be  sold — Testing 
the  value  of  cows — Relative  production  and  cost  of  keeping — Large  or 
small  cows — Good  health  required — How  to  obtain  good  cows — Feeding 
cows — A  variety  of  food  needed — Cooking  food — Pure  water — Kind  treat- 
ment— Sore  teats — Milking — Cleanliness — Animal  odor— Cause  of  decay — 
Keeping  milk  sweet — Cheese-Making — Factory,  or  neighborhood  manu- 
factories— Kinds  made  on  the  farm — Implements  required — Method  of  man- 
ufacture— Curing  cheese — Butter-Making — Methods  of  obtaining  cream — 
Shallow  pans — Deep  setting — Large  open  pans — Closed  cans — CoOLEY 
System  and  the  Hardin  Method— Churning — Temperature  of  cream — 
Time  required  for  churning — Working  Butter — Salting  butter — Packing 
butter  in  tubs — Securing  ice — The  dairy  business  can  be  made  profitable 
by  improving  the  quality  of  the  products 631-676 


12  CONTENTS. 

SOILING  CATTLE. 

Soiling  profitable  in  some  sections — Advantages  of  the  system — Objections — 
Methods  to  be  pursued 676-679 

ENSILAGE. 

Discovery  of  the  system — Object  to  be  secured — Method  to  be  pursued — Remov- 
ing fodder  from  silo — Exf)eriments  of  Mr.  Morris — Influence  of  this  dis- 
covery  679-682 

SHEEP. 

Sheep  indispensable  to  civilized  races  of  men — Old  English  laws — Sheep  profit- 
able— Special  purposes  which  they  ser\e — Woo! — Flesh — Improvement  of  the 
land — Breeds  of  sheep — Merino — Oxford  Down — South  Down — Cot.'- wold 
— Leicester — Native  sheep — Breeding — Choice  and  care  of  the  ram — 
Choice  and  care  of  the  ewes — Sheep  register — Lambing — Care  of  the  Iambs 
— Disowned  lambs — Chilled  lambs — Raising  by  hand — Docking — Castration 
— Feeding — Weaning  —  Scmmer  Management  of  Sheep — Washing — 
Shearing — Ticks — Winter  Management — Separation  of  weak  and  old 
sheep — Small  flocks  the  most  profitable — A  good  shed  needed — Feeding  and 
watering — Salt — Exercise — Diseases  of  sheep^Catarrh — Colic — Diarrhoea 
— Garget — Grub  in  the  head — Hoof-rot — Poison — Scab — Sore  eyes — Sore 
lips — Dogs — Sheep  on  the  prairies 683-724 

SWINE. 

Swine  useful  and  profitable — Money  value — Mosaic  legislation — Breeds  of 
Swine — Chester  white — Suffolk — Yorkshire — Mngie,  or  Poland  China — 
Essex — Berkshire — Use  and  value  of  thoroughbreds — Selection  of  breeding 
stock — Age  for  breeding — Care  of  breeding  slock — Care  of  pigs — Feeding — 
Castration — Spaying  sows — Fattening  Pigs — Variety  of  food  required — 
Give  plenty  of  room — Salt — Cleanliness — Cooking  food — Diseases — Pre- 
vention better  than  cure — "  Hog  cholera" — Diarrhoea — Constipation — Worms 
— Mange — Lice — Rheumatism — Curing  Pork — Various  methods  for  pre- 
serving meat — Sailing — Smoking — Salting  in  hot  weather 724-755 

THE  INFERIOR  ANIMALS. 

Hens — Good  place  required — Yard  room — Not  keep  too  many  together — Which 
breed  to  keep — Raising  chickens — Feeding — Failening — Hens  for  laying 
— Old  hens — Male  birds — Treatment  of  disease — Lice — Preserving  eggs — 
Turkeys — Care  of  the  young — Ducks — Geese — Honey  Bees 756-768 


PART  III —Fruit-Growing. 

FRUIT  ON  THE  FARM. 

Fruit  should  be  grown  for  family  use — For  profit — To  increase  the  selling  value 
of  the  land — Fruit-growing  and  farming  combined 77' 

TRANSPLANTING  TREES. 

Preparing  the  soil — Pruning  and  setting  trees — Time  for  setting — Give  plenty 
of  room — Dwarf  trees  with  standards — Set  a  few  trees  each  year 772-774 

CULTIVATION  AND   PRUNING. 

Cultivation  desirable — Ap])lying  fertilizers — Quality  of  fruit  modified  by 
cultivation— 'Pruning — Commence  when  trees  are  small — Constant  watch- 
fulness— Modification  of  form  of  frees — High  or  low  trees — Method  to  be 
pursued 774-776 

THINNING  FRUIT. 
Erils  of  overbearing — Imperfect  fniit — Partial  exhaustion  of  the  tree — Failure 


CONTENTS.  13 

to  ripen  the  wood — Thinning  the  fruit  the  remedy — Objections  answered— 
Example  of  success  in  thinning  fruit — Thinning  increases  the  size  and  value 
of  the  fruit 776-777 

GATHERING  FRUIT. 

Hme  for  gathering — Care  required — Assorting — Preparing  for  market — Storing 
for  winter  use 77*^-779 

DRYING  FRUIT. 

Common  method  of  preservation — Imperfect  results  of  the  old  system — Can- 
ning fruit  expensive  and  uncertain — New  method  of  evaporation 780-781 

DISEASES  AND  ENEMIES. 

Fruit  trees  exposed  to  various  evils — Cultivation  a  preventive — Diseases — 
Blight — Leaf  Blight — Black  knot — Yellows — Mildew — Enemies — Curculio 
— Caterpillar — Tent    caterpillar — Fall    web   worm — Canker    worm — Cherry 

.  slug — Apple  worm — Rose  bug — Currant  worm — Aphides — The  Borer — 
Mice — Rabbits — Sheep — Cattle — Prevention  better  than  attempts  to  cure.781-787 

PROPAGATION. 

Methods  of  propagating  trees  and  plants — Making  cuttings — Setting  cuttings — 
Root  cuttings — Layers — Runners — Budding — Ordmary  method — Ring  bud- 
ding— Grafting — Different  methods — Cutting  scions 788-792 

THE  LARGER  FRUITS. 

The  Apple — Varieties  for  the  North,  for  the  Middle  and  Western  States, 
for  the  South  and  Southwest — Not  grow  too  many  varieties — Pears — Dwarf 
and  Standard  trees — Gathering  and  ripening  the  fruit — Varieties — Peaches — ■ 
Growing  at  the  North — Pruning — Varieties — Plums — The  Apricot — 
The  Cherry — The  Quince — Soil— Mulching — Varieties — The  Grape — 
Setting  and  pruning — Trellis — Pruning  bearing  vines — Ripening  the  fruit 
— Winter  Protection  of  vines — Varieties — Hybrids — Seedlings 792-800 

SMALL  FRUITS. 

Should  be  grown  for  home  use — Kinds  for  the  farm — The  Strawberry — 
Time  for  setting  plants — Cultivation — New  plantations — Winter  protection — 
Varieties — Raspberry — Setting  and  cultivation — Pruning — Winter  protection 
— Varieties — Blackberry  —  Currants — Mulching — Pruning — Varieties — 
Gooseberries — Cranberries 800-807 

THE  FARM-GARDEN. 

Improvements  suggested — Cold  Frames — Transplanting — Setting  plants  in 
dry  weather — Garden  Crops,  with  method  of  cultivation — Asparagus — Beans 
— Beets  —  Cabbage  —  Carrot  —  Celery  —  Corn  —  Cucumbers — Dandelion — 
Herbs — Hoarhound — Sage — Sweet  Marjoram — Summer  Savory — Thyme — 
Horse-Radish  —  Lettuce  —  Melons  —  Onion  —  Parsnip  —  Peas — Potatoes — 
Radish — Rhubarb — Squash — Tomato — Turnip 807-815 


PART  IV.— Business  Principles. 

BOOK-KEEPING. 

Farming  a  safe  business— Should  be  managed  upon  business  principles— Book- 
keeping should  be  taught  in  common  schools — Why  the  farmer  should  keep 
accounts — Gives  accurate  knowledge  of  his  business— Prevonts  losses — Leads 
to  good  business  habits — Tends  to  keep  him  out  of  debt— Books  required- 
Debts  and  credits — "  Farmer's  Accoui.t  Book  " — Ledger — Balancing  accounts 

•  — Inventory — Profits  of  farm  business 819-S23 


14  CONTENTS. 

FALSE   ECONOMY. 

Forms  of  false  economy — Doing  without  books  and  papers — Keeping  poor 
stock — Letting  things  run — Buying  in  small  quantities — Buying  on  credit — 
Buying  poor  tools — Growing  bulky  crops — Buying  things  which  should  be 
grown  at  home — "  Guessing  " — Depending  upon  others 823-&a€ 

A  GOOD  REPUTATION. 

A  good  reputation  should  be  founded  upon  a  good  character — Financial 
advantages — Illustrations — Methods  of  securing  a  good  reputation 826-82J 

INSURANCE. 

Mankind  exposed  to  many  dangers — Insurance  offers  compensations — Life 
Insurance — Fire  Insurance — Accident  Insurance — Importance  of  keeping 
insured S27-830 

USEFUL  TABLES. 

Quantity  of  hay  required  for  animals — Relative  value  of  foods  for  cattle — Age 
for  reproduction  and  period  of  jjjestation  of  domestic  animals — Life  and 
growth  of  animals — Quantity  of  seed  per  acre — Quantity  of  seed  in  rows — 
Standard  weights  of  grain — Quantity  of  garden  seeds  for  a  given  space — Legal 
weights  of  grain,  seeds,  and  vegetables — Number  of  seeds  in  a  bushel  and  per 
square  foot  if  used  on  an  acre  of  land — Number  of  loads  of  manure  per  acre 
and  heaps  per  load — Number  of  trees,  plants,  and  hills  per  acre — Area  of 
land  plowed  with  furrows  of  different  width — Rule  for  measuring  hay — Rule 
for  measuring  grain  in  a  bin — Rules  for  measuring  corn  in  the  ear — Capacity 
of  boxes — Weights  and  measures — Length  of  cut  nails  and  number  in  a 
pound — Weight  of  different  kinds  of  earth — Weight  of  different  kinds  of 
wood — Amount  of  one  dollar  at  compound  interest — Amount  of  different 
sums  at  compound  interest — Time  in  which  money  will  double  at  interest.830-836 


Pm  V.-Home  Life. 

PLEASANT  SURROUNDINGS. 

Influence  of  surroundings  upon  character — Duty  to  children — Pleasant  rooms  in 
house — Books,  papers,  and  music — The  best  rooms 839-84O 

LABOR,  RECREATION,  AND   REST. 

Labor  a  duty — Overwork  an  evil — Education — Reading — Visiting — Saturday 
afternoon — Evenings — The  Sabbath 840-843 

HEALTH  AND  DISEASE. 

Health  a  great  blessing — Care  of  the  sick — Sickness  often  preventable — Pure 
air — Good  food — Pure  water — Clothing — Cleanliness — Care  of  the  teeth — 
Sleep — Obedience  to  moral  laws 843-S48 

BOYS  ON  THE    FARM. 

Too  many  boys  leave  the  farm — A  great  evil — Why  they  leave — How  to  induce 
them  to  remain  on  the  farm — Boys  should  be  taught  that  farming  is  honorable — 
Must  be  interested  in  their  work — Farm  life  must  be  made  pleasant — Farmers' 
girls  should  be  taught  to  respect  farming — Boys  should  be  given  the  use  of  a 
little  land — Should  be  consulted  about  the  work — Should  be  given  positions 
of  responsibility  and  trust 848-851 

ITEMS  FOR  THE   HOUSE  AND  FARM. 

A  collection  of  useful  recipes  and  suggestions 851-855 

RED-LETTER  DAYS. 

Signification  of  the  red  letter — More  holidays  should  be  observed — Birthdays 
^-Marriage  anniversaries — Religious  and  National  festivals 855-856 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


FRONTISPIECE — Steel, .  ... 

1.  Ground  Plan  of  Buildings . ...  55 

2.  Farm-House 77 

3.  Plan  of  Ground- Floor 78 

4.  Cottage 80 

5.  Cheap  Hay  Barn 103 

6.  Ingersoll  Hand- Press 104 

7.  Dederick  Power-Press 105 

8.  Germination  of  Corn 133 

9.  Young  Corn  Plant 134 

JO.  Ancient   Egyptian  Method    of 

Plowing 213 

11.  A  Modern  Improvement 214 

12.  Hand  Seed-Sower 247 

13.  Power  Seed-Sower 248 

14.  Wheat  Sown  Broadcast 260 

15.  Wheat  Drilled 260 

16.  Hoosier  Grain-Drill «6i 

17.  Travis  Wheat-Hoe 264 

18.  W.  A.  Wood's  Reaper 266 

19.  W.    A.    Wood's    Self-Binding 

Harvester 268 

20.  Prout's  Iloeing  Machine 273 

21.  Cotton-Gin 28S 

22.  Cotton-Press 290 

23.  One-Horse  Drill 299 

24.  Double-Row  Corn-Planter 299 

25.  Corn  Drilled 301 

26.  Corn  in  Hills 301 

27.  Planet  Jr.  Horse-Hoe 302 

28.  Walking  or  Riding  Cultivator. .  303 

29.  Improved  Corn-Harrow 304 

30.  Double-Row  Stalk-Cutter 305 

31.  Combined  Drill  and  Hoe 318 

32.  Wheel-Hoe 318 

"^■i.  Potato-Planter 326 

34.  Double  Mould-Board  Plow 328 

35.  Potato-Digger 332 

36.  Victor  Cane-Mill 339 


After  Herring, 

Sugar  Evaporator , . . .  340 

Plantation  Cane-Mill 342 

Buckeye  Mower 376 

Eureka  Mower 377 

Bullard  Hay-Tedder 379 

Taylor  Wheel-Rake 381 

Sterling  Revolving-Rake 382 

Foust's  Hay-Loader 383 

Birdsell  Clover-Separator 388 

Stone  Drain 410 

Stone  Drain 410 

Round  Tile  and  Collar. 412 

Sole  Tile 412 

Sole  "V'Tile 412 

Barb  Wire  Fence 488 

Dog-Power 496 

Horse-Power 497 

Wind-Mill 497 

Portable  Engine 500 

Firefly  Hand-Hoe 501 

"  Peace-Maker"  Plow 502 

Gale  Chilled  Plow 502 

Adamant  Plow 502 

Slip- Point 502 

Oneonta  Clipper  Plow 503 

Sulkey  Plow 503 

Steel  Gang- Plow 505 

Roller 505 

Clogged  Harrow-Tooth 505 

Thomas  Smoothing  Harrow..  . .  505 

Spring-Tooth  Harrow 507 

Acme  Leveler  and  Pulverizer..  509 

Randall   Harrow 509 

Horse  Hay-Fork 510 

Farquhar  Separator 512 

Clover  Seed  Gatherer 512 

Rockaway  Fan 512 

Hand  Corn-Sheller 513 

(15) 


16 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


IS- 
76. 

77- 

78. 

79- 
80. 
81. 
82. 
83- 
84. 
85- 
86. 

87. 


90. 
91. 
92. 
93- 

94. 

95- 
96. 

97- 
98. 

99. 
100. 

lOI. 

102. 
103. 
104. 

105. 
106. 
107. 
108. 
109. 
no. 
III. 

112. 

"3- 


Shuck-Sheller 513  114. 

Farm-Mill 514 

Root-Cutter 514  115. 

Sickle-Grinder 515 

Stump-Puller 516  116. 

Hoisting  Machine 516  117. 

Portable  Forge 517  118. 

Lightning  Buck-Saw 518  119. 

One  Man  Cross-Cut  Saw 518  120. 

Lightning  Hand-Saw 51S  121. 

Family  Scale 518  122. 

Portable  Scale 518  123. 

Standard  Farm  Scales 520  124. 

Suctioii  and  Force  Pump 521  125. 

Beebe  Washing  Machine 522 

Clothes- Wringer 523  126. 

Mangle 524 

Horses  (3) 539  127. 

White     Percheron  —  Norman  128. 

Horse 545  1 29. 

Black      Percheron  —  Norman 

Horse 546  130. 

Clez'eland  Bay  Horse 549  13 1. 

Short- Horn  Bull 5S3 

Ayrshire   Cow 589  132. 

Hereford  Bull 593  133. 

Holstein   Cow 599 

Jersey  Cattle 629  134. 

The  Perfect  Milk-Pail 649 

Dairyman's  Scale 652  135- 

Cooley's  Portable  Creamery. .  .   664  136. 
Sectional    View   of    Can    and 

Creamery 665  137- 

Davis'  Swing-Churn 667 

Motion  of  Cream  in  Churn.. ..  667  138. 

Eureka  Butter- Worker 670 

Oxford  Down  Yearling  Lambs.  689  1 39. 

Cotswold  Lambs 699 

Sheep- Shearing  Machine 709  140. 

Chester  White  and  Essex  Swine.  727  141. 

Magie  or  Poland- China  Swine.  731  142. 

Berkshire  Pigs 735 


Brown    Leghorn    fowls,    and 

White  Holland  Turkeys...  757 
Pekin    Ducks   and  Plymouth 

Rock  Fowls 765 

Jersey  Bull 768 

Berkshire  Pigs 76S 

Fruit  Evaporator 7S0 

Layer 7S9 

Sprouts  From  Layered  Cane.  .  7S9 

Cutting  a  Bud 790 

Prepared  Stock  and  Bud 790 

Whip-Grafting 791 

Cleft-Grafting '/91 

Colored  Fruit  Plate.     Larger 

Fruits 795 

Colored  Fruit   Plate.      Small 

Fruits 801 

Transplanter 808 

Cold  Frame 809 

Home    Adornment  —  Shrubs, 

Evergreens,  and  Flowers. .  .  809 

Tomato  Frame 815 

Bastian's      Half-Long     Blood 

Beet 816 

Early  Half- Long  Scarlet  Carrot  816 
Early    Jersey    Wakefield   Cab- 
bage   8 1 6 

Green   Citron    Netted    Musk- 
Melon 816 

Egyptian  Blood  Turnip  Beet. .  816 
Improved  Large  Purple  Egg- 
Plant , S16 

Bastian's    Extra     Early    Red 

Beet 816 

Small  Gherkin,  or  Burr  Cucum- 
ber   S16 

Early     White    Scallop    Bush- 
Squash 816 

Dwarf  Celery 816 

Martynia 816 

Dreer's   Selected  Trophy  To- 
mato.   81^ 


AGRICULTURE  AND   MECHANICS. 


U7) 


CONTENTS    OF   PART   I. 


FARMING  AS  AN  OCCUPATION. 
WHERE  TO   FARM. 

LARGE   OR   SMALL   FARMS. 
FARM    BUILDINGS. 

THE  CAPACITY   OF  A  FARM. 
ANALYSIS   OF   SOILS. 

PLANT   LIFE   AND   GROWTH. 
FERTILIZERS. 
TILLAGE. 

THE  CHOICE  OF  CROPS. 
ROTATION   OF   CROPS. 
MONEY   CROPS. 

FARM   AND   FODDER   CROPS. 
DRAINING. 

THE   \VATER   SUPPLY. 
HOME    PRODUCTION. 

OVER-PRODUCTION. 
GOOD   SEED. 

THE   SELECTION   OF   SEED. 
ECONOMY    OF   LABOR. 
FARM   TEAMS. 

FARM   FENCES. 

FARM    ROADS. 

TIMBER  CULTURE. 

POWER   ON   THE   FARM. 
FARM    IMPLEMENTS. 
(18) 


Farming  for  Profit. 


♦  >-  ^  « > 


FiEBMIMS   MB   MM   ©OOXJFmTIOM, 

HEN  man  was  created  in  the  image  of  God  and  given 
dominion  over  all  the  earth,  he  was  directed  by  his 
Creator  to  dress  and  to  keep  the  beautiful  Garden  in 
which  he  found  a  happy  home.  Thus  at  the  very 
beginning  of  the  history  of  the  race  God  placed  the  stamp  of 
His  approval  upon  the  labor  of  tilling  the  soil.  And  after  the 
Fall,  with  all  of  its  ruinous  consequences,  when  man  was  driven 
out  into  the  world,  he  was  directed  to  continue  the  same  employ- 
ment. In  due  time  he  received  the  promise  that  the  earth 
should  be  cursed  no  more,  and  that  seed-time  and  harvest 
should  not  fail. 

As  this  is  the  original  work  which  God  gave  to  men,  we  have 
the  best  of  reasons  for  supposing  that  it  is  a  form  of  employ- 
ment which  is  especially  suited  to  their  requirements.  And  the 
history  of  the  race  to  the  present  time  has  proved  this  belief  to 
be  well  founded.  Although  as  men  multiplied  upon  the  earth 
it  seemed  necessary  that  some  should  engage  in  other  callings, 
yet  agriculture  has  continued  to  hold  a  very  prominent  place 
among  the  industries  of  the  world.  As  civilization  has 
advanced,  agriculture  has  become  more  and  more  necessary  to 
the  welfare  of  society.  Although  there  have  always  been  a  few 
who  have  affected  to  despise  manual  toil  and  to  look  down  upon 


/?:^.v--, 


fWPFIfTT  I 


20  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

the  laborer  as  a  social  inferior,  this  feeling  has  not  lately  been 
general,  even  among  those  who  have  not  been  compelled  to 
work  with  their  hands,  and  is  now  rapidly  passing  away  from 
the  minds  of  those  who  were  once  foolish  enough  to  cherish  it. 
As  a  class  farmers  are  becoming  more  intelligent,  thus  fitting 
themselves  for  greater  usefulness,  and  compelling  the  few  who 
may  have  laid  claim  to  social  superiority  to  yield  them  the  trib- 
ute of  genuine  respect.  It  certainly  is  not  meet  that  the  wealthy 
and  educated  classes  should  look  with  disdain  upon  the  farmers, 
to  whom,  under  God,  they  are  indebted  for  their  daily  bread. 
Neither  should  the  farmer  rely  upon  the  great  benefit  which  his 
labor  confers  upon  society  as  his  sole  claim  to  recognition  and 
respect.  All  classes  should  remember  that  no  mere  employment 
has  the  power  to  make  a  man  true  and  honorable.  Character  is 
something  which  is  distinct  from  occupation.  Some  men  would 
be  true  and  noble,  if  they  were  compelled  to  engage  in  the 
most  menial  toil ;  while  others  would  show  no  spark  of  manhood 
if  they  were  invested  with  all  of  the  rights  and  privileges  of 
the  most  sacred  calling.  If  a  man  is  truly  good,  he  will  be 
good  without  regard  to  his  occupation.  He  will  be  just  as  good 
as  a  farmer  as  he  would  if  he  were  a  merchant,  a  manufacturer, 
or  a  preacher.  His  employment  will  not  make  him  either  good 
or  bad.  If  it  is  honest,  it  may  be  made  an  aid  to  the  building 
and  sustaining  of  a  good  character ;  but  the  motive  and  the  will, 
the  resolution  and  the  action,  which  are  the  vital  forces  in  the 
case,  must  come  from  the  soul  of  the  man  himself,  and  are 
wholly  outside  of,  and  foreign  to,  his  occupation.  It  is  true  that 
a  dishonest  calling  will  tend  to  make  a  bad  man  grow  worse,  but 
that  it  has  no  power  to  make  a  good  man  evil  is  evident  from 
the  fact  that  no  really  good  man  would  have  engaged  in  such 
an  occupation.  The  man  was  bad  before  he  entered  the  busi- 
ness. There  are  some  honest  callings  which  incidentally  throw  a 
man  in  the  way  of  temptation,  but  they  have  no  power  to  compel 
him  to  do  wrong.     Other  callings  surround  a  man  with  good 


FARMING   AS  AN  OCCUPATION.  21 

mfluences  and  shield  him  from  temptation,  but  they  cannot  make 
him  good.     If  his  heart  is  corrupt,  it  will  be  altogether  beyond 
the  power  of  any  calling  to  make  him  an  upright  and  honorable 
man.     Consequently  no  farmer  should  lay  claim  to  respectability 
merely  because  he  is  a  farmer.    This  is  good  as  far  as  it  goes,  but 
it  is  not  enough.     He  ought  to  strive  by  a  noble  character  and 
a   life    above   all    reproach    to   confer   honor   upon   his   chosen 
occupation,  rather  than  seek  by  the  aid  of  his  calling  to  attain  a 
degree   of  social   recognition  which   his   actual   merits   do   not 
warrant.     Still  he  should  always  remember  that  his  calling  is 
one  which  was  given  and  sanctioned  by  God;  that  there  is  noth- 
ing in  it  to  degrade,  but,  when  properly  followed,  very  much  that 
is ''elevating  and   ennobling.     He   should  never  blush  to   own 
that  he  is  a  farmer,  or  be  ashamed  of  the  fact  that  he  tills  the 

soil. 

While  the  influence  of  agriculture  upon  the  individual  is  good, 
its  beneficial   effect    upon   national   progress  and   prosperity  is 
marked  to  a  much  greater  degree.     History  shows  us  that  as 
nations  rise,  agriculture  is  more  and  more  honored  and  respected, 
while  as  they  decline,  and  keeping  a  very  even  pace  with  their 
downward  progress,  it  falls  into  disrepute  and  decay.     It  was  so 
with  Rome,  the  greatest  of  all  ancient  powers,  and  it  has  been  so 
with  states  and  empires  of  lesser  note.     So  it  will  always  be ;  for 
agriculture  is  the  only  safe  and  sure  foundation  upon  which  a 
nation  can  be  reared.     It  is  plain  to  be  seen  that  a  nation  which 
should  produce  none  of  its  food  supplies  would  be  constantly 
dependent  upon  foreigners,  and  in  case  of  war  might  be  almost 
utterly  helpless.     Not  only  does  a  well-developed  agriculture 
give  a  nation  influence  and  power  abroad,  but  it  is  also  one  of 
the  greatest  possible  aids  to  a  high  state  of  civilization  at  home. 
It   may  never    have    occurred   to   the    eminent   artist  and   the 
brilliant  scientist  that  but  for  the  combined  skill  and  labor  of 
many  farmers,  they  would  be  obliged  to  spend  their  time  and 
strength  working  with  their  hands  instead  of  following  their 


22  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

chosen  pursuits.  But  this  is  a  fact  which  all  professional  men 
should  remember,  that  they  are  deeply  interested  in  the  progress 
of  agriculture,  because  upon  the  success  of  farmers  depends  the 
possibility  of  their  being  able  to  work  with  their  minds  instead 
of  their  hands.  For  if  agriculture  were  to  decline  to  a  point 
at  which  each  farmer  should  produce  only  food  enough  to 
supply  his  own  wants  and  those  of  his  family,  there  would  be  no 
food  for  the  non-producing  classes,  and  they  would  be  obliged 
to  leave  their  professions  and  trades  to  engage  in  the  cultivation 
of  the  soil.  This  would  be  the  only  way  in  which  they  could 
avoid  starvation.  Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  the  better  the 
agriculture  of  a  country  is  managed,  the  higher  the  point  to 
which  civilization  can  be  carried.  The  farmer  as  well  as  the 
thinker  is  a  power  to  advance  the  civilization  of  the  world. 

Not  only  is  it  for  the  benefit  of  society  that  the  agricultural 
interests  of  a  country  should  be  well  developed,  but  it  is  also 
essential  to  the  securing  of  the  highest  success  by  the  farmers 
themselves.  If  the  crops  are  properly  chosen,  there  will  be  little 
danger  of  over-production.  The  higher  the  rate  of  production 
can  be  carried  without  glutting  the  market,  the  greater  the  sur- 
plus which  the  farmer  can  sell,  the  more  leisure  time  he  will 
have,  and  the  greater  the  number  of  luxuries  which  he  can  en- 
joy. The  highest  development  of  our  agricultural  interests  will 
prove  an  immense  benefit  to  the  farmers,  the  professional  classes, 
and  to  the  nation  at  large.  By  bringing  to  his  aid  the  knowl- 
edge which  is  within  his  reach,  and  doing  all  that  he  can  to 
elevate,  and  make  successful  and  remunerative,  his  own  occupa- 
tion, the  farmer  is  also  helping  the  great  army  of  laborers  in  the 
fields  of  literature,  science  and  art. 

While  the  advantages  which  have  been  enumerated  are  of 
great  importance,  the  fact  that  farming  gives  a  man  almost 
unequalled  opportunities  for  becoming  independent,  furnishes 
another  and  a  strong  inducement  for  choosing  this  occupation. 
There  are  very  few  kinds  of  business  in  which  a  snjall  amount 


FARMING  AS  AN  OCCUPATION.  2S 

of  capital  can  be  as  safely  invested,  and  still  yield  as  good  re- 
turns as  it  will  in  a  farm,  and  there  are  very  few  occupations  in 
which  a  man  can  engage  with  an  equal  certainty  of  always 
having  plenty  of  work,  and  work  which  is  so  sure  to  be  fairly 
remunerated.  In  order  to  become  a  lawyer  a  man  must  give 
many  of  the  best  years  of  his  life  to  the  acquirement  of  an  edu- 
cation, which  will  cost  a  large  sum  of  money,  and  he  must  then 
labor  constantly  and  earnestly  in  order  to  secure  anything  like  a 
reasonable  degree  of  success.  In  the  great  majority  of  cases 
the  same  amount  of  money  invested  in  buying  a  farm  which 
must  be  spent  in  educating  him,  and  an  equal  amount  of  hard 
work  afterwards,  would  give  him  more  money,  and  ten  times 
more  happiness  as  a  farmer,  than  he  ever  can  secure  as  a  lawyer. 
There  are  brilliant  examples  of  success  in  all  the  professions, 
but  the  majority  of  professional  men  never  reach  eminence  nor 
obtain  wealth.  Considering  the  amount  of  money  which  is  ex- 
pended in  fitting  them  for  their  positions,  and  in  helping  them  to 
get  started  in  life,  they  are  no  more  successful  than  farmers.  We 
are  well  aware  that  many  utter  the  chronic  complaint  that ."  farm- 
ing don't  pay,"  but  we  are  sure  that  they  do  not  know  whereof 
they  do  affirm.  We  know  that  there  are  many  half-hearted 
farmers,  men  who  have  no  faith  in  their  business  and  but  little  in 
themselves,  who  are  always  ready  to  sell  out,  and  constantly  want- 
ing to  get  into  other  business  because  they  are  not  doing  well 
where  they  are.  But  if  these  men  were  to  show  no  more  energy 
and  skill  in  other  business  than  they  do  in  farming,  they  would 
not  improve  their  condition  by  changing  their  occupation.  Here, 
as  in  regard  to  character,  very  much  depends  upon  the  man  him- 
self Some  men  do  not  get  along  well  farming,  and  they  would 
not  get  along  well  doing  anything  else.  Other  men  make  money 
on  the  farm.  They  would  probably  do  well  at  other  work.  Still, 
some  men  have  a  special  talent  for  certain  kinds  of  business.  In 
following  their  desires  in  this  respect  they  will  usually  be  more 
happy  and  more  successful  than  they  will  if  their  wishes  are  not 


24  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

regarded.  But  a  taste  for  many  kinds  of  work,  and  especially 
for  farming,  can  easily  be  cultivated.  While  it  is  not  the  duty 
of  every  man  to  follow  this  calling,  it  is  an  occupation  which 
most  men  can  learn  to  like,  and  in  which  none  except  those  who. 
by  reason  of  ill-health,  or  of  heavy  burdens  outside  of  their  work, 
need  wholly  fail.  The  great  majority  of  men  whom  inclination 
has  brought,  or  necessity  has  driven,  to  the  farm,  may  secure  not 
only  a  reasonable  but  a  highly  satisfactory  degree  of  success. 
If  they  will  give  their  earnest  attention  to  the  business,  and  use 
the  helps  which  are  easily  within  their  reach,  they  can  make 
farming  Pay.  To  aid  his  readers  in  this  work,  and  show  them 
how  it  can  be  performed,  will  be  the  aim  of  the  writer  in  the 
following  pages. 

N  a  beautiful  story  by  Longfellow,  a  highly  educated 
man  is  represented  as  desiring  to  write  a  romance. 
Month  after  month  and  year  after  year  he  sought  in  the 
realms  of  the  imagination  for  the  materials  of  which  to 
construct  the  plot.  Vague  ideas  filled  his  mind.  Splendid 
visions  sometimes  came,  but  he  was  always  seeking  something 
far  away ;  something  a  little  better  than  he  had  yet  secured. 
So  it  came  to  pass  that  the  years  fled  away  while  he  was 
dreaming,  and  the  romance  which  he  had  fondly  hoped  was  to 
immortalize  his  name  was  never  even  begun.  Yet,  during  the 
time  which  he  thus  idled  away,  the  materials  for  a  splendid 
romance,  even  a  tragedy  involving  terrible  grief,  heroic  endur- 
ance, and  Christ-like  fortitude,  were  accumulating  close  to  his 
very  door.  But  his  eyes  were  turned  so  far  away  in  an  effort  to 
penetrate  the  mysterious  and  the  unknown,  that  he  neither  saw 
the  opportunity,  nor  realized  that  he  was  throwing  away  the 
greatest  help  to  his  cherished  work  which  it  was  possible  for 
him  to  receive.     And  it  came  to  pass  that  all  his  dreams  faded. 


» 


WHERE    TO   FARM.  25 

his  years  of  anxious  thought  were  vainly  spent,  and  the  confi- 
dence of  his  friends  in  his  superior  ability  was  destroyed,  all 
because  he  would  not  use  the  materials  within  his  reach,  but 
^vas  constantly  seeking  something  so  intangible  and  unreal  that 
it  always  eluded   his    grasp.     In  looking  over  the  record  of 
such  a  life,  with  its  glorious  opportunities  thrown  away,  it  is 
very  easy  to  see  the  mistake,  and  by  far  too  easy  to  condemn. 
Yet  this  is  only  a  picture  of  a  multitude  of  lives.     Look  where 
we  will  we  can  find  men  who  have  neglected  the  best  of  chances, 
because,  by  the  dazzling  light  of  something  far  away,  their  eyes 
were  closed  to  the  benefits  by  which  they  were  fairly  surrounded. 
In  looking  over  his  past  life  many  a  man'  can  see  where  he  made 
a  terrible  mistake  in    seeking  fortune  in  the  distance  and  the  . 
future,  instead  of  accepting  the  opportunities  which  were  close 
at  hand.     And,  as  human  nature  remains  the  same,  we  find  that 
the  same  scenes  are  constantly  being  re-enacted.    The  young  do 
not  always  learn  from  the  experience  of  the  old.     They  prefer 
to  push  out  into  life  for  themselves.     They  insist  upon  drinking 
the    bitter   water    before    they   will    acknowledge    that    it    is 
unpleasant  and  unwholesome.     This  is  the  case  with  too  many 
of  the  young  men  of  to-day.     But  there  are  many  who  are  open 
to  reason,  who  will  listen  to  argument,  and  who  will  hearken  to 
instruction.      For  their  benefit,  and  also  to  strengthen  in  the 
faith  some  of  our  older  readers,  who  may  be  wavering,  we  will 
devote  a  little  space  to  a  consideration  of  the  subject  of  this 

chapter. 

Farmers  in  this  country  are  divided  into  two  principal  classes: 
those  who  are  both  the  owners  and  managers  of  the  farms  upon 
which  they  live  forming  one,  and  those  who  work  for  other 
farmers  comprising  the  other  class.  There  are  a  very  few  who 
do  not  properly  hold  either  of  these  positions,  but  an  inter- 
mediate one,  being  managers,  but  neither  owners  nor  laborers. 
But  the  two  classes  named  above  comprise  nearly  all  of  the 
farmers  in  the  country.     As  a  general  rule  they  have  the  power 


26  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

of  choice  as  to  the  place  in  which  they  will  farm.  They  cannot 
change  without  some  expense  :  in  a  multitude  of  instances  a 
change  of  location  would  involve  quite  a  heavy  loss;  but  to 
almost  every  one  such  a  change  is  possible.  The  question, 
then,  to  be  considered,  is  whether  a  change  is  desirable. 

The  fact  that  a  change  would  involve  some  expense  is  not  an 
unanswerable  argument  against  a  removal  from  the  present 
location.  Almost  everything  of  value  (as  well  as  many  worth- 
less articles)  costs  something.  Buying  a  reaper  is  expensive, 
but  it  is  often  a  necessary  expense,  and  one  which  proves  a 
source  of  great  profit  in  the  end.  So  with  many  other  expenses 
which  the  farmer  is  obliged  to  incur.  Now  if  a  removal  holds 
out  a  certainty  of  great  and  permanent  improvement,  with  no 
drawback  which  shall  neutralize  the  apparent  gain,  the  fact  that 
it  is  somewhat  expensive  should  not  prevent  its  being  made. 
But  in  case  that  a  change  of  location  means  only  a  change  of 
evils — if  in  leaving  one  unpleasant  feature  the  farmer  must  accept 
another  equally  bad,  and  perhaps  much  worse,  in  his  new  home 
— it  does  not  seem  possible  that  the  expense  of  removal  can  be 
justified.  Probably  ninety-nine  farmers  in  eveiy  one  hundred 
have  something  unpleasant  in  their  surroundings,  and  it  is  very 
likely  that  a  large  part  of  them  have  a  vague  and  indefinite  idea 
that  if  they  could  only  moye  to  some  other  town,  or  some  other 
State,  they  would  be  happier  and  more  prosperous  than  they 
possibly  can  be  while  remaining  in  their  present  homes.  There 
are  some  things  which  these  farmers  should  have  in  mind,  but 
which,  unless  they  have  been  around  in  the  world  considerably, 
they  are  almost  sure  to  overlook.  One  of  these,  and  it  is  a  very 
important  consideration,  is  the  fact  that  there  is  a  great  law  of 
compensations  which  is  in  force  everywhere,  and  which  balances 
many  evils  with  equal  and  corresponding  benefits.  The  farmer 
in  Maine  will  suffer  severely  during  the  long  and  unpleasant 
winter,  and  he  may  envy  the  farmer  in  Georgia,  who  is  not 
exposed  to  the  terrible  cold.     But  while  the  Southern  farmer 


WHERE    TO  FARM.  ^2.1 

is  comfortable  when  the  Northern  farmer  is  almost  afraid  that  he 
shall  freeze,  there  comes  a  time  when  the  suffering  and  the  com- 
fort are  exchanged. 

In  the  summer  the  Southern  farmer  suffers  from  the  broiling 
heat,  while,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  days,  the  Northern 
farmer  is  quite  comfortable.  Both  parties  have  their  time  of 
pleasant  surroundings  and  their  seasons  of  discomfort.  One 
suffers  from  the  cold,  the  other  from  the  heat.  Both  suffer,  and 
no  one  can  tell  which  suffers  the  most.  So  with  all  other  things. 
The  man  who  delights  in  mountain  scenery  and  gratifies  his 
desires  must  put  up  with  the  inconvenience,  and  perform  the 
many  extra  labors,  which  living  in  a  mountainous  region 
involves.  The  farmer  who  desires  a  retired  place,  far  away 
from  the  busy  haunts  of  men,  can  easily  find  one,  but  in  settling 
there  he  must  give  up  schools,  and  churches,  and  mail  facilities, 
and  social  privileges.  If  these  things  are  too  valuable  to  him  to 
be  sacrificed,  he  must  be  content  to  live  near  other  people  and 
give  up  the  idea  of  a  home  in  the  wilderness.  If  a  farmer  is 
determined  to  grow  sugar-cane,  he  must  go  where  the  growing 
season  is  very  long  and  extremely  hot.  If  he  does  not  like  and 
will  not  endure  the  heat,  he  must  give  up  the  idea  of  growing 
the  cane,  for  it  is  utterly  impossible  to  grow  this  plant  in  a  cool 
climate.  If  he  wants  to  produce  a  large  quantity  of  maple 
sugar,  he  must  locate  where  the  nights,  even  in  the  spring  time, 
are  so  cold  that  the  ground  will  freeze.  Otherwise  his  efforts 
will  be  of  no  avail.  The  same  principle  governs  everywhere. 
No  location  can  be  found  in  the  civilized  world  but  what  has 
certain  advantages,  and  there  is  none  so  favored  that  it  has  no 
drawbacks.  The  sum  of  the  advantages  in  one  locality  may  be 
greatly  in  excess  of  the  sum  of  those  presented  by  another, 
but  the  poorest  of  all  places  in  which  a  man  can  Hve  wil^'be 
likely  to  have  something  to  recommend  it  which  more  favored 
localities  do  not  possess.  The  farmer  should  always  keep  the 
fact  in  mind  that  there  are  drawbacks  everywhere.     By  chang- 


28  FARMING   FOR  PROFIT. 

ing  his  location  he  can  escape  the  difficulties  with  which  he  in 
now  beset,  but  it  is  absolutely  true  that  he  will  find  plenty  of 
other  things  to  make  him  trouble.  Perfection,  either  of  character 
or  location,  is  not  to  be  found  in  this  world.  The  mere  fact  that 
things  are  not  just  to  his  liking  where  he  is,  does  not  furnish 
proof  that  he  will  find  relief  from  his  difficulties  by  a  change  of 
place.  In  many  cases  it  is  a  change  in  the  methods  of  doing 
business  which  is  needed.  This  a  change  of  location  would 
not  secure.  Many  a  man  is  spending  a  great  deal  of  time,  in- 
dulging many  useless  longings,  and  building  many  castles  in 
the  air,  and  imagining  that  if  he  were  only  somewhere  else  he 
could  do  a  great  deal  better  than  he  has  ever  yet  been  able  to 
do,  whose  eyes  are  closed  to  splendid  opportunities  for  making 
money  on  his  own  farm.  These  men  are  not  doing  very  well — 
never  have  done  very  well.  They  are  dissatisfied  because  they 
do  not  get  along  any  better,  and  think  it  must  be  all  owing  to 
their  unfavorable  location.  The  truth  of  the  matter,  in  many 
of  these  cases,  is,  that  these  farmers  do  not  understand  the 
resources  of  their  own  farms  and  do  not  see  the  opportunities 
which  are  constantly  running  to  waste.  They  fail  to  realize 
tthat  the  present  is  the  one  grand  opportunity  which  God  gives 
to  men,  and  that,  as  a  general  rule,  those  who  fail  to  improve 
where  they  are  would  do  little,  if  any,  better  if  they  were 
•differently  located.  Success  on  the  farm  depends  far  more  upon 
.a  man's  character  than  it  does  upon  his  surroundings.  If  he  has 
no  energy,  and  skill,  and  judgment,  he  will  remain  poor  on  the 
best  farm  in  the  world,  while,  if  he  possesses  these  qualities,  he 
will  be  reasonably  successful  under  adverse  circumstances. 
Now  every  man  has  his  character,  and  this  character  will  be 
likely  to  stay  with  him  wherever  he  goes.  If  a  man  is  energetic 
and  industrious  at  the  East,  he  will  be  likely  to  exhibit  these 
traits  if  he  goes  West  to  live ;  but  if  he  lacks  these  elements  of 
character  at  the  East,  merely  going  West  will  do  nothing  to 
■    secure  them  for  him.     If  he  manages  a  New  England  farm  by 


WHERE    TO  FARM.  29 

sitting  in  the  village  store,  or  the  blacksmith's  shop,  while  his 
boys  do  the  work,  or  it  remains  undone,  he  will  be  very  sure  to 
do  just  the  same  with  a  Western  or  a  Southern  farm,  if  he  should 
ever  obtain  one. 

It  is  a  fact  which  should  be  impressed  upon  the  mind  of  every 
farmer,  and  every  farmer's  boy,  that  mere  change  of  location 
does  not  and  cannot,  never  did,  and  never  will,  change  the 
character  or  the  disposition.  It  is  very  important  to  keep  this 
in  mind.  It  will  not  only  counteract  a  false  idea  which  has 
taken  possession  of  many  minds,  but  it  also  furnishes  the  key  to 
a  solution  of  the  problem  which  is  under  consideration.  The 
man  who  is  restless,  dissatisfied,  and  eager  for  a  change  of  some 
kind,  anxious  to  get  away  from  where  he  is,  but  having  no  defi- 
nite idea  where  he  had  better  go,  thereby  acknowledges  that 
there  is  something  about  himself  which  is  wrong.  It  has  been 
shown  that  location  cannot  change  the  character — cannot  make 
a  different  man — therefore  it  follows  that  the  difficulty  is  not  with 
the  location,  but  with  the  man  himself  The  true  remedy  is  not  a 
removal  but  a  reconstruction.  Instead  of  going  away  from  his  old 
home  and  friends,  let  the  dissatisfied  farmer  take  a  calm  view  of 
the  situation,  look  the  truth  fairly  in  the  face,  and  find  just  where 
the  trouble  lies.  He  will  probably  find  one  or  more  of  three 
difficulties.  Either  he  does  not  get  along  well  with  his  work, 
his  crops  are  poor,  or  his  income  is  not  sufficient  to  meet  what 
he  considers  his  necessary  expenses.  Now  removal  to  a  different 
part  of  the  country  is  not  the  proper  remedy  for  either  of  these 
troubles.  If  a  farmer  cannot  get  along  with  his  work  where  he 
is,  he  cannot  manage  it  satisfactorily  anywhere  else.  His  true 
remedy  for  this  difficulty  is  to  carefully  study  how  he  can  do  his 
work  to  better  advantage.  A  little  thought  will  enable  many  a 
farmer  to  see  how  he  can  save  a  great  deal  of  useless  labor,  and 
how  he  can  make  available  much  of  the  time  which  does  not 
seem  to  yield  a  return.  If  he  would  study  to  make  the  most  of 
his  opportunities,  and  do  everything  to  the  best  advantage,  he 


30  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

would  be  enabled  to  accomplish  a  great  deal  more  with  the  same 
amount  of  time  and  labor.  But  if  the  difficulty  is  not  due  to 
this  cause,  if  the  work  can  be  managed  well  enough,  but  the  re- 
sults are  unsatisfactory,  if  the  crops  are  light  and  unprofitable, 
there  is  no  call,  on  this  account,  for  leaving  the  present  location. 
Good  crops  do  not  produce  themselves.  Even  on  rich  land  the 
farmer  has  something  to  do  to  secure  large  returns.  The  farmer 
who  can  grow  paying  crops  in  one  part  of  the  country  can  do 
the  same  in  any  other  section,  while  he  who  fails  in  one  place 
will  be  very  sure  to  fail  elsewhere.  Consequently,  removal  is 
not  a  remedy  for  the  difficulty  now  under  consideration.  The 
true  course  for  the  farmer  who  is  suffering  from  this  cause  is  to 
study  the  requirements  of  the  various  crops,  learn  which  are  the 
best  fertilizers,  and  how  to  apply  them,  the  best  methods  of  cul- 
ture— learn  these  things  and  put  them  in  practice.  When  he 
does  this  his  special  trouble  from  this  cause  will  vanish.  In 
case  that  the  farmer  succeeds  well  with  his  work,  obtains  good 
crops,  but  still  does  not  get  along  because  his  expenses  exceed 
his  receipts,  removal  is  not  at  all  in  the  line  of  what  is  needed, 
and  will  not  make  him  successful.  Here  the  trouble  is  with  his 
business  habits.  Either  he  does  not  understand  selling  his  crops 
and  buying  supplies,  or  else  he  docs  not  practice  economy  in  his 
purchases.  In  either  case  the  remedy  is  to  be  found  in  a  careful 
study  of  business  principles,  and  a  determination  to  live  within 
his  income,  even  though  much  self-denial  may  be  required.  One 
of  the  great  difficulties  with  a  multitude  of  farmers  is  that  they 
do  not  understand  doing  business.  It  is  one  of  the  things  in 
which  boys  on  the  farm  should  be  instructed,  and  which  the 
farmer  who  is  deficient  therein  should  make  his  careful  study. 
The  earlier  in  life  these  principles  are  mastered  the  better,  but 
it  is  "  never  too  late  to  mend,"  and  a  man  is  never  too  old  to 
learn. 

Such  are  some  of  the  difficulties  with  which  many  farmers 
contend,  and  such  are  the  remedies  therefor.     The  difficulties 


WHERE    TO  FARM.  31 

are  of  an  internal  rather  than  an  external  origin  and  nature. 
They  are  inherent  in  the  men  and  not  in  the  business  which 
they  pursue.  They  can  be  overcome  without  a  change  of 
location  merely  by  a  change  of  practice.  Not  only  is  no 
change  of  locality  demanded,  but  in  many  respects  it  would 
impose  an  additional  burden  upon  the  farmer.  If  he  removes 
to  another  section  of  the  country  he  will  be  to  considerable 
expense,  lose  some  time  in  going,  and  much  more  in  learning 
the  habits  and  customs  of  those  among  whom  he  locates,  and  it 
will  take  a  long  time  for  him  to  become  thoroughly  familiar 
with  the  character  and  capacities  of  the  soil,  and  the  best 
methods  of  its  cultivation.  Thus,  at  the  very  outset,  he  is 
placed  at  a  great  disadvantage,  and  finds  himself  much  worse 
ofif  than  he  was  in  his  old  location.  As  a  general  rule  we  like 
the  idea  of  handing  down  a  farm  from  father  to  son  through 
successive  generations.  It  is  better  to  keep  a  farm  "  in  the 
family "  than  to  be  constantly  roaming  around.  If  properly 
managed,  money  can  be  made  on  the  old  place,  and  more  happi- 
ness can  be  secured  there  than  elsewhere.  The  associations 
which  gather  around  the  homes  of  the  fathers  become  sacred 
to  the  younger  generations.  The  tendencies  of  these  associa- 
tions are  to  restrain  from  evil,  and  to  incite  to  good  thoughts 
and  deeds.  Farmers  should  be  slow  to  part  with  the  "  old  home- 
steads," not  merely  because  of  their  own  attachments,  but  also 
on  account  of  the  influence  upon  their  children.  Of  course,  not 
all  the  children  can  remain  at  home :  some  must  go  out  into  the 
world  and  settle  other  portions  of  this  great  country.  But 
enough  should  remain  to  keep  the  old  farms  under  cultivation, 
to  sustain  the  institutions  which  their  ancestors  founded,  and 
keep  the  graves  of  the  fathers  green.  This  is  not  merely  a 
matter  of  sentiment.  Money  is  at  stake.  More  than  this ;  the 
progress  of  religion  and  the  permanence  of  our  free  schools 
are  largely  dependent  upon  the  retaining  of  the  homesteads  by 
those  who  have  the  same  interests  which  our  forefathers  labored 


32  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

to  preserve.  In  some  parts  of  New  England  the  native  popu- 
lation has,  in  a  great  measure,  withdrawn.  Many  of  the  smaller 
farms  are  in  the  hands  of  foreigners.  Others  are  deserted,  and 
the  land  has  been  turned  into  pastures.  If  the  process  goes  on 
much  longer  there  will  be  many  towns  in  which  the  foreign  vote 
will  decide  all  local  elections.  The  new-comers  are  generally 
kind  neighbors  and  industrious  people,  but  the  majority  of  them 
are  not  in  sympathy  with  our  free  schools,  they  do  not  believe  in 
our  religion,  they  have  no  desire  for,  or  faith  in,  intellectual  prog- 
ress, and  they  will  not  make  these  towns  centres  of  thought  and 
influence.  Agricultural  societies  will  receive  no  help  from  these 
inhabitants,  and  an  intelligent  and  progressive  system  of  farming 
will  not  be  pursued.  There  should  enough  Americans  remain 
to  control  town  affairs,  and  to  cast  the  town  influence  in  favor 
of  right  and  progress.  On  the  same  principle  the  homesteads 
of  the  farmers  at  the  West  and  South  should  be  kept  in  the 
hands  of  Americans,  and  as  far  as  possible,  in  the  families  to 
which  they  now  belong.  Room  should  be  made  for  foreigners 
who  are  willing  to  come  among  us  and  obey  our  laws,  they 
should  be  kindly  treated,  and  should  be  encouraged  to  do  well ; 
but  they  should  not  be  allowed  to  supplant  American  insti- 
tutions, or  to  come  into  possession  of  our  present  homes. 

That  it  is  harder  work  to  cultivate  some  of  the  stony  farms  in 
New  England  than  it  is  the  fertile  plains  of  some  of  the  Western 
States  is  very  true.  And  it  probably  is  easier,  as  many  assert, 
to  take  a  new  farm  on  the  frontier,  than  it  is  to  restore  to  its 
original  fertility  one  which  has  been  exhausted  by  a  bad  system 
of  cultivation.  But  the  great  law  of  compensations,  to  which 
attention  has  been  called,  here  comes  into  play ;  and  when  all 
things  are  taken  into  the  account,  there  will  not  remain  a  balance 
in  favor  of  the  pioneer.  Still,  some  must  go  out  from  our  homes 
to  people  the  wilderness  and  establish  churches  and  schools. 
Their  mission  is  a  noble  one ;  and,  if  faithful,  they  will  not  fail  of 
their  reward. 


WHERE    TO  FARM.  33 

Thus  far  the  question  of  location  has  been  considered  with 
reference  to  the  owners  of  land.  The  same  question  presents 
itself  to  those  who  labor  for  others.  They  can  change  their 
location  with  less  trouble  and  expense  than  men  who  have 
capital  invested  in  real  estate.  If  there  are  no  special  ties  to  keep 
them  where  they  are,  they  should  determine  to  work  where  they 
can  receive  a  fair  compensation  for  their  toil,  and  also  do  the 
most  good  to  other  people.  There  are  thousands  of  men,  many 
of  them  young  men,  in  each  of  our  large  cities  who  are  not 
needed  there,  are  not  wanted  there,  and  for  whom  there  is  no 
room.  They  choke  all  the  avenues  to  professional  and  business 
life,  and  by  excessive  competition  are  constantly  injuring  them- 
selves and  all  with  whom  they  have  to  do.  But  in  many  places 
at  the  West  and  Sputh  both  native  and  foreign  laborers  are  in 
great  demand.  If  the  farniers'  sons  who  have  crowded  into  the 
cities  in  hope  of  finding  more  profitable  or  more  congenial 
employment  would  go  back  into  the  country,  where  they  are 
needed  and  rightfully  belong,  the  exodus  would  prove  an 
immense  benefit  to  themselves,  their  new  employers,  the  cities 
which  they  leave,  and  the  towns  to  which  they  would,  go;  In 
some  sections  of  the  country,  notably  in  some  parts  of  New 
England,  there  is  already  a  surplus  of  farm  laborers.  Those 
who  have  no  families  dependent  upon  them,  and  no  special  call 
of  duty  to  remain,  might  help  themselves  and  others  by  going 
where  their  services  are  in  greater  demand.  Whether  they 
should  go  West  or  South  should  be  made  to  depend  upon  the  call 
for  laborers,  their  own  wishes,  and  the  special  line  of  business  in 
which  they  would  like  to  engage.  If  they  desire  to  take  care 
of  cattle  they  should  go  to  the  Western^,  States,  or  to  Texas ; 
while  if  they  Avould  like  to  learn  the  processes  of  cotton-growing 
they  should  go  to  the  Southern  States,  in  which  that  industry  is 
prominent.  By  occasional  changes  of'  location  there  will  be 
an  opportunity  to  learn  a  great  deal  concerning  the  soil,  products, 
methods  of  culture,  and  general,  characteristics  of  different  parts 


34  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

of  the  country.  But  much  of  this  very  desirable  knowledge 
can  be  obtained  by  reading,  and  the  restless  spirit  which  frequent 
changes  encourage  must  not  be  allowed  to  become  dominant.  A 
rover  is  not  usually  a  good  farmer.  Though  he  may  know 
something  of  many  branches,  he  will  be  master  of  none  and 
will  be  an  inefficient  laborer.  Besides,  an  established  reputation 
for  honor  and  integrity  is  very  valuable,  but  it  can  only  be 
secured  by  remaining  with  people  long  enough  to  enable  the 
parties  to  become  thoroughly  acquainted.  It  is  better  both  for 
the  employer  and  the  employe  that  they  remain  together  for 
several  years.  Too  frequent  change  of  location  indicates  an 
unstable  character  and  a  discontented  frame  of  mind. 

Such  are  some  of  the  general  principles  which  should  have 
an  influence  in  deciding  the  farmer's  choice  of  a  location.  As 
there  are  exceptions  to  all  rules,  so  there  will  be  exceptions  to 
the  general  application  of  these  principles.  On  account  of  the 
ill  health  of  a  farmer,  or  of  some  member  of  his  family,  for 
which  a  change  of  climate  seems  to  be  the  best,  if  not  the  only 
remedy,  it  may  be  much  better  for  him  to  leave  his  present 
home  than  it  will  to  remain.  There  are  also  families — some 
may  be  found  in  every  section  of  the  country — who  for  gener- 
ations have  stood  at  the  foot  of  the  social  scale.  The  present 
members  of  these  families  feel  that  they  have  little  encourage- 
ment to  attempt  to  make  any  improvement  where  they 
are.  Yet  there  are  some  who  would  be  glad  to  do  better  and 
work  their  way  up  to  social  recognition.  If  they  could  get 
away  from  the  old  acquaintances  who  have  always  despised 
them,  and  the  evil  companions  who  constantly  try  to  keep  them 
down  to  their  own  level,  and  locate  where  they  are  not  known 
and  their  past  bad  name  would  not  affect  them  if  they  conducted 
themselves  properly — where  the  cost  of  living  is  small  and 
labor  is  fairly  rewarded— they  might  reform,  and  become  able  not 
only  to  respect  themselves  but  also  to  win  the  respect  of  others. 
They  would  carry  their  old  characters  with  them,  it  is  true,  and 


WHERE    TO   FARM.  35 

their  improvement  would  be  only  gradually  effected,  but  they 
could  be  no  worse  off  for  going,  and  some  of  the  principal 
influences  which  have  tended  to  keep  them  down  would  be  re- 
moved. Freed  from  old  companions,  thrown  upon  their  own 
resources,  made  in  some  degree  to  feel  their  own  responsibility, 
and  coming  in  contact  with  strangers,  the  result  of  the  change 
would  be  highly  beneficial.  The  young  people  especially 
would  feel  the  force  of  the  new  surroundings,  and  might  make 
rapid  advances  in  knowledge  and  in  business  skill  and  manage- 
ment. 

There  are  also  men  belonging  to  the  better  classes  who  have 
a  strong  desire  to  engage  largely  in  a  certain  line  of  farming 
for  which  they  have  both  taste  and  skill.  In  order  to  gratify 
this  desire  they  will  be  obliged  to  leave  their  present  homes. 
In  many  cases  it  may  be  well  to  gratify  the  wish,  while  in  others 
it  should  be  stifled.  The  farmer  has  a  duty  to  his  family,  as  well 
as  to  himself,  and  could  not  be  justified  in  depriving  his  wife 
and  children  of  too  many  privileges  in  order  to  secure  his  own 
advancement.  • 

In  any  and  every  case,  before  leaving  his  present  home  for 
another  location,  let  the  farmer  carefully  consider  the  question 
whether,  on  the  whole,  it  will  be  any  benefit  for  him  to  make  the 
proposed  change.  Let  him  remember  that  wherever  he  goes 
he  will  be  obliged  to  submit  to  many  discomforts,  that  there  are 
drawbacks  everywhere,  and  that,  in  order  to  retrieve  the  failures 
of  the  past,  a  change  in  the  methods  of  managing  his  businers 
is  needed  far  more  than  a  change  in  his  location.  Let  him  con- 
sider his  present  privileges  and  opportunities  as  well  as  the 
unpleasant  circumstances  which  trouble  him.  The  best  ir^terests 
of  his  family  should  be  considered,  and  the  whole  subject  should 
be  examined  in  all  of  its  bearings.  If,  in  a  majority  of  cases,  a 
decision  not  to  remove  should  be  reached,  we  think  the  parties 
interested  will  have  no  occasion  to  either  be  ashamed  or  to 
regret  their  choice. 


36  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

52f  F  farmers  were  in  the  habit  of  follo^ving  the  principle  em- 
bodied in  the  old  tailor's  plan  of  cutting  a  coat  large  or 
»»  .^       small  according  as  there  was  a  large  or  a  small  supply  of 

•^  cloth  for  the  purpose,  there  would  be  no  necessity  for  a 
consideration  of  this  subject.  But,  as  a  class,  farmers  are  not 
in  favor  of  applying  this  traditional  method  to  the  management 
of  their  business  affairs.  This  is  especially  true  in  regard  to 
buying  land.  Instead  of  limiting  their  purchases  by  their  means 
they  too  often  buy  to  the  full  extent  of  their  desires.  Many  are 
more  ready  to  buy  land  on  credit  than  they  are  most  other 
things  because  they  have  an  idea  that  they  can  make  the  land 
productive  enough  to  pay  the  interest,  meet  all  the  expenses  of 
cultivation,  and  make  an  annual  reduction  of  the  principal.  The 
fact  that  a  multitude  of  farmers  have  made  this  attempt,  and  been 
wholly  unsuccessful,  does  not  seem  to  deter  others  from  making 
the  effort.  To  many  men  there  is  a  sort  of  fascination  in  buying 
land,  which  they  do  not  resist,  and  which  leads  them  to  financial 
ruin.  These  men  seem  to  think  that  because  it  is  a  good  thing 
for  a  man  to  have  a  little  land  it  must  be  much  better  for  him 
to  have  more — a  very  simple  line  of  reaso'ning  but  one  which 
often  leads  to  bad  results  in  practice.  There  is  such  a  thing  as 
having  too  small  a  farm ;  but  the  tendency  with  American  far- 
mers is  to  go  to  the  other  extreme  and  buy  too  much  land. 
The  fact  that  one  man  has  been  very  successful  in  the  manage- 
ment of  a  large  farm  is  not  a  good  reason  for  supposing  that 
any  other  man  will  be  equally  successful  if  he  can  obtain  as 
large  an  area  of  land.  Some  men  have  special  talents  for  the 
management  of  great  operations.  They  have  good  judgment 
combined  with  a  large  degree  of  executive  ability.  They  think 
quickly,  and  are  both  energetic  and  skilful  in  action.  They 
have  peculiar  abilities,  with  which  the  majority  of  men  have  not 
been  favored,  and  which  qualify  them  for  the  management  of 


LARGE    OR   SMALL   FARMS.  37 

large  estates.  But  there  are  many  men  who  do  well  on  farms 
of  moderate  size  who  could  not  manage  large  ones  profitably. 
This  question  of  ability  is  of  very  great  importance.  It  should 
be  considered  first  in  order  when  the  question  of  a  large  or  a 
small  farm  is  to  be  determined.  We  give  it  preference  even  to 
the  pecuniary  condition  in  which  a  man  may  be  placed.  For, 
if  a  man  has  in  a  special  degree  the  peculiar  ability  necessary 
for  the  management  of  a  large  farm,  he  can  go  in  debt  for  one 
and  make  his  business  a  success,  while  a  man  who  is  deficient 
in  this  respect  may  have  plenty  of  money  with  which  to  buy  a 
large  farm  and  still  not  be  able  to  make  it  pay  the  running 
expenses  of  its  cultivation. 

The  section  of  country  in  which  the  farm  is  located  will  also 
have  much  influence  in  determining  its  size.  At  the  East, 
where  land  sells  for  high  prices  and  is  hard  to  cultivate,  smaller 
farms  should  be  bought  than  at  the  West  and  South,  where 
land  can  be  had  for  lower  rates,  and  where,  by  the  use  of  im- 
proved machines,  one  man  can  cultivate  as  much  land  and  pro-^ 
duce  as  large  crops  as  three  men  can  manage  in  New  England. 
At  the  West  and  South,  where  the  prices  of  produce  are  very 
low,  it  is  necessary  that  the  farmer  should  secure  larger  crops 
than  the  Eastern  farmer  grows.  Otherwise,  the  income  from 
his  farm  would  neither  pay  the  interest  on  his  land  nor  support 
his  family.  The  Western  farmer  who  sells  corn  for  twenty 
cents  a  bushel  needs  to  grow  a  great  deal  more  to  obtain  a  cer- 
tain income  than  the  New  England  farmer  who  sells  for  eighty 
or  ninety  cents. 

The  amount  of  help  which  the  farmer  has,  and  the  particular 
line  of  farm  business  which  he  designs  to  follow,  should  also  be 
determining  elements  in  deciding  the  size  of  a  farm.  If  he  has 
several  boys  who  are  large  enough  to  work,  and  who  like  farm- 
ing, he  can  safely  buy  a  much  larger  farm  than  he  can  if  he  has 
no  one  to  help  him.  If  he  designs  to  grow  corn,  wheat,  and 
other  crops  which  require  considerable  working  of  the  land,  the 


38  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

farm  should  be  smaller  than  one  devoted  principally  to  the  grow- 
ing of  live-stock.  There  is  neither  economy  nor  safety  in  buying 
land  which  cannot  be  put  to  some  practical  use.  Although  real 
estate  has  long  been  considered  one  of  the  safest  forms  of  in- 
vestment, the  experiences  of  the  past  few  years  have  proved 
that  even  with  this  there  is  danger  of  overloading.  Many  a  man 
has  lost  a  fortune  because  his  money  was  locked  up  in  real 
estate  which  was  not  productive,  which  he  could  not  sell,  and  on 
which  he  was  constantly  obliged  to  pay  heavy  taxes.  In  good 
times  some  men  have  made  money  by  buying  land  and  holding 
it  for  an  advance  of  prices.  But  many  lost  instead  of  made ; 
while,  in  times  of  financial  depression,  multitudes  have  been 
utterly  ruined  by  having  too  much  land  and  too  little  money 
with  which  to  hold  it.  It  is  an  eminently  safe  course  for  a 
farmer  never  to  buy  land  which  he  does  not  need,  and  which  he 
cannot  make  immediately  available. 

•  That  there  are  certain  advantages  in  having  small  farms  can- 
not be  denied.  They  require  less  capital,  less  hired  help,  less 
teams  and  tools,  and  there  is  less  care  and  anxiety  about  their 
management  than  is  the  case  with  large  ones.  Many  a  man  can 
buy  a  small  farm,  cultivate  it  well,  himself  and  family  doing  all 
of  the  work,  and  obtain  crops  enough  to  make  them  comfortable. 
If  he  gets  the  idea,  as  many  njen  do,  that  he  must  get  rich,  and 
that  in  order  to  secure  this  end  he  must  have  a  great  deal  more 
land,  the  chances  are  that  this  pernicious  idea  will  run  away  with 
him,  and  that  his  days  of  happiness  are  passed.  The  farmer  who 
IS  doing  well,  who  can  comfortably  support  his  family,  and  educaie 
his  children,  should  be  thankful  that  he  is  so  highly  favored. 
Still,  he  should  not  sink  into  idleness  and  inefficiency,  but  should 
make  the  most  of  his  opportunities.  By  giving  more  thorough 
culture  he  may  be  able  to  increase  the  amount  of  his  produc- 
tions, and  thus  add  to  the  profits  of  his  business.  But  there  is 
no  necessity  for  the  purchase  of  more  land.  And  in  the  great 
majority  of  cases  the  owners  of  medium-sized  farms  can  do  a 


LARGE    OR   SMALL  FARMS.  39 

great  deal  better  by  improving  their  methods  of  culture,  and 
choosing  more  profitable  crops,  than  they  can  by  enlarging  the 
area  under  cultivation.  Yet  there  are  some  men — a  great  many 
in  all — who  do  not  have  land  enough,  and  who  can  make  it  pay 
them  well  to  increase  the  size  of  their  farms.  But  the  average 
American  farmer  does  not  err  in  this  direction.  He  goes  toward 
the  other  extreme.  He  buys  land  without  carefully  considering 
whether  he  really  needs  it,  and  can  make  it  a  source  of  profit. 

While  there  are  some  things  which  point  to  small  farms  as  the 
most  profitable  for  the  average  worker,  there  are  also  manifest 
disadvantages  connected  with  them,  and  certain  respects  in  which 
larger  farms  are  the  most  profitable.  The  cost  of  buildings 
which  are  needed  on  a  large  farm  is  but  little  more  than  the 
expense  of  those  which  are  required  on  small  farms.  In  the 
older  States  a  farm  of  sixty  acres  should  have  at  least  fifteen 
hundred  dollars  invested  in  buildings,  while  on  a  farm  of  one 
hundred  and  eighty  acres  but  little,  if  any,  more  than  two 
thousand  dollars  will  be  needed  for  this  purpose.  The  house 
for  the  small  farm  will  do  well  enough  for  the  large  one.  The 
barn,  wagon-shed,  and  granary  for  the  large  farm  must  be  con- 
siderably larger  than  will  be  needed  on  the  small  one,  but  the 
cost  of  these  buildings  is  comparatively  low,  and  the  necessary 
increase  of  size  will  not  involve  a  very  great  additional  expense. 
But  it  will  make  a  great  difference  in  the  profits  of  the  business 
whether  a  large  or  a  small  proportion  of  the  capital  invested  is 
put  into  property  which  is  not  directly  productive.  This  is  a 
matter  of  great  importance,  and  should  be  considered  with  care. 
Suppo.se  the  land  to  be  worth  fifty  dollars  per  acre.  Then  we 
have,  as  the  cost  of  the  small  farm,  sixty  acres  of  land  worth 
three  thousand  dollars,  and  buildings  worth  fifteen  hundred 
dollars — a  total  expense  of  four  thousand  five  hundred  dollars. 
The  large  farm  has  one  hundred  a^nd  eighty  acres  of  land  worth 
nine  thousand  dollars,  and  buildings  worth  two  thousand 
dollars — a  total  cost  of  eleven  thousand  dollars. 


40  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

The  large  farm  costs  less  than  two  and  one-half  times  as 
much  as  the  small  one,  but  it  contains  three  times  as  much 
land,  from  which  an  income  can  be  obtained.  With  money  at 
six  per  cent.,  the  interest  on  the  large  farm  would  be  six  hundred 
and  sixty  dollars  per  year,  whue  on  the  small  one  it  would  be 
two  hundred  and  seventy  dollars.  Here  the  expense  is  less 
than  two  and  a  half  times  as  large  in  the  case  of  the  large  farm 
as  it  is  on  the  small  one,  while  the  productive  power  is  three 
times  greater.  On  the  small  farm  one-third  of  the  whole  capital 
is  not  only  producing  nothing,  but  is  a  constant  source  of 
expense.  Interest,  insurance,  taxes,  and  repairs  will  be  constant 
outgoes,  of  which  the  land  must  bear  the  expense.  On  the 
large  farm  the  proportion  of  this  unproductive  property  to  the 
whole  capital  is  only  two-elevenths.  On  the  small  farm  the 
interest  equals  nine  per  cent,  on  the  value  of  the  productive 
property,  while  on  the  large  farm  it  is  reduced  to  seven  and  one- 
third  per  cent.  These  are  very  evident  reasons  why  many  men 
who  have  bought  quite  small  farms  have  not  been  as  successful 
as  they  hoped.  They  have  put  too  large  a  proportion  of  their 
money  where  they  receive  no  direct  return. 

There  are  some  other  things,  closely  connected  with  the  above, 
in  which  the  large  farm  has  the  advantage  of  the  small  one. 
As  a  rule  the  taxes  on  a  farm  which  is  nearly  all  productive 
property  are  lighter  in  proportion  than  they  arc  where  much  of 
the  capital  is  invested  in  buildings.  The  fencing  of  a  large 
farm  can  be  performed  at  much  less  proportional  cost  than  will 
be  possible  on  a  small  one,  and  the  labor  of  cultivation  can 
generally  be  managed  much  better  in  large  than  it  can  in  small 
fields.  The  cost  of  tools  for  a  small  farm  is  very  much  higher 
in  proportion  to  the  work  done  with  them  than  it  is  on  a  large 
one.  We  have  known  many  farmers  who  cut  only  fifteen  or 
twenty  acres  of  grass  each  of  whom  had  a  mowing-machine,  a 
hay-tedder,  and  a  horse-rake.  These  machines  would  have 
done  all  the  work   required  of  them  on   farms  three  times   as 


LARGE    OR   SMALL   FARMS.  41 

large,  and  would  have  lasted  a  great  many  years.  If  only  a  few 
acres  of  grain  are  produced,  the  farmer  needs  plows  of  different 
patterns,  harrows,  planters,  cultivators,  and  harvesters.  For 
these  he  has  to  pay  just  as  much  as  the  large  farmer  who  can 
get  from  three  to  six  times  as  much  use  from  them.  The 
small  farmer  does  not  require  quite  as  many  tools'in  number  as 
the  large  one,  but  he  is  obliged  to  buy  a  great  many  for  which 
he  has  but  comparatively  little  use,  and  the  total  cost  of  the 
implements  which  he  needs  when  compared  with  the  total  value 
of  the  crops  which  he  grows  is  many  times  larger  than  the 
expense  incurred  by  the  large  farmer.  To  some  extent,  though 
in  a  somewhat  less  degree,  the  same  is  true  of  the  cost  of  teams 
for  the  performance  of  farm-work.  Another  d'sadvantage  of  a 
small  farm  may  be  found  in  the  fact  that  its  owner  is  obliged  to 
do  a  very  small  business — a  business  not  small  merely  in  the 
aggregate  but  exceedingly  small  in  its  details.  He  may  have 
many  things  for  sale,  but  they  are  in  such  small  quantities  that 
buyers  will  not  come  to  him  to  purchase,  and  he  wastes 
much  time  in  carrying  small  quantities  of  produce  to  m.arket. 
It  is  just  as  much  work,  takes  just  as  long,  and  requires  a 
team  just  as  much,  to  take  five  hundred  pounds  of  straw  to  a 
customer  as  it  does  to  take  fifteen  hundred  pounds.  The 
work  of  loading  and  unloading  is  a  little  greater  in  one  case 
than  the  other,  but  the  cost  of  weighing  and  the  other  expenses 
are  just  the  same,  while  the  money  received  for  the  large  load  is 
three  times  the  amount  of  that  obtained  for  the  small  one.  It 
takes  just  as  long  to  go  to  market  with  ten  pounds  of  butter 
as  it  does  with  one  hundred,  but  there  is  a  great  difference  in 
the  amount  of  money  received.  When  the  farmer  has  to  go  to 
market  every  week  with  a  small  quantity  of  produce  he  spends 
much  time  for  which  he  receives  but  little  pay.  He  could  just 
as  well  carry  three  or  four  times  as  much,  if  he  had  it,  and  then 
there  would  be  a  nearer  approach  to  profit  in  the  operation. 
If  a  man  produces   a   large  quantity  of  anything  which  is  in 


42  FARMING   FOR    PROFIT. 

demand,  buyers  will  call  on  him,  and  a  sale  can  be  effected 
without  spending  much  time;  but  if  the  quantity  which  is 
produced  is  small,  the  grower  must  go  where  the  buyers  are. 
The  man  who  has  a  large  farm  ought  to  have  a  large  quantity 
of  products,  but  the  small  farmer  cannot  be  expected  to  produce 
very  much  of  any  one  thing.  In  many  neighborhoods  the  small 
farmers  might  profitably  arrange  so  that  one  of  their  number 
should  go  to  market  each  week  and  carry  the  produce  for  the 
whole  company.  By  taking  turns  each  one  would  bear  his 
rightful  share  of  the  burden,  while  he  would  save  a  great  deal 
of  time  and  trouble.  But  even  here  the  large  farmer  would  have 
the  advantage.  All  the  products  would  be  his  own,  he  would 
be  able  to  judge  accurately  of  their  quality,  and  he  would  feel 
at  liberty  to  sell  for  any  prices  which  to  him  seemed  best.  Still 
by  means  of  the  co-operation  suggested  above,  the  advantage  of 
the  large  over  the  small  farmer  would  be  reduced  to  the  lowest 
point. 

"  Last,  but  not  least,"  we  must  consider  the  question  of 
capital  as  affecting  the  size  of  farms.  This  is  an  important 
point,  though,  as  already  suggested,  it  is  far  from  being  the  only 
one  which  should  receive  attention.  In  order  to  buy  a  farm, 
safely  and  manage  it  successfully,  a  man  ought  to  have  some 
money  at  his  command.  That  some  men  have  bought 
farms  almost  wholly  on  credit,  and  then  got  trusted  for  the 
stock  and  tools  which  they  needed,  who  have  eventually  suc- 
ceeded in  paying  their  debts,  and  thus  becoming  the  owners  of 
the  property  which  they  had  nominally  held,  is  true,  but  they 
are  exceptional  cases,  and  should  not  be  taken  as  examples. 
Unless  a  man  can  pay  quite  a  proportion  of  the  purchase- 
money,  he  had  better  work  for  another,  or  else  hire  a  farm,  than 
to  buy.  Few  conditions  in  civilized  life  are  more  pitiable  than 
that  of  a  man  who  has  invested  his  little  all  in  a  firm,  worked 
on  it  many  years,  and  when  old  age  is  coming  on,  finds  that  he 
can  hold  it  no  longer.     A  slight  depreciation  in  the  price  of 


LARGE    OR   SMALL   FARMS.  43 

real  estate  often  swallows  up  the  entire  capital  of  men  who 
have  bought  farms  largely  on  credit.  In  many  instances  these 
men  have  made  extensive  improvements  on  the  land,  but  by 
reason  of  ill-health  or  loss  of  crops  are  unable  to  keep  up  the 
interest,  and  the  mortgages  are  foreclosed,  leaving  the  farmers 
and  their  families  without  a  home.  It  is  much  pleasanter  to  own 
a  farm  than  it  is  to  work  for  another  man,  but  it  is  not  as  safe  a 
thing  for  a  poor  man  to  do.  On  this  account  we  would  not 
advise  the  buying  of  a  farm  without  considerable  ready  money. 

While  a  man  who  is  qualified  for  the  position  can  do  better 
on  a  large  farm  than  he  can  on  a  small  one,  and  much  of  the 
business  of  a  large  farm  can  be  managed  to  better  advantage 
than  that  of  a  small  one,  there  is  altogether  too  much  risk  in 
buying  a  large  farm,  or  enlarging  a  small  one,  on  credit. 
Better  incur  the  extra  expenses  of  a  small  business  than  run 
the  risk  of  losing  everything  in  a  large  one.  It  is  often  quite 
easy  to  figure  out  a  profit  in  the  operation  of  buying  a  large 
farm,  but  when  it  comes  to  working  it  out  the  case  seems  very 
different.  In  estimates  on  paper  the  expenses  are  usually  put 
too  low,  and  too  little  allowance  is  made  for  unfavorable 
seasons,  damaged  crops,  low  prices,  sickness,  accidents,  and 
other  losses  which,  to  some  extent,  almost  every  farmer  is 
obliged  to  sustain. 

Although  in  buying  a  farm  it  is  desirable  to  pay  as  large  a 
proportion  of  the  price  as  possible,  it  is  not  wise  for  the  pur- 
chaser to  invest  all  of  his  money  in  land.  He  needs  a  team, 
and  tools,  and  stock,  just  as  much  as  he  does  land,  and  it  is 
better  for  him  to  pay  for  these  and  get  more  credit  on  the  farm, 
than  it  is  to  pay  a  larger  part  of  the  purchase-money  for  the 
land,  and  run  in  debt  for  small  amounts  at  several  different 
places.  It  is  bad  enough  to  be  in  debt  to  any  one  for  any 
purpose,  but  it  is  better  to  have  the  debt  in  one  large  amount, 
in  one  place,  than  to  have  an  equal  amount  of  indebtedness 
scattered  in  many  different  places.       These  smaller  purchases 


44  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 

can  be  made  to  much  better  advantage  for  cash  than  they  can 
on  credit ;  the  buyer  will  be  more  careful  in  making  his  trades 
if  he  pays  down  for  all  that  he  buys ;  if  his  indebtedness  is  all  in 
one  place  he  will  know  exactly  how  much  he  owes,  and  will  not 
be  in  danger  of  forgetting  many  little  items,  while  the  general 
influence  of  the  transaction,  both  in  its  present  and  its  future 
bearings,  will  be  much  more  favorable  to  his  permanent  success 
if  he  avoids  small  debts  entirely,  and  incurs  large  ones  with 
extreme  caution. 

Such  are  some  of  the  principles  which  should  be  regarded  in 
determining  the  size  of  farms.  Many  other  things,  of  smaller 
importance  but  still  worthy  of  regard,  will  enter-into  the  account. 
Circumstances  should  be  considered  and  duly  weighed.  Com- 
mon sense  should  be  used  and  allowed  to  lead  to,  or  to  modify, 
conclusions  according  to  its  own  dictates.  But  it  will  be  well 
to  always  remember  that  a  large  farm  involves  a  great  deal. of 
care  and  responsibility,  and  that  a  large  debt,  for  whatever  pur- 
pose it  has  been  incurred,  will  invariably  prove  a  heavy  and  a 
tiresome  load. 


feu^  N  order  that  its  business  may  be  managed  in  an  economi- 

G)||      caland  successful  manner,  and  that  the  comfort  and 

^(^77       welfare  of  the  farmer  and  his  family  may  be  secured,  it 
6  ''{^ 

v2)      is   absolutely  necessary  that   there   should   be  several 

buildings  upon  each  and  every  farm.  The  exact  number  which 
will  be  required  will  depend  upon  various  circumstances.  The 
size  of  the  farm,  productiveness  of  the  land,  and  the  special 
department  of  business  which  is  carried  on,  must  be  considered. 
But  there  are  a  few  particular  buildings  which  each  farmer  abso- 
lutely needs.  Of  these,  the  house  is  the  most  important,  and  is 
usually  the  most  expensive.  In  our  variable  climate,  with  its 
frequent  and  sudden  changes  and  its  great  extremes  of  heat  and 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  45 

cold,  houses  are  indispensable  to  the  comfort  and  health  of  the 
people.  In  large  sections  of  the  country  there  is  also  a  neces- 
sity for  providing  shelter  and  protection  during  several  months 
in  each  year  for  domestic  animals.  On  this  account,  and  also 
to  provide  a  place  in  which  food  for  their  sustenance  during  the 
winter  can  be  kept,  barns  must  be  furnished.  On  farms  which 
to  any  extent  are  devoted  to  the  growing  of  the  cereals,  a  build- 
ing, called  a  granary,  should  be  provided  ibr  the  safe  storage 
of  these  valuable  products.  There  should  be  a  small  house  for 
the  hogs,  and  another  for  the  sole  use  of  the  hens. .  A  shed 
close  to  the  house  should  be  used  for  storing  fuel,  while  another, 
and' larger  one,  should  shelter  the  wagons,  carriages,  farm  imple- 
ments and  machines,  when  they  are  not  in  actual  use. 

As  has  already  been  suggested,  it  is  a  strong  objection  to 
small  farms  that  the  cost  of  the  necessary  buildings  bears  a  very 
high  proportion  to  the  value  of  the  whole  farm.  But  it  is  an 
objection  which  the  owners  of  small  farms  cannot  avoid.  If 
they  have  the  farms  they  must  also  have  the  buildings.  Some 
farmers  attempt  to  mitigate  the  evil  by  making  one  building 
answer  the  purposes  of  two  or  three.  They  make  the  barn  serve 
also  for  a  granary  and  a  hog-house.  The  wagon-shed  shelters 
both  the  wagons  and  the  hens,  and  the  wood-shed  is  merely  a 
back  room  in  the  house.  In  this  way  the  cost  of  farm  buildings 
is  greatly  reduced,  but  the  plan  cannot  be  commended".  Low 
cost  is  an  item  of  great  importance,  it  is  true,  but  it  is  not  the 
only  thing  which  should  receive  attention.  There  must  not 
only  be  something  in  the  form  of  buildings,  but,  if  the  business 
is  to  be  made  profitable,  these  buildings  must  be  so  constructed 
and  arranged  as  to  answer  the  purposes  for  which  they  were 
designed.  In  order  to  reduce  the  cost  of  a  farm  it  is  not  wise 
to  attempt  to  get  along  without  things  which  the  experience  of 
generations  of  farmers  has  shown  to  be  absolute  necessities. 
When  a  choice  of  evils  is  given  we  ought  always  to  choose  the 
least.     Consequently,  although  the  cost  will  thereby  be  some- 


46  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

what  increased,  we  believe  in  having  a  separate  house  for  the 
hogs,  another  for  the  hens,  a  wagon-shed  devoted,  as  far  as  the 
ground  floor  is  concerned,  to  the  one  purpose  of  storing  wagons, 
and  a  granary  in  a  building  distinct  from  any  other.  We  favor 
this  arrangement  on  the  principle  that  no  man  can  work  advan- 
tageously without  having  something  to  do  with,  and  having 
things  convenient  for  the  management  of  his  business.  In  the 
long  run  it  is  not  profitable  to  try  to  get  along  without  suitable 
buildings  in  which  the  in-door  part  of  the  work  can  be  carried 
on.  If  a  farmer  keeps  hens,  he  ought  to  furnish  a  house  in 
which  they  can  remain  undisturbed.  If  he  keeps  hogs,  he 
should  provide  a  building  which  is  adapted  to  their  special 
wants.  Whatever  kind  of  stock  is  kept  there  should  be  conve- 
niences for  caring  for  it,  and  the  surroundings  should  be  so 
arranged  as  to  make  it  a  source  of  profit  to  the  owner.  To  the 
general  rule,  that  without  room  and  without  conveniences  for 
carrying  it  on,  no  kind  of  business  can  be  made  to  pay,  farming 
is  not  an  exception.  Economy  on  the  farm  is  a  good  thing  if 
it  is  properly  directed  ;  but  when  it  leads  the  owner  to  do  with- 
out suitable  buildings  it  proves  an  unsafe  guide.  Such  a  saving 
is  like  the  course  of  a  man  who  should  put  only  one  kernel  of 
corn  in  a  hill  because  he  wanted  to  prevent  an  undue  expense 
for  seed.  Instead  of  leading  to  success,  such  a  course  would 
involve  an  utter  failure. 

The  size  of  the  farm  should,  to  some  extent,  govern  the  number 
and  should  regulate  the  size  of  the  buildings  thereon.  The  house, 
however,  should  be  governed  more  by  the  size  of  the  family  of 
the  owner,  and  the  amount  of  help  which  he  designs  to  keep,  than 
it  should  by  the  size  of  the  farm.  But  the  size  of  the  barn,  the 
granary,  and  the  wagon-shed,  should  be  proportioned  to  the 
amount  of  land  cultivated  and  business  performed.  W^hen  farms 
are  extremely  large  it  is  sometimes  better,  as  well  as  more  con- 
venient, to  have  two  or  more  barns  and  granaries  on  different 
parts  of  the  farm  than  it  is  to  have  only  one  building,  and  that 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  47 

one  excessively  large,  devoted  to  each  purpose.  In  addition  to 
the  buildings  needed  upon  a  small  farm,  the  owner  of  a  large 
one  should  have  a  tool-house,  in  which  to  store  his  farm  imple- 
ments and  machines  when  they  are  not  in  actual  use,  a  repair 
shop,  in  which  worn  or  broken  tools  can  be  put  in  order,  and 
little  jobs  of  carpenter  work,  which  are  so  often  needed  on  the 
farm,  can  be  performed,  and  also  a  building  to  be  used  for  the 
purposes  of  a  general  storehouse.  If  any  special  kinds  of  busi- 
ness, not  included  in  ordinary  farming,  are  carried  on,  it  may  be 
necessary  to  erect  buildings  in  which  these  industries  may  re- 
ceive attention.  Where  many  cows  are  kept,  and  there  are  no 
butter  or  cheese  factories  in  the  vicinity,  or  it  is  not  thought  best 
to  patronize  them,  a  milk-house  will  not  only  prove  a  great  con- 
venience, but  will  also  be  a  great  help  in  the  profitable  manage- 
ment of  the  dairy.  On  farms  where  tobacco  is  one  of  the 
standard  crops,  buildings  for  drying  and  curing  it  will  be  re- 
quired. In  the  production  of  flax,  or  hops,  or  the  manufacture 
of  maple  sugar,  and  other  industries  of  a  similar  nature,  special 
buildings  may  be  required  for  the  particular  kind  of  business 
which  is  added  to  the  ordinary  work  of  the  farm. 

Location. — This  wilj  have  a  powerful  influence  upon  the 
happiness  of  the  farmer  and  his  family,  and  it  is,  therefore,  a 
matter  of  very  great  importance  to  have  the  buildings  properly 
located.  If  the  house  is  far  back  from  the  road,  and  the  kitchen 
and  sitting-room,  as  is  too  often  the  case,  are  in  the  farther  cor- 
ner of  the  house,  it  will  be  a  difficult  matter  for  the  wife  or  the 
children  to  be  happy,  or  even  contented.  The  farmer  and  his 
grown-up  boys  will  not  mind  this  enforced  retirement  as  much, 
because  a  large  portion  of  their  time  is  spent  in  the  fields,  but 
they  will  fail  to  receive  the  cheer  and  sunshine  which  a  better 
location  of  the  living  rooms  would  insure,  and  all  who  live  in 
the  house  will  suffer  from  its  too  great  isolation.  For  many 
reasons  a  house  in  a  village  is  not  desirable  for  a  farmer,  but  the 
location  should  be  near  a  road  where  there  is,  at  least,  an  occa- 


48  FARMIXG  FOR   PROFIT. 

sional  passing  team  and  where  all  the  inmates  of  the  house  can 
often  SCO  men  and  women  from  other  families.  It  is  possible  to 
have  the  house  too  near  the  highway,  but  many  farmers  go  to 
the  other  extreme,  and  locate  their  homes  in  the  fields  instead 
of  near  the  road.  To  this  undue  isolation,  together  with  hard 
work  and  poor  health,  the  latter  in  a  great  measure  caused  by 
the  monotony  of  a  retired  life,  miich  of  the  insanity  among 
farmers'  wives  can  be  directly  traced.  If  there  are  but  few  com- 
panions, if  no  strange  faces  are  seen,  and  a  ceaseless  round  of 
duties  must  be  performed,  there  is  danger  that  the  mind  will 
prey  upon  itself,  and  lose  its  balance  and  power.  The  tendency 
in  this  direction  may  be,  to  some  extent,  counteracted  if  preven- 
tive means  are  at  hand,  and  are  employed  before  the  mind  be- 
comes diseased.  But  this  does  not  make  it  any  less  the  duty  of 
the  farmer  to  choose  the  brightest  and  pleasantest  location  which 
he  can  find  for  his  home.  Even  if  terrible  evils  are  avoided,  an 
unduly  isolated  life  is  not  as  happy,  and  will  not  be  as  useful,  as 
one  spent  under  more  favorable  circumstances.  It  may  seem  a 
little  matter  whether  a  house  is  located  near  a  road  or  ten  rods 
away  from  it,  but  it  makes  an  immense  amount  of  difference 
with  the  happiness  of  the  inmates.  Even  though  no  word  is 
ever  spoken  to  a  passer-by,  it  makes  life  more  cheerful  to  see  an 
occasional  team,  -and  to  have  the  evidence  of  the  senses  that 
other  men  and  women  are  living  and  moving  in  the  world. 

We  have  no  hesitation  in  expressing  the  opinion  that  one  of 
the  great  requisites  of  a  good  location  for  a  farm-house  is  prox- 
imity to  a  travelled  road.  This  being  secured,  it  is  desirable 
that  a  dry  and  slightly  elevated  plot  of  ground  should  be 
obtained.  In  a  great  many  instances  this  can  easily  be  secured 
on  some  part  of  the  farm  lying  near  the  highway.  But  in  some- 
cases  the  land  is  flat  and  wet,  and  there  is  no  good  site  for  a 
building  on  the  whole  frontage  of  the  farm.  In  these  instances 
skill  and  labor  should  be  made  to  overcome  natural  obstacles. 
The  best  location  which  can  be  found  should  be  chosen  and 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  49 

thoroughly  drained.  When  this  has  been  accompHshed,  the 
cellar  should  be  dug,  a  good  wall  laid  and  raised  considerably 
above  the  surface  of  the  surrounding  soil.  A  sufficient  quantity 
of  earth  should  be  carted  and  spread  around  the  house^to  give 
an  elevated  yard  from  which  the  water  will  readily  flow,  thfts 
insuring  dry  and  pleasant  surroundings  as  far  as  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  the  house  is  concerned.  There  are  but  very  few 
farms  upon  which  a  good  building-spot  cannot,  in  this  way,  be 
obtained. 

It  is  also  very  desirable  to  have  a  diy  and  warm  location  for 
the  barn.  Though  this  should  be  secondary  to  the  location  of 
the  house,  it  is  a  matter  of  considerable  importance  to  have  the 
barn,  and  other  farm  buildings,  on  good  sites  and  properly 
arranged.  The  work  of  the  owner  will  be  greatly  helped  by 
a  suitable  location  of  these  buildings,  or  hindered  by  a  bad 
arrangement  of  them.  The  barn  may  be  so  located  as  to  cause 
a  great  deal  of  unnecessary  travel,  thus  involving  a  waste  of 
time  and  strength,  neither  of  which  the  ordinary  farmer  can 
afford  to  lose.  If  placed  where  the  barn-yard  will  be  muddy 
every  time  it  rains,  there  will  always  be  reason  to  regret  the 
choice  of  the  site.  Merely  the  annoyance  and  inconvenience  of 
having  to  walk  through  the  mud,  as  the  farmer  will  often  be 
obliged  to  do  in  warm  weather,  will  become,  in  time,  a  heavy 
burden.  It  is  no  great  matter  to  walk  once  through  a  muddy 
yard  and  then  clean  the  boots  or  shoes.  But  when  it  comes  tO' 
going  into  the  mud  many  times  a  day  and  many  days  a  week, 
it  will  be  found  very  unpleasant,  and,  in  the  course  of  a  summer, 
considerable  time  will  have  been  spent  in  the  effort  to  get  off  the 
mud  which  was  loaded  on  the  boots  or  shoes.  Most  farmers 
could  devise  fully  as  pleasant  an  occupation,  and  it  is  certain 
that  work  which  would  prove  more  profitable  might  be  found 
upon  every  farm.  But  this  is  not  the  worst  difficulty  with  a  wet 
yard.  If  the  manure  which  the  yard  contains  is  constantly 
saturated  with  water,  much  of  the  plant-food,  which  it  ought  to 


50  FARMJXG   FOR   PR  OF  IT. 

furnish  to  the  crops,  will  be  leached  out  and  wasted.  Upon 
some  farms  a  very  heavy  loss  is  sustained  every  season  from 
this  cause  alone.  Then,  too,  the  labor  of  the  teams  in  carting  it 
to  the  figlds,  and  the  work  of  the  men  who  load  and  unload  the 
watcr-soakcd  material,  will  be  increased  from  one-third  to  one- 
half,  and  in  some  cases  in  a  still  greater  proportion,  thus  making 
a  great  waste  of  time  and  strength.  When  wet  manure  is  carted 
upon  the  farm,  its  weight  causes  the  wheels  to  cut  into  the  turf, 
thus  greatly  increasing  the  draft  of  the  load,  and  seriously 
injuring  the  mowing  lots  and  grain-fields  across  which  it  is 
drawn.  Other  objections  might  be  named,  but  the  ones  already 
given  should  be  sufficient  to  deter  the  farmer  from  placing  his 
barn  upon  a  wet  site  if  a  drf  one  can  be  secured.  When  the 
best  location  on  the  farm  is  wet,  the  owner  must  make  the  best 
of  a  bad  matter.  The  land  chosen  for  the  site  should  be  thor- 
oughly underdrained,  the  barn  set  up  a  little  above  the  sur- 
rounding level,  as  directed  for  the  house,  and  the  yard  should 
also  be  slightly  elevated.  The  same  general  rules  should  be 
followed  in  the  selection  and  fitting  of  a  location  for  the  other 
farm  buildings. 

But  in  the  effort  to  secure  dry  yards  and  good  drainage,  the 
■owner  should  not  place  any  of  his  buildings  very  far  from  the 
road,  or  on  a  steep  hillTside.  Since  this  chapter  was  commenced, 
we  called  upon  a  farmer  whose  house  and  barn  are  nearly  at  the 
top  of  a  large  and  steep  hill,  and  are  reached  by  a  slanting  road 
some  twenty  rods  in  length.  Such  an  arrangement  of  the 
buildings  is  very  inconvenient,  and  is  a  great  objection  to  a 
farm.  It  is  not  wise  to  build  so  far  from  the  highway,  and  not  at 
all  pleasant  to  be  located  on  such  a  steep  side-hill.  A  steep  hill 
■  must  always  be  a  vQ:xy  objectionable  place  upon  which  to  build 
a  barn.  For,  if  the  barn  is  near  the  top,  most  of  the  hay  and 
grain  must  be  drawn  up  the  hill,  while  if  it  is  near  the  foot  these 
c^ops  can  be  drawn  down  ;  but  nearly  all  of  the  manure  must 
be  carted  up  the  grade.     No  one  needs  to  be  told  that  it  is 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  51 

hard  work  for  a  team  to  take  a  load  either  up  or  down  a  steep 
hill,  or  that  it  is  much  more  difficult  cultivating  a  hill-side  than 
it  is  a  level  field.  While  it  may  sometimes  seem  best  to  use 
these  hills  for  cultivation,  it  is  often  better  to  convert  them  into 
pastures,  and  find  some  more  level  place  upon  which  to  erect 
farm  buildings.  In  all  cases,  before  _  finally  deciding  upon  a 
location,  much  careful  thought  should  be  given  to  the  subject, 
and  the  best  possible  place  on  the  farm  should  be  selected. 

If  the  buildings  were  already  located  before  the  present  owner 
came  into  possession  of  the  place,  and  he  finds  that  they  are  not 
where  they  should  be,  the  question  of  moving  them  to  better 
sites  should  be  considered.  It  is  a  somewhat  expensive  opera- 
tion to  move  farm  buildings,  and  the  work  should  not  be 
attempted  without  good  reasons  exist  for  making  the  change. 
But  when  the  reasons  are  sufficient  to  justify  the  course,  and 
ihe  means  of  paying  for  the  work  are  at  hand,  there  should  be 
no  delay  in  effecting  the  change.  We  do  not  advocate  such  a 
change  merely  on  the  ground  of  appearances,  though,  if  a  farmer 
has  plenty  of  money,  it  will  not  be  an  altogether  useless  expen- 
diture, either  of  time  or  means,  to  arrange  his  buildings  so  that 
they  will  present  a  beautiful  appearance.  The  rich  man  can 
afford  to  do  considerable  in  the  way  of  improving  the  looks  of 
his  buildings  and  surroundings.  But  in  the  cases  in  which  we 
recommend  the  moving  and  re-arranging  of  their  buildings  b\' 
farmers  of  moderate  means,  we  make  the  suggestion  for  the  sake 
of  securing  happiness  to  the  family,  a  greater  degree  of  economy 
of  labor,  the  saving  of  the  strength  of  men  and  teams,  and  the 
prevention  of  the  waste  which  otherwise  will  inevitably  occur. 

We  would  not  advise  the  removal  from  one  location  without 
a  certainty  of  improv^ement  in  another  place.  Farmers  have 
been  known  to  move  from  a  site  which  did  not  give  entire  satis- 
faction, and  find,  when  they  had  got  settled  in  the  new  place, 
that  it  was  not  as  good  as  the  old.  In  avoiding  a  hill-side,  some 
farmers  have  built  close  by  the  bank  of  a  stream.     When  the 


52  1- ARMING   I- OR   PRCr/T. 

water  was  not  unusually  high,  all  went  well ;  but  when  heavy 
rains  came,  when  the  stream  overflowed  its  banks,  their  cellars 
were  filled  with  water,  and  their  gardens  and  door-yards  covered 
with  sand  and  gravel,  they  found  there  were  inconveniences  in 
the  new  location  as  well  as  the  old.  These  locations  upon  the 
banks  of  streams  arc  not  always  the  most  healthful,  as  there  is 
frequently  a  great  deal  of  fog  in  the  morning,  which,  with  the 
dampness  of  the  evening  air  in  such  places,  is  injurious  to  people 
whose  lungs  are  weak  or  who  suffer  from  neuralgia  or  rheuma- 
tism. A  location  which  is  not  exposed  to  the  gales  which  so 
often  sweep  over  high  hill-tops,  and  which  is  also  free  from  dan- 
ger by  overflowing  streams,  is  far  more  desirable  than  cither  of 
these  can  be  made. 

Relative  Position. — Thus  far  we  have  spoken  of  the  gen- 
eral location  of  farm  buildings.  We  ought  also  to  consider  their 
location  with  reference  to  each  other.  The  house  should  have 
the  most  prominent  position  and  the  best  location.  With  the 
front  view  from  the  house  no  other  buildings  should  interfere. 
Neither  should  any  of  the  buildings  be  so  located  as  to  cut  off 
a  view  of  the  road  from  either  the  kitchen  or  the  sitting-room 
windows.  Very  few  farmers  would  think  of  putting  the  barn 
directly  between  the  house  and  the  highway;  but  there  are  many 
farms  where  some  of  the  buildings  obstruct  the  view  from  the 
windows.  There  is  no  necessity  for  this,  and,  as  long  as  it  inter- 
feres with  the  comfort  and  pleasure  of  the  family,  while  answer- 
ing no  possible  purpose  for  good,  it  should  not  be  allowed  in 
the  location  of  new  buildings.  Whether  it  will  pay  the  farmer 
to  remove  those  which  are  already  located  will  depend  upon  his 
financial  condition,  and  also  upon  the  peculiar  circumstances  of 
the  case.  It  is  a  great  deal  easier  and  cheaper  to  locate  new 
buildings  just  right  than  it  is  to  remove  old  ones  and  place  them 
where  they  ought  to  stand — a  fact  which  is  very  evident  and 
which  should  be  kept  in  mind  by  farmers  when  they  are  choos- 
ing new  locations. 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  53 

laKing  cai^  to  give  the  house  a  prominent  and,  as  far  as  the 
highway  is  concerned,  commanding  position,  the  attention  should 
next  be  directed  to  a  location  for  the  barn.  This  should  not  be 
so  near  the  house  as  to  permit  the  offensive  odors  of  the  stables 
to  trouble  the  family  or  allow  the  drainage  of  the  yard  to  reach 
the  well.  On  the  other  hand,  the  barn  should  not  be  so  far 
from  the  house  as  to  make  a  great  deal  of  unnecessary  travel  in 
going  from  one  to  the  other.  In  bad  weather,  and  especially 
when  there  is  a  great  deal  of  snow  on  the  ground  and  paths  have 
to  be  shovelled,  it  makes  a  great  deal  of  extra  work  to  have  the 
barn  a  long  distance  from  the  house.  Besides,  the  distance 
furnishes  an  excuse  for  hired  men,  or  boys,  who  may  be  dis- 
posed to  be  negligent,  for  not  attending  to  the  cattle  as  they 
ought. 

The  granary  should  be  near  the  barn  in  order  to  save  the 
work  of  carrying  the  grain  a  longer  distance  than  is  necessary. 
It  makes  a  great  difference  with  the  work  of  carrying  the  corn 
from  the  barn,  where  Northern  farmers  husk  it,  to  the  bins  in 
the  granary,  whether  these  buildings  are  within  ten  feet  of  each 
other  or  are  four  rods  apart.  In  the  ordinary  methods  of  farm- 
ing at  the  North,  there  must  be  a  great  deal  of  passing  from  the 
barn  to  the  granary  and  back.  If  these  buildings  are  far  apart 
there  will,  in  the  course  of  time,  be  a  great  amount  of  work  and  ' 
travel  utterly  wasted.  This  fact  has  been  so  evident  to  some 
farmers  that  they  have  had  a  room  for  the  granary  finished  off 
in  the  barn,  and  thus  kept  the  two  under  one  roof  To  this  plan 
there  are  some  objections,  and  it  has  not  met  with  general  favor. 
It  is  not  convenient,  perhaps  not  possible,  to  give  as  free  access, 
of  air  and  as  thorough  ventilation  as  is  needed  to  secure  the 
rapid  drying  of  the  grain.  Rats,  too,  are  likely  to  be  much  more 
troublesome  if  the  grain  is  kept  in  the  barn  than  they  are  when 
it  is  stored  in  a  separate  building.  This  is  because  they  almost 
invariably  congregate  about  a  barn,  and  also  because,  when  the 
granary  is  a  separate   building,  precautions   against  their  inva- 


54  FARMING  J^OR  PROFIT. 

sions  can  be  taken  which  are  not  possible  when  a  room  for  the 
purpose  is  done  off  in  the  barn. 

The  location  of  the  wagon-shed  also  claims  careful  thought. 
If  it  is  correctly  chosen,  the  farmer  will  be  able  to  do  much  of 
his  work  to  better  advantage  than  he  otherwise  could.  Here,  as 
elsewhere,  convenience  is  a  matter  of  a  great  deal  of  importance. 
The  idea  which  some  farmers  seem  to  entertain,  that  it  is  unwise 
to  attempt  to  save  labor,  and  that  such  an  effort  is  a  sure  sign 
of  laziness  on  the  part  of  the  one  who  makes  the  triai,  is  utterly- 
wrong.  The  farmer  ought  to  try  to  save  labor  just  as  truly  as 
he  ought  to  be  careful  in  his  expenditures  of  money.  In  reality 
labor  is  equivalent  to  money.  The  money  value  of  an  article  is 
in  a  great  measure  determined  by  the  amount  of  labor  required 
for  its  production.  The  farmer  who  is  busy  doing  work  which 
is  unnecessary,  which  adds  nothing  to  the  comfort  of  himself  or 
liis  family,  and  nothing  to  the  value  of  his  farm  or  any  of  its 
products,  is  really  throwing  his  labor  away.  Work  which 
amounts  to  nothing  had  better  remain  undone,  for  it  involves 
a  useless  wear  of  the  system,  and  a  throwing  away  of  vital 
force  which  can  never  be  recovered.  The  man  who  is  too  lazy 
to  work,  when  that  work  is  sure  of  bringing  its  reward,  is  to  be 
condemned ;  but  the  one  who  declines  to  perform  labor  which 
can  by  no  possibility  benefit  himself  or  any  one  else  should  be 
accounted  wise.  Let  it  be  constantly  kept  in  mind  that  a  waste 
of  labor  is  a  waste  of  money,  and  let  all  the  buildings  on  the 
farm  be  so  arranged  that  every  step  may  be  turned  to  some 
account.  Upon  this  principle  the  wagon-shed  should  be  near 
the  barn  and  granary  in  order  that  when  a  team  is  wanted,  and 
when  grain  is  to  be  taken  to  market  or  to  mill,  no  time  or  travel 
shall  be  wasted  in  getting  the  horse  to  the  wagon  and  the 
wagon  to  the  granary. 

To  determine  the  best  location  for  the  hog-house  will  be  more 
difficult.  There  are  advantages  in  having  it  near  the  barn,  while 
there  are  also  certain  disadvantages  connected  with  such  a  loca- 


riir;!!!';'!!EFil:!^--ivr>..ftTr'pii|;;ifi!iilliM 

i:;!i'"''"''::i;:;':hi!iiiiiHiMBsia!::::  'I'JHi'iiiliill 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  57 

tion.  If  the  hogs  are  to  be  allowed  to  run  in  the  barn-yard,  they 
should  have  a  house  near  the  barn  and  close  to  the  yard.  But 
if  they  are  to  have  a  yard  of  their  own  it  will  be  better  to  have 
it,  in  connection  with  their  house,  at  a  little  distance  from  the 
barn.  We  know  that  some  farmers,  even  at  the  North,  have  no 
separate  building  for  their  hogs,  but  keep  them  in  a  shed  pro- 
jecting from  the  barn  on  the  side  in  which  the  stables  of  the 
cows  are  placed.  This  is  open  to  very  grave  objections.  The 
same  is  true  of  the  method,  adopted  by  many  farmers  at  the 
South  and  West,  of  allowing  hogs  to  roam  at  will  in  the  woods 
and  in  uncultivated  fields.  If  properly  managed,  the  hogs  can 
be  made  very  profitable,  and  they  ought  to  have  a  house  and 
yard  of  their  own,  and  to  be  treated  like  useful  and  valuable 
animals.  We  prefer  to  have  the  house  for  the  hogs  at  a  little 
distance  from  the  barn,  and  to  have  the  hen-house  quite  near  the 
pne  for  the  hogs.  The  only  remaining  building,  on  a  small  farm, 
is  the  wood-shed,  which  should  be  joined  to  the  house  so  that 
wood  can  be  obtained  without  going  out  of  doors.  In  the 
accompanying  cut  we  present  a  ground-plan  for  the  location 
of  farm  buildings. 

Size  of  Buildings. — Unlike  the  tenement  buildings  in  our 
large  cities,  there  is  among  the  country  farm  buildings  but  little 
uniformity  of  either  size  or  appearance.  It  is  best  to  have  some 
variety  in  the  appearance  of  farm  buildings,  and  that  their  size, 
should  vary  with  the  requirements  of  the  owner.  But  these 
matters  should  not  be  left  to  caprice  or  chance,  but  should  be 
governed  by  some  law  which  will  insure  the  attainment  of  the 
object  desired.  Before  putting  up  a  new,  or  remodelling  an  old 
building,  the  owner  should  carefully  consider  the  purpose  for 
which  he  wants  the  building,  and  how  much  room  he  really 
needs.  For,  building  by  guess,  or  chance,  is  very  expensive 
work,  and  will  almost  certainly  fail  to  give  satisfaction.  If 
larger  buildings  are  erected  than  are  really  needed,  the  extra 
•cost  for   construction  and   repairs  will  be  heavy  and  will   be 


58  FARMING   FOR    PROFIT. 

utterly  wasted.  But  if  the  buildings  are  too  small,  they  will 
prove  unsatisfactory  and  unprofitable. 

Many  years  ago  there  was  a  tendency  among  New  England 
farmers  to  build  their  houses  extremely  large.  Many  a  house 
for  a  small  family  was  built  nearly,  or  quite,  forty  feet  square, 
and  with  timbers  heavy  enough  for  the  strongest  barn.  Though 
this  fashion  has  departed,  there  still  seems  to  be  a  tendency  to 
make  the  houses  altogether  too  large,  and  the  extra  size  not 
only  costs  for  building  and  repairs,  but  the  expense  of  furnishing 
is  considerable,  and  the  work  of  keeping  the  interior  clean  and 
bright  is  a  heavy  task  for  the  almost  invariably  overworked 
housewife  to  perform.  Besides,  a  large,  overgrown  house  is  not 
as  pretty  as  a  cosy  cottage,  and  its  effect  upon  the  home-life  of 
its  inmates  will  be  depressing  rather  than  cheering.  The  pas- 
sion for  large  rooms,  in  which  some  of  our  ancestors  indulged, 
is  not  an  economical  one  to  gratify.  We  do  not  approve  of  low 
rooms,  but  there  is  no  necessity  for  having  the  rooms  in  an 
ordinary  farm-house  extremely  large.  We  have  bought  carpets 
for  rooms  requiring  thirty  yards  and  found  this,  with  the  other 
extra  cost  of  furnishing,  quite  an  expense.  The  rooms  might 
just  as  well  have  been  of  a  size  requiring  only  twenty  yards 
of  carpeting,  and  the  cost  of  furnishing  them  would  thus  have 
been  reduced  one-third,  as  well  as  the  labor  of  cleaning  and  the 
cost  of  keeping  them  painted.  There  should  be  rooms  enough 
in  a  house,  but  they  should  not  be  too  large. 

In  some  sections  the  New  England  style  of  putting  up  large 
buildings  has  not  prevailed.  Houses  have  been  made  very 
small,  with  but  very  few  rooms,  and  barns  have  been  smaller 
.still,  or  else  wholly  wanting.  This  extreme  is  worse  than  the 
other.  It  involves  constant  inconvenience,  and  insures  a  con- 
tinual loss  of  both  happiness  and  money.  There  is  no  necessity 
for  going  very  far  toward  either  extreme.  By.  careful  thought, 
and  a  little  study,  concerning  what  is  wanted,  the  extremes  may 
,be  avoided.    In  building  a  barn,  however,  some  allowance  should 


FAIiM  BUILDINGS.  59 

be  made  for  a  possible  increase  of  crops,  and  some  more  room 
may  be  safely  provided  than  is  absolutely  needed  at  the  time  of 
building.     A  farm  ought  to  become  more  productive  each  year 
that  it  is  cultivated.    Too  much  allowance  should  not  be  made,  as 
it  is  to  be  hoped,  and  expected,  that  as  the  products  of  the  farm 
increase  in   quantity  and  value,  the  ability  of  the  owner  to  make 
additions    and  improvements   will    also  become    greater.      But 
room  enough  should  always  be   secured.     It  involves  a  great 
loss  to  keep  hay  or  grain  out  of  doors.     Other  crops  are  often 
seriously  injured  by  undue  exposure  to  the  elements.    Unless  he 
has  determined  to   sell  his   farm,  the  man  who  finds  his  barn 
room  insufficient  for  the  proper  storing  of  his  crops  should  make 
haste  to  either  enlarge  the  old  or  else  put  up  a  new  building. 
If  the  present  buildings  are  strong,  and  in  good  repair,  it  will 
probably  be  better  to   enlarge  them   than  it  will  to   either  pull 
them  down  and  build  larger  ones,  or  to  build  other  small  ones 
to  be  used  in  addition  to   the  old  ones.     A  tendency  toward 
many  small  buildings  upon  a  farm  is  not  to  be  encouraged.     To 
obtain  a  certain  amount  of  room  in  one  large  barn  costs  much  less 
than  it  does  to  obtain  the  same  amount  in  three  different  struc- 
tures.    Not  only  is  the  first  cost  of  the  three  small  buildings 
much  larger,  but  the  expense  for  repairs  is  very  much  greater. 
A  still  stronger  objection  than  either  of  these  may  be  found  in 
the  fact  that  the  room  in  small  buildings  cannot  be  used  to  as 
good  advantage  as  it  can  in  larger  ones,  and  that   in  the  use  of 
several   small  ones  convenience  must  very  often  be  sacrificed. 
We  would  much  rather  add  twenty  feet  in  length  to  a  good  barn 
already  built  than  to  put  up  a  new  one  twenty  feet  square.     A 
few  large  buildings  are  not  only  better,  but  they  also  present  a 
more  attractive  appearance  than  a  whole  cluster  of  small  ones. 
The  barn  is  not  the  only  building  which  farmers  sometimes 
have  altogether  too  small.     On  many  farms  the  granary  is  a 
httle  "  tucked-up  "  building  not  more  than  half  as  large  as  it 
ought  to  be.     There  are  not  bins  enough  to  hold  the  grain,  be- 


60  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

cause  there  is  not  room  enough  in  which  the  bins  can  be  made. 
When  the  corn  is  shelled  the  work  is  invariably  done  at  a  dis- 
advantage, because  there  is  so  little  room.  The  wagon-shed, 
too,  is  one  of  the  buildings  which  farmers  seem  to  have  a  chronic 
desire  to  make  a  great  deal  too  small.  We  once  helped  build  a 
wagon-shed,  which  we  used  some  ten  years,  and  which  we  found, 
after  it  was  all  finished,  was  at  least  two  feet  too  small  each  way. 
It  was  too  short,  and  so  narrow  that  it  was  almost  impossible  to 
get  out,  after  running  a  wagon  in,  without  getting  the  clothes 
dusty  or  muddy.  There  was  room  enough  in  which  the  wagons 
could  stand,  but  not  room  enough  for  a  man  to  go  between  them 
without  a  great  deal  of  inconvenience.  A  multitude  of  other 
sheds  have  been  built  in  like  manner,  and,  though  good  enough 
other  ways,  are  proving  a  constant  cause  of  vexation  and  regret 
because  they  are  so  small.  As  far  as  our  observation  has  gone, 
the  hog-house,  where  there  is  one,  is  usually  of  better  size  than 
any  other  of  the  out-buildings.  Some  farmers,  of  course,  have 
not  given  room  enough  to  their  swine,  but  a  great  many  have 
furnished  good-sized  houses,  and  by  the  greater  convenience  of 
caring  for  them,  and  the  better  thrift  of  the  animals,  they  are 
constantly  obtaining  their  reward.  The  poultry-house,  so  often 
omitted  altogether,  is  frequently  built  too  small.  This  is  not 
done  by  design,  but  because  a  great  many  farmers  fail  to  realize 
how  much  room  the  hens  require.  These  little  animals  will  not 
bear  confinement  well,  and  the  man  who  attempts  to  keep  them 
in  too  close  quarters  will  not  be  likely  to  succeed  as  well  as  he 
hopes  or  expects.  Diseases  of  various  kinds  will  be  vcr}-  likely 
to  thin  out  his  flock  by  carr}'ing  off  his  most  valuable  specimens. 
If  there  is  any  one  thing  which  experience  with  hens  has  fairly 
demonstrated,  it  is  that  they  must  have  room  or  they  cannot  be 
made  to  thrive. 

Height  of  Buildings. — The  number  of  square  feet  of  ground 
surface  which  a  building  covers  is  not  the  whole  test  of  its 
capacity  or  its   usefulness.      It  makes  a  great  difference  with 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  gj 

both  of  these  essentials,  whether  the  building  is  high  or  low. 
That  a  high  building  will  cost  more  than  a  low  one  of  equal  size 
in  other  directions  is  very  true.  But  it  should  be  remembered 
that  room  under  cover  is  one  of  the  great  objects  for  which  a 
building  is  erected,  and  that  a  great  deal  of  extra  room  can  be 
secured  by  merely  increasing  the  height  of  the  structure.  Take 
a  barn  forty  feet  long  and  thirty  feet  wide,  with  posts  fourteen 
feet  in  length.  Aside  from  the  gables,  this  barn  will  contain 
sixteen  thousand  and  eight  hundred  feet.  With  the  same  size 
on  the  ground  and  the  use  of  posts  sixteen  feet  long,  the  barn 
will  have  a  capacity  of  nineteen  thousand  and  two  hundred  feet; 
thus  by  the  addition  of  two  feet  in  height  adding  one-seventii 
to  its  size.  The  first  cost  of  this  increase  in  capacity  will  be 
very  small,  and  the  extra  expense  for  repairs  will  be  next  to 
nothing.  It  will  cost  no  more  to  keep  the  roof  in  repair, 
and  but  little  more  to  keep  its  sides  covered.  In  this  way  a 
large  amount  of  room  is  secured  at  a  very  trifling  cost.  A 
wagon-shed  with  posts  eight  feet  long  will  do  very  well  for  this 
one  purpose,  but  it  will  be  good  for  nothing  else.  If  the  posts 
are  thirteen  feet  long,  quite  a  room  can  be  had  over  the  wagons. 
This  will  be  sure  to  be  convenient  for  the  storage  of  rowen, 
beans,  corn-fodder,  or  other  farm  crops.  In  a  building  thirty 
feet  by  twenty,  there  would  be  room  on  the  ground  for  a  wagon- 
shed,  while  in  the  loft  from  four  to  six  tons  of  hay  could  be 
easily  stored.  A  shed  for  open  wagons  will  not  need  to  be 
more  than  seven  feet  in  height  from  the  floor,  but  the  part 
designed  for  top  carriages  should  not  be  less  than  eight  feet 
between  the  floors. 

The  granary  should  also  be  built  higher  than  many  such 
buildings  have  been  made.  Here  there  is  not  as  large  a  gain  of 
room  as  in  the  other  buildings  which  have  been  named,  because 
bins  for  wheat,  oats,  and  similar  grains,  should  not  be  made 
very  high.  This,  partly  on  account  of  the  inconvenience  of 
filling  and  emptying  them,  and  in  the  case  of  wheat  and  shelled 


(J2  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

corn,  partly  because  of  the  strong  pressure  which  a  \er}'  large 
quantity'  would  exert  upon  the  sides  of  the  bin.  The  crib  for 
containing  ears  of  corn  is  the  only  one  which  can  well  be  carried 
higher  than  the  usual  level.  By  the  use  of  a  good  step- 
ladder  this  can  be  conveniently  filled,  and  though  the  room  in 
a  high  granar}'  docs  not  seem  to  be  as  well  utilized  as  it  is  in  a 
low  one,  it  is  still  a  question  whether  what  is  wanted  in  such  a 
building  cannot  be  secured  at  a  less  cost  by  increasing  the 
height  than  it  can  by  .enlarging  the  ground  surface.  The  upper 
part  of  the  room,  around  the  sides  occupied  by  the  wheat  and 
oat  bins,  might  be  used  for  the  storage  of  traced  seed-corn,  and 
shelves  might  be  arranged  which  would  furnish  a  place  for 
keeping  many  little  articles  which  are  needed  on  a  farm  in 
connection  with  the  growing,  har\'esting,  and  cleaning  of  grain. 

If  these  buildings  are  to  be  used  for  no  other  purposes  than  are 
indicated  by  their  names,  the  hog-house  and  hen-house  need 
not  be  built  verj-  high  ;  but  in  all  cases  there  should  be  abundant 
room  for  a  tall  man  to  stand  upright  with  his  hat  on,  in  the 
lowest  part  of  the  building.  Vv'e  have  seen  many  buildings  for 
these  purposes,  in  which  even  a  short  man  could  not  stand  erect. 
With  one  of  them  we  have  had  a  practical  experience,  the  results 
of  which  have  been  anything  but  satisfactory. 

Adaptation. — A  very  important  point  to  be  considered  in 
either  building  new,  or  remodelling  structures  which  have  already 
been  erected,  is  adaptation  to  the  purposes  for  which  they  are 
designed.  A  barn  should  be  so  constructed  as  to  answer  all  the 
purposes  for  which  the  owner  wants  a  barn.  A  hog-house  should 
be  built  for  thi  one  special  purpose.  The  combination  buildings, 
which  are  made  to  answer  for  hogs  or  horses,  hens  or  sheep, 
according  as  the  owner  is  supplied  with  the  various  kinds  of 
stock,  are  not  desirable.  They  are  like  some  patent  pocket- 
knives,  designed  to  answer  many  purposes,  but  answering  none 
of  them  well.  These  buildings  usually  cost  as  much  to  put  up 
and  keep  in  repair  as  good  ones  would,  while  in  practical  use 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  63 

they  prove  ver>'  unsatisfactory.     Upon  this  subject  some  curious 
theories  have  been  suggested.     A  few  years  ago  a  man  recom- 
mended a  style  of  barn,  which  he  proposed  to  build,  anu  which 
he  was  confident  would  give  satisfaction.     This  barn  was  to  be 
built  of  stone,  was  to  be  one  hundred  feet  square,  and  have  a 
flat  roof     It  was  to  be  merely  a  covered  shell,  into  which  the 
owner  could  drive  through  large  doors,  and  then  go  where  he 
pleased.     Hay  was  to  be  thrown  off  wherever  he  took  a  fancy, 
some  years  in  one  place  and  others  in  another.     He  thought  he 
could  "clap  up  a  horse-stall"  when  and  where  he  chose,  and 
change   the   location   of  the   stalls   for  cattle   when  and  as  he 
pleased.     A  long  description  of  this  plan  appeared  in  one  of  the 
leading   papers.     Merely   in    the    point   of  a.  theory   it    was    a 
curious  production,  but  it  did  not  possess  the  slightest  practical 
value.     The  first  cost  of  such  a  building  would  exceed  the  value 
of  a  good  farm,  and  after  it  was  built  it  would  have  no  sort  of 
adaptation  to  the  wants  of  a  farmer,  or  any  one  else.     In  this 
latter  point,  however,  it  differed  but  little  from  some  barns  which 
have  been  erected  since  this  theorist's  day.     For  many  farmers 
have  applied  to  architects,  or  consulted  books  for  plans,  and 
selected  something  which  looked  nicely,  or  was  highly  recom- 
mended, who  have  found,. when  it  was  too  late  to  remedy  the 
mistake,  that  their  fine-looking  buildings  were  not  adapted  to 
their  circumstances  and  wants. 

Not  that  architects  and  plans  are  useless.  On  the  contrary 
they'are  great  helps.  But  there  should  also  be  a  clear  idea  in 
the  mind  of  the  owner  as  to  just  what  he  wants,  and  just  what 
his  business  requires.  Of  these  points  no  one  can  judge  as 
well  as  himself  He  needs  the  architect  or  the  plan  for  an  aid, 
not  for  a  pattern  to  be  strictly  followed.  The  fact  that  a  certain 
style  of  barn  has  just  suited  one  farmer,  gives  no  reason  to 
suppose  that  it  will  be  perfectly  satisfactory  to  another  who 
lives  in  a  different  town,  and  whose  style  of  farming  may  be 
altogether  different.     In  order  to  secure  a  building  which  will 


64  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

be  satisfactory',  the  size  and  style  should  be  adapted  to  the  , 
special  needs  of  the  owner.  The  kind  and  amount  of  business 
which  is  to  be  carried  on  should  be  kept  constantly  in  view,,  and 
instead  of  doing  just  as  his  neighbors  have  done,  the  owner 
should  put  up  a  structure  suited  to  his  individual  needs.  A 
granary  which  is  suitable  for  a  large  farm  at  the  West  would 
be  wholly  out  of  proportion  for  a  small  farm  in  New  England. 
It  would  not  be  adapted  to  the  Eastern  farm,  either  in  size,  or 
shape,  or  interior  arrangement.  A  plan  which  would  do  very 
well  for  a  farmer  in  one  of  these  sections  would  be  of  no  benefit 
to  one  living  elsewhere.  The  New  England  man  needs 
buildings  adapted  to  the  style  of  farming  adopted  in  that 
section,  while  the  farmers  West  and  South  should  arrange  their 
buildings  so  that  they  will  be  adapted  as  perfectly  as  possible  to 
the  methods  in  use  in  their  respective  sections  of  the  country. 

Cost  of  Buildin'gs. — There  are  few  points  upon  which  the 
judgment  of  the  average  farmer  is  more  at  fault  than  in  esti- 
mating the  cost  of  erecting  new  buildings,  or  repairing  and 
remodeling  those  which  are  old.  This  fact  does  not  indicate 
any  special  want  of  penetration  on  the  part  of  farmers,  for  the 
same  charge  can  be  justly  brought  against  men  engaged  in  many 
other  occupations.  Even  the  figures-  of  the  architect  himself 
are  quite  often  at  fault,  and  his  estimate  proves  but  little  nearer 
right  than  the  farmer's  guess.  Almost  every  one  knows  that  the 
cost  of  either  building  new  or  repairing  the  old  usually  greatly 
exceeds  the  estimates  of  the  owner  and  the  architect.  It  has 
been  said  to  be  a  good  rule  to  carefully  estimate  the  cost  of 
material  and  labor,  together  with  all  the  items  of  expense  which 
can  be  thought  of,  and  then  to  the  sum  total  of  these  add  from 
one-third  to  one-half  of  the  whole.  And  though  the  figures  of 
the  architect  often  seem  a  great  deal  too  high,  it  seldom  happens 
that  they  cover  the  cost.  Various  causes  operate  to  bring  about 
this  result.  It  often  happens  that  changes  are  made  in  the  plan. 
These,  though  small   in   themselves,  in   the  aggregate  consid- 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  05 

erably  increase  the  expense.  Lumber  is  not  always  bought  to 
the  best  advantage.  Then,  too,  many  workmen  are  not  as 
careful  as  they  should  be,  and  by  their  negligence  considerable 
waste  of  material  is  effected.  The  cost  of  building  or  remod- 
eling depends  far  more  upon  the  honor  and  skill  of  the  work- 
men than  many  employers  imagine.  Then,  too,  the  degree  of 
ornamentation  of  a  building  has  a  great  influence  upon  the  cost. 
Several  hundred  dollars  can  be  used  upon  a  house  in  this 
manner,  and  not  make  a  great  deal  of  display  either.  Upon 
some  houses,  which  have  been  erected  by  farmers  for  their  own 
use,  the  cost  of  the  ornamental  features  bears  a  large  proportion 
to  the  expense  for  what  was  really  necessary  for  the  construction 
of  plain  but  comfortable  structures.  As  an  almost  invariable 
rule  ornamental  work,  whether  outside  or  inside,  if  it  is  really 
nice,  will  be  quite  expensive.  Compared  with  the  plain  but 
tasteful  work,  which  seems  specially  appropriate  to  a  farmer's 
home,  it  is  very  costly.  An  excessive  amount  of  ornament  is 
not  only  terribly  expensive,  but  is  also  wholly  out  of  place 
upon  a  farm-house.  Very  few  farmers  have  the  means  which 
they  can  safely  use  for  the  purpose  of  making  their  houses  as 
elegant  as  those  of  their  city  neighbors.  Good,  substantial' 
work  is  v/hat  the  farmer  needs.  This  will  cost  something,  for 
all  good  work  is  somewhat  expensive.  There  can  be  no 
excellence  in  any  department  of  industry  without  some  cost. 
But  if  the  plan  is  carefully  made,  good  materials  secured,  and 
good  men  are  employed  to  do  the  work,  suitable  farm  buildings 
can  be  erected,  and  the  cost  kept  within  the  means  of  the 
prosperous  farmer.  In  some  sections  it  costs  as  much  again  to 
erect  buildings  as  it  does  in  others,  because  lumber,  nails, 
bricks,  and  other  materials  have  to  be  transported  long 
distances,  and  paid  for  at  the  high  rates  which  scarce  commodi- 
ties always  command.  Therefore  no  specific  sum  can  safely  be 
stated  as  the  cost  of  a  certain  style  of  building.  An  estimate 
may  be  too  high  for  one  section^  and  too  low  for  another.     But 


66  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

an  estimate  should  be  made  by  the  proposed  builder,  and  be 
carefully  examined  by  the  one  who  is  to  pay  the  bills.  In  case 
it  seems  unreasonably  high,  another  contractor  should  be  con- 
sulted, and  the  figures  of  the  two  compared.  In  his  excellent 
work  on  "  Country  Homes,"  Mr.  Todd  assures  his  readers  that 
professional  builders  aim  to  keep  people  very  much  in  the  dark 
concerning  the  real  cost  of  all  kinds  of  edifices,  and  that  it  is 
customary  with  the  profession  to  place  the  estimate  for  a  house 
at  from  one  to  four  thousand  dollars  higher  than  it  should  be. 
And  there  is  a  great  deal  of  force  in  his  suggestion  that  an  inex- 
perienced man,  who  is  about  having  a  building  erected,  should 
carefully  examine  every  item  for  which  the  contractor  estimates, 
and  make  sure  that  the  articles  are  all  needed,  and  in  the  quan- 
tities indicated,  or  else  require  him  to  reduce  the  price  demanded 
for  the  work. 

The  quality  of  the  material  which  is  used  will  also  have  much 
to  do  in  determining  the  cost  of  buildings.  If  everj'thing  about 
the  building  is  to  be  of  the  finest  quality,  the  cost  must  be 
greatly  in  excess  of  what  it  would  be  if  lower  grades  of  material 
were  used.  While  it  is  the  very  poorest  style  of  economy  to 
use  poor  lumber  for  either  outside  or  inside  work  on  a  house,  or 
for  many  parts  of  other  buildings,  it  is  still  true  that  a  great  deal 
of  lumber  which  is  not  strictly  first,  or  even  second,  class  can  be 
worked  in  where  it  will  answer  every  practical  purpose  as  well 
as  the  very  best.  All  parts  exposed  to  the  weather,  and  the  in- 
side of  rooms  in  a  house,  should  be  covered  with  well-seasoned 
material  of  good  quality.  Where  low-priced  lumber  will  last 
just  as  long,  and  answer  every  practical  purpose  just  as  well,  it 
should  certainly  be  used.  Where  it  will  not  prove  durable  and 
useful  it  should  just  as  certainly  be  rejected.  When  farmers  get 
out  their  own  lumber,  they  are  very  apt  to  be  in  too  much 
hurry  to  allow  it  to  get  fairly  seasoned.  But  in  using  it  green 
they  make  a  great  mistake,  and  one  which  they  will  always 
regret.     When  the  materials  are  to  be  purchased,  it  will  pay  to 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  gY 

employ  an  honest  and  careful  joiner  to  make  the  selection  and 
do,  or  assist  in,  the  buying.  Some  farmers  attempt  to  save 
themselves  both  time  and  trouble  by  employing  some  one  to 
take  the  whole  charge  of  the  plan  and  construction.  Others 
try  to  secure  the  performance  of  the  work  in  an  honest  manner 
by  employing  men  by  the  day,  and  paying  them  for  all  the  time 
spent  upon  the  building.  If  all  the  parties  are  strictly  honest, 
either  way  will  give  satisfaction  to  all  concerned.  But  if  either 
party  is  disposed  to  overreach,  there  will  be  plenty  of  opportuni- 
ties in  either  method.  The  contractor  can  slight  his  work 
enough  to  make  several  hundred  dollars  difference  for  himself 
in  the  cost  of  putting  up  a  house.  He  can  make  slight  changes 
in  the  plan,  use  poor  material,  or  in  other  ways  avoid  expense 
and  put  money  into  his  own  pocket.  The  man  who  is  hired  by 
the  day  can  work  slowly  when  his  employer  is  away,  or  can  do 
a  great  deal  of  work  which  is  wholly  unnecessary,  and  charge 
full  rates  for  its  performance.  On  the  other  hand,  the  man  who 
hires  the  work  done  can  hinder  and  worry  the  workmen  so  that 
they  will  not  be  able  to  do  as  well  as  they  hope  and  desire. 
Such  conduct,  upon  either  side,  is  worthy  of  unsparing  condem- 
nation. The  man  who  is  about  to  build  should  take  pains  to 
employ  none  but  honest  workmen  who  will  not  need  watching, 
and  should  treat  them  precisely  as  he  would  want  to  be  treated 
in  an  exchange  of  positions. 

Before  commencincr  the  erection  of  new  building's,  or  the  re- 
modeling  of  old  ones,  the  farmer  should  deliberately  and  care- 
fully count  the  cost.  He  should  make  his  estimates  not  only 
of  the  dollars  and  cents  involved,  but  should  consider  the. 
subject  on  a  broader  basis,  including  the  probable  influence 
which  the  proposed  improvement  will  exert  upon  his  future 
prosperity  as  a  farmer.  He  should  carefully  consider  whether 
he  can  safely  withdraw  from  his  active  business  the  amount  of 
capital  which   his  building  project  will   require.      Otherwise   he 

will  be  very  likely  to  make  a  ruinous  mistake.     There  is  danger 
5 


68  FARMING   FOR  PROFIT. 

of  getting  too  much  money  invested  in  buildings.  Upon  this  rock 
many  a  farmer  has  been  wrecked.  When  men  go  beyond  their 
means  in  building,  they  place  themselves  at  the  mercy  of  the 
first  financial  storm,  and  become  liable  to  lose  not  only  their 
opportunities  for  obtaining  wealth  in  the  future,  but  also  a  large 
part  of  their  past  accumulations.  It  is  a  great  deal  better,  as 
well  as  safer,  for  a  farmer  to  live  in  an  old  but  comfortable  house, 
and  be  free  from  debt,  than  it  is  to  have  a  fine,  new  house  with 
a  heavy  mortgage  on  the  farm.  A  short  road  to  financial  ruin 
has  often  been  entered  when  the  farmer  put  up  a  much  more 
expensive  house  or  barn  than  he  could  afibrd.  It  should  never 
be  forgotten  that  money  which  is  invested  in  a  house  or  barn,  for 
ordinary  farm  purposes,  is  wholly  unproductive.  If  the  amount 
invested  does  not  exceed  the  actual  necessities  of  the  case  the 
money  is  not  wasted.  If  it  does  not  bear  too  high  a  proportion 
to  the  productive  capacity  of  the  farm  it  is  not  unwisely  used. 
For  buildings  are  necessary  as  a  protection  for  life  and  property. 
They  confer  happiness,  preserve  health,  and  save  the  farm  crops 
from  waste,  and  often  from  total  loss.  But  their  various  benefits 
may  be  secured  without  the  use  of  an  excessively  large  amount 
-of  money.  The  buildings  should  be  neat  and  nice,  but  they 
should  also  be  plain  and  substantial.  A  really  nice  houye  is 
.not  a  gaudy  one,  and  need  not  be  very  costly.  The  surround- 
ings can  be  made  pleasant,  and  a  plain  house  will  then  give  a 
feeling  of  contentment  which  a  highly  ornamented  one  will  fail  • 
to  supply.  An  excess  of  ornament  is  wholly  out  of  place  on  a 
farm-house.  The  grounds  may  be  made  ornamental  and  be  in 
-good  taste,  but  a  farm-house  modeled  after  a  hotel,  or  a  summer 
boarding-house,  is  not  at  all  appropriate.  And  the  income  from 
but  very  few  farms  will  justify  the  erection  of  expensive  build- 
ings. Farmers  often  over-estimate  their  financial  ability,  and 
find,  when  it  is  too  late,  that  they  have  drawn  too  heavily  upon 
their  capital,  and  crippled  their  resources  by  putting  up  too 
•  costly  houses.     If  a  man  has  money  in  the  bank,  or  drawing 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  gg 

interest  elsewhere,  and  uses  this  in  building  a  house  or  barn,  he 
thereby  not  only  loses  all  the  interest  from  the  money  thus 
invested  but  he  also  puts  it  where,  even  in  case  of  an  emergency, 
he  cannot  use  it.  The  only  way  in  which  he  can  realize  any- 
thing froPxi  it  is  to  sell  his  farm,  and  experience  has  proved  that 
farms  with  nearly  new  buildings  will  command  but  little  higher 
prices  than  those  on  which  the  buildings  are  old.  As  far  as 
getting  any  cash  return  from  it  while  he  lives  on  the  farm,  the 
money  is  just  as  securely  locked  up  as  it  would  be  if  it  were  in 
a  vault  which  could  only  be  opened  by  one  key,  and  that  key 
were  lost  where  it  never  could  be  found.  If  the  farm  is  sold  in 
order  to  obtain  the  money,  it  is  highly  probable  that  only  a  very 
small  proportion  of  it  will  ever  be  received.  If  a  farmer  is 
willing  to  take  the  principal  and  interest  of  his  money  in  com- 
fort he  can  put  it  into  buildings,  but  it  will  not  be  wise  for  him 
to  invest  it  in  this  way  with  a  design  of  obtaining  any  cash 
return. 

But  the  majority  of  farmers  who  have  a  strong  desire  to  put 
up  new  buildings  have  little  or  no  ready  money,  and  will  be 
obliged  to  borrow  of  others  if  they  carry  out  their  cherished 
plans.  Such  men  ought  to  "  make  haste  slowly."  With  them 
the  case  is  not  nearly  as  favorable  as  it  is  with  those  who  have 
money.  It  may  be  easy  enough  for  them  to  borrow  what  money 
they  need,  but  it  will  be  difficult  for  them  to  pay  it.  In  putting 
borrowed  money  into  buildings  they  assume  a  heavy  burden. 
They  know  that  many  men  have  borrowed  money  with  which 
to  buy  land,  and  that  they  have  not  only  kept  up  the  interest 
but  have  also  paid  the  principal.  From  this  they  infer  that  they 
can  borrow  money  with  which  to  put  up  buildings  and  soon  get 
out  of  debt.  This  is  a  great  mistake.  There  is  a  vast  difference 
between  buying  land  for  cultivation  and  investing  money  in  farm 
buildings.  Land  is  productive  property  and  can  be  made  to 
furnish  the  means  of  paying  for  itself.  Year  by  year  it  may  be 
made  to  not  only  return  money  enough  to  pay  the  interest  but 


70  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

considerable  more,  and,  in  time,  a  skilful  manager  may  be  able 
to  pay  for  it  wholly  from  the  receipts  from  the  sale  of  articles 
grown  thereon.  But  money  which  is  invested  in  a  house  or 
barn  not  only  returns  no  interest  and  makes  no  payment  on  the 
principal,  but  is  a  constant  source  of  expense.  Interest  must  be 
paid,  and  the  money  wifh  which  to  pay  it  must  come  from  the 
farm.  It  is  neither  wise  nor  safe  to  withdraw  too  much  capital 
from  the  land  where  it  is  productive  and  invest  it  in  buildings 
which  are  a  constant  source  of  expense.  The  wise  farmer  will 
have  plain  buildings,  and  invest  the  remainder  of  his  capital,  if 
any,  in  developing  the  productive  powers  of  the  soil. 

Rep.airs. — Farm  buildings  are  subject  to  the  natural  law  that 
*'  all  things  hasten  to  decay."  Consequently,  frequent  repairs 
become  a  matter  of  necessity  for  securing  their  preservation. 
There  are  various  reasons  why  these  repairs  should  be  made 
promptly  and  well.  In  order  that  the  farm  may  present  a  fine 
appearance  the  buildings  should  be  constantly  kept  in  repair. 
The  expense  of  repairs  will  also  be  greatly  reduced  if  they  are 
made  promptly  and  thoroughly.  Besides,  the  buildings  will  be 
kept  in  a  much  better  state  of  preser\-ation  if  repairs  are  made  as 
soon  as  their  want  becomes  apparent  than  will  be  possible  if  they 
are  long  delayed.  Ever)'  one  knows  that  the  longer  a  ragged 
coat  is  worn  without  being  mended  the  greater  the  amount  of 
work,  and  the  larger  the  quantity  of  material,  which  will  be 
required  to  put  it  in  good  order.  It  is  also  known  that  if  repairs 
are  delayed  too  long  the  coat  will  become  so  badly  damaged 
that  it  will  not  be  worth  mending.  The  very  same  principles 
apply  with  almost  equal  force  to  the  repairing  of  farm  buildings. 
If  a  house  needs  painting,  the  sooner  the  work  is  commenced 
the  less  will  be  the  cost.  If  too  long  neglected,  the  surface  be- 
comes so  rough  and  weather-beaten  that  it  cannot  be  painted 
well,  and  it  will  be  very  difficult  to  paint  it  at  all.  If  a  roof  is 
shingled  as  soon  as  the  need  of  shingling  becomes  apparent,  the 
building  will  not  be  injured;  but  if  the  old  roof  is  left  year  after 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  yj 

year,  continually  growing  worse,  there  is  danger  that  the  whole 
frame  will  be  weakened  and  decayed  by  exposure  to  the  weather, 
and  that  all  parts  of  the  building  will  become  involved  in  one 
common  ruin.  Nothing  is  to  be  gained  by  neglecting  necessary 
repairs,  but  a  great  deal  will  inevitably  be  lost.  Not  only  should 
repairs  be  made  promptly,  but  they  should  be  attended  to  in  a 
thorough  manner.  If  a  roof  needs  shingling,  let  it  be  shingled 
well.  If  a  house  needs  painting,  let  it  be  well  painted.  While 
doing  the  work,  it  will  cost  but  little  more  to  do  it  well  than  it 
will  to  slight  it,  but  good  work  will  last  as  long  again  as  that 
which  is  poor  and  give  much  better  satisfaction. " 

Painting  Farm  Buildings. — Probably  the  great  majority  of 
farmers  paint  their  houses  and  neglect  to  paint  their  barns. 
Many  in  all,  but  still  a  very  small  proportion  of  the  whole  num- 
ber, paint  both  house  and  barn,  a  very  few  paint  all  of  their 
buildings,  while  a  great  many  leave  all  their  buildings  unpainted. 
The  design  of  painting  is  two-fold.  It  tends  to  preserve  the 
timber  to  which  the  paint  is  applied,  and  it  adds  to  the  beauty 
of  the  buildings  which  it  covers.  In  some  cases  the  motive  for 
painting  is  the  design  and  desire  to  make  the  buildings  present 
a  finer  appearance,  in  others  the  paint  is  applied  merely  as  a 
preservative,  while  many  farmers  have  in  mind  both  these  advan- 
tages which  painting  is  supposed  to  secure.  That  a  building 
which  is  well  painted  looks  much  better  than  it  otherwise  would 
cannot  be  denied.  It  is  also  true  that  paint  will  tend  to  preserve 
the  woodwork  to  which  it  is  applied.  If  the  farmer  is  able  to 
do  it  he  should  keep  his  house  painted  merely  for  the  sake  of 
appearances.  It  will  give  a  great  deal  of  satisfaction  to  have  a 
clean  and  nicely  painted  house.  The  wife  and  children  will 
rejoice  in  the  freshness  and  beauty  which  paint  will  insure. 
Painted  buildings  indicate  a  certain  degree  of  refinement  and 
prosperity,  and  the  man  who  can  easily  afford  it  should  not  fail 
to  keep  his  house  painted.  But  the  farmer  of  small  means,  who 
is  often  brought  face  to  face  with  the  question,  "  Will  it  pay," 


72  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 

may  hesitate  before  deciding  to  paint  his  buildings.  In  his  case 
the  matter  of  appearances  must  be  put  over  to  a  brighter  day, 
and  his  decision  must  be  made  on  the  sole  ground  of  economy. 
If  painting  the  house  will  make  its  covering  last  enough  longci 
to  pay  the  cash  outlay,  and  the  interest  thereon,  it  should  by  alV 
means  be  performed.  If  it  will  not  pay,  if  the  cost  of  painting 
will  exceed  the  cost  of  re-covering  the  house,  when  such  a 
course  becomes  necessary,  it  should  not  be  attempted.  Whether 
it  will  pay  or  not  depends  upon  the  cost  of  lumber  and  labor  as 
compared  with  that  of  paint.  In  some  sections,  painting  would 
prove  quite  profitable,  while  in  others  it  would  not  pay.  It  will 
now  be  more  generally  a  source  of  profit  than  it  would  a  few 
years  ago.  For,  within  a  comparatively  short  time,  what  are 
called  "mixed  paints"  have  been  put  upon  the  market  and  come 
into  very  general  use.  Some  of  these  brands  of  paint  are  both 
cheap  and  good.  Though  many  professional  painters  opposed 
their  introduction,  they  have  already  proved  quite  popular.  By 
using  these  paints,  the  farmer  who  has  a  little  skill  with  tools 
can  readily  do  his  own  painting.  Thus  the  cash  oi:tl:-.y  for 
painting  a  building  is  greatly  reduced.  Before  these  paints  were 
invented,  the  farmer  usually  hired  a  painter  to  do  all  the  work 
in  the  painting  line  which  he  had  performed.  It  was  a  sort  of 
necessity  for  him  to  do  this.  He  could  not  mix  paints  well 
himself,  and  painters  did  not  wish  to  mix  them  for  him.  They 
preferred  to  furnish  and  mix  the  materials,  and  then  put  them 
on.  Now  the  farmer  can  measure  the  surface  of  the  building 
which  he  wishes  to  paint,  find  just  about  how  much  will  be 
needed  to  cover  it,  buy  just  that  quantity  of  paint,  of  any  color 
or  shade  desired,  which  is  all  ready  to  put  on,  and  can  apply  it 
himself.  A  very  few  dollars'  worth  of  paint  will  give  two  coats, 
of  suitable  thickness,  for  an  ordinary  house,  and  where  lumber 
is  at  all  expensive,  it  will  be  a  matter  of  economy  to  apply  the 
paint  for  the  sake  of  preserving  the  covering  of  the  house. 
We  do  not  say  that  the  mixed  paints  are  better  than  the  old« 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  73 

fashioned  white  lead.  Some  of  them  we  know  are  not  as  good. 
Other  br.inds  have  worn  well  and  given  perfect  satisfaction. 
Much  of  the  white  lead  is  badly  adulterated,  and  paint  made  by 
its  use  is  very  poor.  There  seems  to  be  as  much  certainty  of 
securing  a  good  article  by  getting  a  well-known  brand  of  mixed 
paint  as  there  is  in  buying  lead  and  oil,  and  there  is  the  great 
advanLage  of  having  it  in  a  good  condition  to  use  whenever  it  is 
wanted.  One  fact  which  should  not  be  lost  sight  of  in  this 
connection  is,  that  while  the  farmer  can  paint  hie  house  he  can 
not  clap-board  it,  and  this  must  be  taken  into  the  account,  in 
.  estimating  the  relative  expense  of  painting  or  re-covering.  If  he 
paints,  the  cash  outlay  is  merely  for  the  material  and  a  brush 
with  which  to  apply  it ;  but  if  he  desires  to  put  on  a  new  cover- 
ing when  the  old  is  decayed,  he  must  not  only  pay  for  the 
lumber,  but  a  workman  must  be  employed  to  put  it  on.  As  the 
cost  of  boarding  a  barn  is  much  less  than  that  of  a  house,  upon 
which  clap-boards  are  generally  used,  painting  merely  for  the 
sake  of  preservation  will  not  be  as  much  of  an  object.  But  in 
many  places,  where  lumber  is  expensive,  it  will  be  profitable. 
The  same  j'ule  applies  to  the  other  buildings. 

Ability  to  paint  well  must  be  obtained  by  practical  effort  far 
more  than  by  reading.  A  few  general  directions  can  be  given, 
but  a  certain  amount  of  practice  will  be  needed  to  make  any 
one  a  rapid  and  skilful  painter.  Still  a  few  suggestions  may 
prove  useful.  The  surface  to  be  painted  should  be  clean  and 
smooth.  If  it  has  become  soiled,  it  should  be  washed  and 
allowed  to  dry ;  while  if  it  is  rough,  it  should  be  smoothed  with 
sand-paper,  or  some  more  effective  material.  Where  it  is  very 
rough,  the  surface  may  be  rubbed  with  pumice-stone.  For 
ordinary  outside  work,  there  will  probably  be  but  little  need  of 
this  labor,  but  it  is  often  required  for  inside  painting,  which  is 
designed  to  have  a  nice  finish.  The  outside  of  a  house  which 
has  been  long  neglected  frequently  fails  to  hold  the  paint  well, 
and  it  rapidly  scales  off.     This  is  caused  by  a  separation  of  the 


74  FARMING    FOR    PROFIT. 

oil  and  lead,  of  which  the  paint  is  composed.  The  oil  penetrates 
the  wood  and  the  load  falls  off.  This  can  be  prevented  by 
applying  one  or  two  coats  of  cheap  oil  before  the  paint  is  put 
on.  It  is  also  claimed  that  some  of  the  mixed  paints  are  so 
made  that  they  are  not  open  to  this  objection.  The  work 
should  be  done  in  good  weather,  cither  in  the  spring  or  fall, 
when  it  is  neither  very  hot  nor  very  cold.  A  good  brush  is  also 
one  of  the  necessary  articles,  and  a  good,  strong  ladder,  a  clean 
tin-pail,  and  a  hook  by  w'hich  it  can  be  suspended  from  one  of 
the  rungs,  should  be  secured.  Too  much  paint  should  not  be 
put  on  at  a  time,  as  it  is  no  advantage  to  the  building  and  makes 
the  work  much  harder.  It  is  not  well  to  attempt  to  reach  too 
far  from  the  ladder,  and  special  pains  should  be  taken  to  brush 
over  the  laps,  where  the  "works  meet,"  smoothly,  so  that  the 
building  will  present  a  uniform  appearance.  Neglect  of  this 
precaution  is  the  cause  of  a  large  part  of  the  poor  painting 
done  by  farmers  and  mechanics,  who  have  had  but  little 
experience  in  using  the  brush. 

The  color  of  farm  buildings  is  a  subject  worthy  of  at  least 
passing  notice.  Several  years  ago,  that  accomplished  scholar 
and  traveller,  Mr.  Bayard  Taylor,  called  attention  to  the  fact 
that  a  v^ry  large  proportion  of  the  houses  in  the  country  which 
were  painted  at  all  were  white,  and  he  endeavored,  in  various 
newspaper  articles,  to  influence  owners  to  use  colors  which 
would  give  a  greater  variety  of  appearance,  and  do  away  with 
the  unpleasant  ghre  of  white  buildings  in  sunny  days.  Whether 
as  the  result  of  his  efforts  we  cannot  .say,  but  it  is  a  fact  that 
since  that  time  the  softer  tints  have  come  into  very  frequent  use 
for  outside  work  upon  houses.  As  far  as  protection  to  the 
buildings  is  concerned,  this  change  has  involved  no  loss,  while 
the  appearance  of  the  villages  and  hamlets  to  which  this  inno- 
vation has  spread  has  been  greatly  improved.  It  is  not  in  the 
best  taste  to  have  all  of  the  houses  in  a  village  painted  any  one 
color,  but,  if  they  were  all  to  be  alike,  white  would  not  be  the 
best  complexion  which  could  be  selected. 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  75 

In  the  winter,  white  does  not  furnish  a  sufficient  contrast  with 
the  covering  of  the  ground  in  the  Northern  States,  while  in  the 
bright  sunhght  of  a  midsummer  day  the  glare  of  an  unsubdued 
white  is  both  painful  to  the  eyes  and  displeasing  to  the  taste. 
In  the  choice  of  colors  and  shades  there  is  an  opportunity  for 
the  display  of  considerable  skill  and  a  cultivated  taste.    The  body 
of  the  house  can  be  painted  one  color,  and  the  cornices,  corner- 
boards,  and  casings  another  shade,  thus  producing  a  very  fine 
effect  and  involving  little  or  no  additional  expense.     The  house 
may  be  painted  one  color,  the  barn  another,  while  still  different 
colors  or  shades  are  used  on  the  other  buildings.     If  care  is 
taken  to  select  colors  which  harmonize,  the  effect  of  these  many 
colors  and  shades  will  be  highly  satisfactory.     As  variety  of 
color  will  add  much  to  the  beauty  of  the  work  without  materi- 
ally increasing  either  the  labor  or  expense  of  painting,  it  seems 
very  desirable   that  farmers  who  paint  their  buildings   should 
make  a  careful  selection,  and  have  the  work  done  in  a  manner 
which  will  give  a  beautiful  appearance  as  well  as  furnish  a  pro- 
tection against  the  destructive  influences  of  the  weather. 

Here  some  practical  man  may  say,  all  this  is  very  good  as  far  as 
appearances  go  ;  but  how  can  it  be  made  profitable  ?  If  painting 
is  to  be  done  in  order  to  make  a  building  last  longer,  one  kind 
of  paint  is  just  as  good  as  two  or  three  sorts,  while,  if  it  is  not 
an  object  to  paint  merely  to  preserve  the  timber,  all  the  money 
and  labor  are  thrown  away.  To  this  it  may  be  replied  that  we 
have  not  advocated  extra  expense  merely  for  appearance,  except 
when  the  parties  were  abundantly  able  to  meet  it ;  that  the  cost 
of  painting  with  two  or  three  different  colors  is  but  very  little  m 
excess  of  that  of  using  plain  paint,  and  also  that,  where  men  are 
able  to  do  it,  money  is  not  thrown  away  which  is  used  to  im- 
prove and  beautify  the  appearance  of  their  homes.  A  farmer 
who  desires  to  keep  his  boys  with  him  on  the  old  homestead 
will  be  a  great  deal  more  likely  to  succeed  if  he  keeps  the  build- 
ings nicely  painted  and  his  surroundings  pleasant,  than  he  will 


76  FARMING   FOR   FROFIT. 

if  he  neglects  these  things  and  allows  the  house  to  become 
brown  and  weather-beaten.  Boys  like  pleasant  surroundings, 
and  they  hav,e  an  idea  that  somewhere  in  the  world  such  sur 
roundings  can  be  obtained.  If  they  do  not  find  things  pleasing 
at  home,  they  are  very  likely  to  go  elsewhere.  That  they  often 
make  a  great  mistake  in  doing  this  is  true,  but  this  does  not  at 
all  alter  the  fact  that  boys  do,  and  will,  leave  surroundings  which 
are  unnecessarily  unpleasant.  If  it  is  an  object  to  keep  them  or 
the  farm,  it  may  pay  to  do  some  things  which  they  desire.  The 
expense  involved  in  "  fixing  up  "  things  so  that  a  boy  of  health- 
ful tastes  will  be  willing  to  stay  on  the  farm,  will  be  money  well 
invested.  The  father  will  never  have  cause  to  regret  it,  and  it 
may  be  the  making  of  the  son.  The  sooner  farmers  who  have 
the  means  for  doing  it  become  aware  of  the  fact  that  a  little 
money  laid  out  in  improving  the  appearance  of  the  home  and 
farm  is  not  only  not  w-asted,  but  is  well  invested,  the  better  it 
will  be  for  them  and  for  their  descendants. 

The  House.  —  The  general  arrangement  of  a  farm-house 
should  be  determined  by  the  special  wants  of  the  owner  and  his 
family.  Much  will  depend  upon  the  amount  of  money  which  is 
to  be  invested.  The  special  line  of  farming  which  is  to  be  pur- 
sued must  be  considered.  The  section  of  country,  distance  from 
a  village,  and  length  of  time  which  can  be  given  to  its  construc- 
tion, will,  together  with  many  other  things,  exert  a  modifying 
influence.  Fig.  2  represents  a  very  pretty,  and  not  expensive, 
house  for  a  farmer.  Fig.  3  shows  the  arrangement  of  rooms  on 
the  ground-floor — an  arrangement  which  can  be  readily  varied 
to  suit  the  special  wants  of  the  family.  Fig.  4  shows  a  plain  and 
cheap,  but  also  neat  and  convenient,  cottage. 

We  do  not  present  elaborate  plans,  for  we  do  not  consider 
them  of  special  value  to  the  farmer.  He  should  not  be  per- 
suaded to  build  after  a  certain  model,  because  an  architect  has 
pronounced  it  good.  The  owner  should  be  guided  more  by  his 
own  wants  than  by  \\\z  general  plans  which  other   men  have 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  77 

designed.  Many  a  new  house  is  unsatisfactory  because  the 
owner  did  not  insist  upon  modifying  the  plan  of  the  architect 
so  that  it  would  suit  his  own  tastes  and  needs.  Wc  once 
noticed  some  peculiarity  in  the  arrangement  of  a  barn,  and 
remarked  to  the  owner  that  such  a  plan  was  not  common  in  our 
section.  He  replied  that  he  had  the  barn  arranged  for  his  own 
special  convenience.  The  carpenter  who  built  it  did  not  like 
his  suggestions,  and  wanted  to  follow  the  ordinary  models,  buf 


piG_  2. — FARM-HOUSE. 


the  owner  told  him  that  for  many  years  he  had  worked  for  other 
men  and  worked  as  they  wanted  he  should,  and  now  that  he 
was  able  to  gratify  his  own  taste  somewhat,  he  was  determmed 
to  have  his  barn  made  just  as  he  wanted  it.  He  carried  Im 
point,  and  the  barn  suited  him  a  great  deal  better  than  .t  would 
if  he  had  allowed  the  carpenter  to  go  on  without  regard  to  h,s 
special  tastes  and  wants.  In  putting  up  liouses.  and  other 
buildings,  this  example  should  be  followed.  Of  course,  m 
certain  departments  of  the  work,  the  ideas  of  the  farmer  should 


78 


FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 


not  be  opposed  to  those  of  the  skilled  mechanic.  In  regard 
to  the  fitness  of  certain  kinds  of  timber  for  certain  uses,  the 
strength  of  materials,  and  many  things  of  like  nature,  the 
education  and  experience  of  the  practical  buildCr  should  be 
regarded.  But  when  such  questions  as  the  number  of  the 
rooms,  the  location  of  the  doors,  and  the  size  of  the  windows, 
are  debated,  the  farmer  should  insist  upon  his  right  to  decide. 
If  his  house  does  not  look  just  like  those  belonging  to  his 
neighbors,  it  may  suit  him  just  as  well  as  though  it  were  an 


PARLOR 
17  X  13 


PORCH        1 
9X9 

, 

FIG.  3. — PLAN    OF   GROUND-FLOOR. 

exact  copy.  Not  only  should  he  think  about  the  plan  himself, 
but  the  tastes  of  his  wife  and  children  should  be  consulted, 
and  should  be  gratified,  if  possible.  One  of  the  best  ways  to 
secure  a  house  which  will  be  satisfactory  is  not  only  to  obtain 
a  plan,  and  make  any  changes  which  seem  to  be  required  by 
the  special  needs  of  the  one  who  is  to  build,  but  also  to  visit  the 
houses  of  some  of  the  neighbors  and  friends  who  have  recently 
built.  By  seeing  a  house  that  is  already  built,  a  much  better  idea 
of  its  convenience  and  adaptation  can  be  secured  than  will  be 


FARM  BUILDINGS. 


79 


possible  by  merely  seeing  a  plan  of  the  structure  on  paper. 
Besides,  practical  use  is  the  great  test  of  houses,  and  by  inquiry 
it    can    be   ascertained   whether   certain    styles    have    proved 
desirable.      Thus    a   great    expense,   and    much    trouble   and 
disappointment  may  be  saved.     It  is  Well  for  people  to  learn 
both  from  the  successes  and  the  failures  of  others.     For,  though 
personal  experience  is  a  very  good  teacher  in  some  respects,  the 
expense  of  obtaining  knowledge  by  its  aid  is  greater  than  the 
majority  of  people  can  really  afford  to  incur.     When  the  past 
experience  of  others  can  be  made  to  answer  just  as  well  as  per- 
sonal trial,  there  can  be  no  reasonable  excuse  for  insisting  upon 
testing  the  matter  again.     The  man  who  wants  to  build  a  house 
will  do  well  to  examine  several  houses  which  appear  to  be  the 
best  adapted  to  the  purposes  which  he  wishes  to  serve.     If  a 
barn  is  to  be  erected,  the  man  who  is  to  build  should  not  only 
obtain  a  plan,  but  should  examine  barns  which  have  been  put 
up  by  his  acquaintances.     The  same  rule  applies  to  the  con- 
struction  of  other  buildings.      Excellencies    and    defects   both 
show  much   more   distinctly  in   a  building  than    they  do   in   a 
plan  and,  for  this  reason,  buildings  should  be  examined  as  well 
as  plans.     Neither  should  be  blindly  followed,  but  both  should 

be  used  as  aids. 

Some  of  the   requirements  of  a  good  farm-house  should  be 
briefly  considered.   They  can  nearly  all  be  summed  up  in  the  two 
words,  Neatness  and  Comfort.    The  house  should  look  nicely, 
because  it  is  to  be  the  home  of  the  fal-mer  and  his  family.     A 
neat  and  pretty  house  will   have  a  certain  degree  of  influence 
upon  its  inmates.     It  is   better   than  a  shabby  one,  though  a 
shabby  one  if  it  is  paid  for  is  a  great  deal  better  than  no  home, 
and   is  more  desirable  than   a  nice  house  which  has  brought 
financial  ruin  to  its  owner.     But  comfort  is  usually  considered 
the  main  thing  to  be  secured  by  those  who  are  not  specially 
anxious  to  keep  up  appearances.     Yet,  strange  as  it  may  seem, 
thoucrh  the  great  idea  of  obtaining  a  house  is  to  enable  a  man 


80 


FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 


to  secure  a  comfortable  home  for  himself  and  his  family,  when 
he  comes  to  build,  the  average  man  neglects  to  secure  the  com- 
fort which  he  might  just  as  well,  and  without  extra  cost,  obtain. 
If  any  one  doubts  this  let  him  examine  the  rooms  in  an  average 
house,  and  he  will  find  ample  confirmation  of  the  truth  of  the 


FIG.  4. — COTTAGE. 

statement.  If  comfort  had  been  one  of  the  principal  things  in 
the  mind  of  the  builder,  the  rooms  would  have  been  very  differ- 
ently arranged.  Instead  of  having  the  kitchen  and  pantry  some 
ten  or  fifteen  feet  apart,  they  would  have  been  adjacent  rooms, 
and  both  the  wood-house  and  the  cellar-stairs  would  have  been 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  g^ 

close  to  the  kitchen.  We  know  of  a  house  in  which  the  pantry  is 
some  six  feet  and  the  cellar-door  twelve  or  fifteen  feet  from  the 
side  of  the  kitchen  nearest  to  them.  The  unnecessary  distance 
travelled  and  labor  performed  by  the  housewife  under  such  an 
arrangement  is  immense.  As  one  of  our  common-sense  archi- 
tects, Emory  A.  Ellsworth,  Esq.,  has  well  said :  "  Need  we 
wonder,  when  we  consider  the  many  useless,  weary  steps  that 
must  be  taken,  and  the  stock  of  vital  strength  that  is  continually 
wasted  in  the  performance  of  the  household  duties,  that  so  many 
ambitious  farmers'  wives  are  broken  down  in  health  and  spirits  at 
thirty-five,  and  must  then  remain  for  the  rest  of  life  the  suffering 
victims  of  thoughtless,  careless,  interior  household  arrange- 
ment." We  wish  these  words  could  be  indelibly  stamped  upon 
the  mind  of  every  man  who  has  charge  of  the  arrangement  of 
rooms  in  farm-houses,  and  that  every  man  who  either  builds  a 
new,  or  remodels  an  old,  house  would  strive  to  make  the  in- 
terior as  convenient  as  possible  for  the  wife  and  daughters  who 
are  obliged  to  do  the  work.  Life  is  too  short  to  waste  in  use- 
less and  aimless  pursuits,  and  the  burdens  which  rest  upon 
the  farmer's  wife  are  too  heavy  to  justify  any  unnecessary  in- 
crease. 

In  the  Northern  and  Western  States  warmth  is  one  of  the 
prominent  requirements  of  a  comfortable  house.  In  the  sum- 
mer, and  for  a  few  weeks  previous  to  its  coming,  and  succeeding 
its  departure,  this  is  not  of  great  importance,  but  for  about  one- 
half  of  the  year  it  is  absolutely  indispensable  to  the  highest 
degree  of  comfort,  as  well  as  necessary  in  order  to  promote  the 
health  of  the  inmates.  A  cold  house  is  not  a  comfortable 
house  in  which  to  live,  and  it  is  almost  impossible  to  make  it 
pleasant  during  the  cold  season.  Upon  such  houses  radical 
repairs  are  badly  needed.  For  the  cold  from  which  the  inmates 
of  these  houses  suffer  cannot  be  kept  out,  or  sufficiently  sub- 
dued, by  fires,  and  it  proves  not  merely  a  great  discomfort  but 
also  a  positive  injury.     The  "  hard  winters  "  of  New  England 


82  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

would  lose  much  of  their  severity  to  a  great  multitude  of 
farmers'  wives  and  children  if  they  could  have  really  warm 
houses  in  which  to  live.  No  one  who  has  never  lived  in  one  of 
the  old  and  loosely  boarded  houses  which  are  occasionally  seen 
in  country  places,  has  any  idea  of  the  degree  of  suffering  which 
is  inflicted  upon  the  inmates  by  the  cold.  That  there  is  such  a 
thing  as  having  a  house  too  close  and  warm  we  admit,  but  we 
think  that  very  {q.\v  such  houses  can  be  found  in  the  possession 
of  farmers. 

So  far  as  our  observation  extends,  farm-houses  go  very  far 
toward  the  other  extreme.  Cold  air  blows  upon  the  inmates 
through  cracks  and  crevices,  causing  many  colds  and  laying  the 
foundation,  in  a  great  many  cases,  of  serious  diseases.  There  is 
not  only  discomfort  involved,  but,  if  special  care  is  not  taken,  it 
is  absolutely  dangerous  for  a  person  with  weak  lungs,  or  with  a 
strong  tendency  toward  pulmonary  complaints,  to  live  in  such 
a  house.  When  a  house  is  built  it  should  be  made  so  well  that 
even  when  it  becomes  old  the  winds  will  not  penetrate  its  walls. 
If  built  of  brick,  or  stone,  there  will  be  no  difficulty  in  securing 
this  protection  from  the  wind.  If  wood  is  used  as  the  principal 
material  for  construction,  a  good  quality  should  be  secured  for 
the  covering,  and  it  should  be  put  on  in  a  workmanlike  manner. 
The  space  between' the  outer  and  inner  wall  should  be  filled 
with  bricks,  except  where  posts,  studs,  and  braces  are  placed. 
For  an  ordinary-sized  farm-house  quite  a  quantity  of  bricks  will 
be  required,  but  second-hand  ones  can  be  used,  or  a  low  grade 
of  new  ones,  and  thus  the  cost  be  kept  from  being  a  very  large 
item  in  the  bill  for  materials.  No  special  skill  is  required  to  lay 
them.  They  answer  various  good  purposes.  By  keeping  out 
the  wind  they  keep  the  rooms  a  great  deal  warmer  than  they 
otherwise  would  be,  and,  by  filling  up  the  space,  they  effectually 
prevent  rats  and  mice  from  taking  up  their  abode  in  this  most 
difficult  of  all  places  from  which  to  dislodge  them.  For  the  last 
named  purpose  alone  they  are  worth  five  times  their  cost.     If 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  gi. 

any  one  thinks  this  valuation  too  high,  let  him  try  to  sleep  for 
one  night  in  an  old-fashioned  house  which  is  infested  with  rats, 
and  before  morning  he  will  probably  be  convinced  that  instead 
of  being  too  high  the  figures  are  altogether  too  low.  All  the 
work  about  the  house  should  be  done  well.  It  will  take  a  little 
longer  to  fit  every  board  exactly  to  its  place,  but  the  house  will 
give  much  better  satisfaction  if  this  is  done  than  it  can  if  the 
work  i^  slighted.  It  is  not  a  difficult  matter  to  build  a  house  so 
that  the  wind  will  not  penetrate  it  and  it  will  not  be  cold ;  but, 
when  a  house  has  been  badly  built,  it  is  difficult  to  repair  it  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  make  it  comfortable. 

The  inside  walls  of  a  house  should  be  well  plastered,  and  the 
ceiling  should  be  finished  as  nicely  as  possible.  Though  it  is 
quite  common  to  cover  the  walls  with  paper,  there  should  be  no 
slighting  of  the  work  in  plastering  them.  If  well  covered  with 
good  mortar  they  can  be  papered  more  easily,  and  the  paper  will 
look  better  than  will  be  possible  on  a  poorly-finished  surface. 
The  mop-boards  should  be  well  fitted,  and  all  the  lumber  used 
in  the  inside  of  the  best  rooms  should  not  only  be  well  seasoned 
but  should  be  kiln-dried  before  being  used.  This  precaution 
would  have  prevented  many  unsightly  cracks  in  some  otherwise 
nice  houses. 

Windows  are  always  considered  as  necessities  in  a  house;  but 
they  are  not  always  arranged  in  the  best  possible  manner,  and 
the  number  and  size  are  not  always  chosen  in  accordance  with 
the  requirement  of  either  beauty  or  comfort.  Wc  think  there  is 
a  tendency  to  use  too  few  windows.  The  sunlight  is  not  allowed 
as  free  access  to  our  houses  as  the  health  of  tlie  inmates- requires. 
The  power  of  sunlight  to  promote  health  and  make  people  cheer- 
ful and  happy  is  not  fully  recognized  by  the  farming  community. 
Yet  we  all  know  that  a  succession  of  cloudy  days  will  depress 
the  spirits  of  cheerful  people  and  increase  the  suffering  of  inva- 
lids.    Too   many  families   have    shut  out  the   light  from   their 

homes  altogether  too  much.     The  parlor  is  not  opened  to  the 
6 


84  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

sun  for  fear  that  the  carpet  will  be  faded  by  his  powerful  rays, 
and  even  the  kitchen  and  sitting-room  are  guarded  against  the 
intrusion  of  too  much  light.  Living  in  darkened  rooms,  and 
being  often  worried  and  overworked,  it  is  not  a  matter  for  sur- 
prise that  many  farmers*  wives  lose  both  beauty  and  health  in 
comparatively  early  life.  In  sections  of  the  country  where 
women  are  more  in  the  open  air  and  receive  the  benefit  of  the 
sunshine,  they  are  much  more  healthy  than  they  are  wh^re  cus- 
tom or  necessity  requires  them  to  keep  in  doors  nearly  all  of  the 
time.  The  dullest  obser\-er  knows  that  plants  need  the  sunlight, 
that  those  which  are  kept  in  the  shade  are  imperfectly  developed 
and  lack  both  vigor' and  freshness,  and  that  fruits  which  grow 
in  the  shade  never  present  the  rich  and  rosy  appearance  of  those 
which  are  ripened  in  the  sun.  And  it  seems  as  if  the  observer 
who  could  see  all  this  could  also  reason  that,  if  the  sun  is  such 
a  life-giver  and  invigorator  to  plants,  his  influence  upon  the 
human  family  must  also  be  powerful  for  good.  Prominent  phy- 
sicians often  recommend  sun-baths  for  the  cure  of  certain  forms 
of  disease.  As  prevention  is  always  easier  than  cure,  it  is  fair 
to  infer  that  sunlight  would  do  much  toward  keeping  people 
well.  It  is  well  known  that  people  living  in  dark,  damp  cellars 
are  terribly  afflicted  by  disease,  and  we  are  justified  in  believing 
that  the  want  of  sunlight  is  one  of  the  producing  causes  of  many 
of  their  maladies.  We  believe  in  having  a  house  into  which  the 
sun  can  shine,  and  in  having  the  kitchen  and  sitting-room  in  the 
sunniest  part  of  the  house. 

Windows  should  be  plenty  in  number,  and  of  a  size  to  cor- 
respond .with  the  dimensions  of  the  house  in  which  they  are 
placed.  Very  small  windows  do  not  look  well  in  a  large  house, 
while  large  windows  look  almost  as  badly  in  a  small  one.  The 
windows  should  not  be  placed  too  high  in  the  rooms,  as  is  the 
case  in  some  of  the  old-style  houses,  neither  is  it  very  conve- 
nient to  have  them  come  down  to  the  floor  as  some  modern 
builders  propose.     Medium-sized  glass  gives  a  farm-house  win- 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  85 

dow  a  better  appearance  than  either  very  large  or  very  small 
panes.  It  is  much  less  work  to  keep  such  windows  clean  than 
it  is  those  which  are  composed  of  small  panes,  while  they  are 
less  expensive  than  very  large  ones.  Not  only  is  the  expense 
of  windows  increased  by  using  extremely  large  panes  of  glass, 
but  in  case  that  one  is  broken,  a  large  size  cannot  always  be 
obtained  at  country  stores,  will  cost  considerably  more  than  the 
medium  size,  and  the  difficulty  of  setting  will  be  increased. 

In  buying  glass  always  be  sure  and  obtain  a  good  quality.  A 
window  in  which  there  is  not  a  pane  of  clear  glass  is  a  miser- 
able thing  to  look  at  or  to  try  to  look  through.  It  will  cost  a 
very  little  less  than  a  window  with  a  good  quality  of  glass,  but 
it  will  always  be  a  source  of  vexation  and  discomfort.  The 
sashes  should  be  made  of  heart  timber,  and  should  be  well  put 
.together,  and  thoroughly  painted  upon  both  sides.  Some  kind 
of  fastening  should  also  be  used  upon  all  the  windows  in  a 
'  house.  Many  people  use  fastenings  upon  the  windows  of  their 
lower  rooms,  in  the  vague  hope  that  they  may  prevent  the 
entrance  of  intruders,  but  in  the  upper  stories  get  along  with 
sticks,  wooden  buttons,  or  some  other  inconvenient  arrange- 
ment. There  are  a  great  variety  of  patent  springs  and  fasteners 
in  the  market.  Of  these  many  are  very  good  indeed,  while 
some  are,  as  any  one  of  common  sense  ought  to  know  without 
trying,  miserably  poor.  A  fastening  should  be  secured  which 
will  hold  the  sash  either  down  or  up,  or  at  any  desired  point 
between  these  extremes,  and  which  will  not  mar  the  casings. 
The  windows  should  also  be  made  to  lower  at  the  top  as  well  as 
to  allow  the  lower  sash  to  be  raised.  This  in  order  to  admit 
of  easy  ventilation,  and  also  to  make  the  rooms  cooler  in 
summer. 

In  arranging  the  Doors  considerable  skill  will  be  required  to 
place  them  so  that  they  will  give  convenient  access  to  all  parts 
of  the  house,  and  still  not  interfere  with  each  other.  Although 
many  doors  will  increase  the  first  cost  of  a  house,  and  always 


3^  FARMING   FOR    PROFIT. 

render  painting  the  rooms  more  expensive  than  it  otherwise 
would  be,  it  is  not  well  to  attempt  to.  reduce  the  number  below 
the  point  which  comfort  and  convenience  require.  Too  few 
doors  make  a  house  inconvenient,  and  will  add  greatly  to  the 
labor  required  to  keep  it  in  order,  and  care  for  the  comfort  of 
the  family.  The  doors  should  not  only  be  enough  in  number 
and  well  arranged,  but  care  should  also  be  taken  to  have  them 
of  the  proper  size.  In  many  farm-houses  the  doors  are  much 
too  narrow,  and  a  great  deal  of  inconvenience  is  caused  thereby. 
There  is  no  necessity  for  using  very  small  doors,  and  no  one 
should  allow  them  to  be  used  in  an  ordinary'  house.  The  doors 
will  require  something  in  the  line  of  fastenings.  There  are 
various  styles  in  the  market.  Of  these  we  think  the  combined 
catch  and  lock,  with  a  knob  on  each  side  of  the  door,  is  much 
the  best.  That  the  first  cost  of  fitting  all  the  doors  in  a  house 
with  these  fastenings  will  considerably  exceed  that  of  using  the 
old-fashioned  latch  and  catch  we  admit,  and  some  readers  may. 
be  inclined  to  regard  the  change  as  an  extravagance.  But,  as 
we  have  already  pointed  out,  convenience,  which  is  another 
word  for  economy  of  time  and  labor,  is  often  worth  far  more 
than  its  cost.  If  a  convenient  arrangement  saves  work,  it 
thereby  saves  what  is  equivalent  to  money.  If  it  saves  health 
and  strength,  it  saves  what  is  worth  more  than  money.  Human 
life  and  strength  are  both  limited,  and  the  strongest  person  has 
neither  time  nor  strength  to  waste.  The  door-fastenings  we 
have  recommended  will  save  much  time.  They  also  furnish, 
what  the  door  of  each  of  the  principal  rooms  below  and  all  of 
the  sleeping-rooms  should  have,  the  means  for  securely 
fastening  it  from  either  side.  But  the  principal  reason  why 
we  favor  these  fastenings  may  be  found  in  the  fact  that  they  are 
not  liable  to  catch  and  tear  the  clothes.  In  a  large  family  the 
saving  effected  in  this  one  direction  would  be  sufficient  to 
replace  the  old-fashioned  latches  with  the  knobs  and  locks 
which  we  have  recommended.     Our  own  clothes  have  been  torn, 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  37 

and  all  the  members  of  our  family  as  well  as  occasional  visitors 
have  had  clothes  damaged  by  being  caught  on  the  old  style  of 
fastening.  Experience  has  taught  us  that  good  door-fastenings 
are  really  cheaper  than  clothes. 

The  Floors  of  a  house  should  be  made  of  good 'material 
and  carefully  put  down.  The  supports  should  be  very  strong, 
and  it  is  a  good  plan  to  have  the  boards  an  inch  and  a  half 
thick.  Few  persons  whose  attention  has  not  been  specially 
called  to  the  subject  are  aware  how  severe  a  strain  sometimes 
comes  upon  the  floor  of  a  house.  When  there  is  a  social 
gathering,  quite  a  crowd  is  often  collected  in  a  single  apartment. 
In  a  room  fourteen  feet  square  it  is  not  difficult  to  find  standing 
places  for  from  eighty  to  one  hundred  grown  persons,  and  a 
man  who  knew  nothing  in  particular  about  such  matters  would 
not  think  any  trouble  would  be  caused  by  allowing  them  to 
enter.  But  eighty  persons  of  average  size  will  weigh  not  less 
ih^.nJive  ions.  This  is  a  great  strain,  and  a  weak  floor  will  be 
very  likely  to  give  away  under  it.  It  is  true  that  such  a  weight 
is  not  often  brought  upon  a  floor  in  a  farm-house.  But  it  is 
liable  to  be  heavily  loaded,  and,  consequently,  should  be  made 
very  strong  with  direct  reference  to  emergencies.  In  old 
houses,  in  which  the  strength  of  the  boards  and  joists  in  the 
lower  rooms  has  become  somewhat  impaired  by  age,  or  by 
want  of  thorough  ventilation  of  the  cellar,  supports  should  be 
placed  under  the  floors  of  rooms  which  will  be  likely  to  be 
crowded.  These  may  be  easily  and  cheaply  made  by  using 
posts  at  each  end  of  the  floor,  one  end  of  each  to  be  placed 
upon  a  solid  stone  foundation  in  the  cellar,  and  the  other  mor- 
tised into  a  stick  four  by  six  inches.  This  stick  should  come 
up  tight  to  the  bottom  of  the  joists,  and  the  posts  should  be 
supported  at  the  bottoms  so  that  they  cannot  move  in  any 
direction.  Where  floors  are  very  weak  they  should  be  taken 
up,  and  new  joists  supplied.  If  it  is  thought  that  the  floor  had 
better  remain,  and  that  the  supports  suggested  are  insufficient, 


gg  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

a  frame,  about  three-fourths  the  size  of  the  room,  with  a  four* 
inch  stick  in  the  middle,  across  the  top,  running  crosswise  of 
the  joists,  may  be  used  in  the  cellar.  If  this  is  properly  made, 
and  put  up,  it  will  last  a  great  while,  and  make  the  floor  per- 
fectly save. 

In  selecting  timber  for  joists  and  floor-boards,  care  should  be 
taken  to  get  that  which  is  well  seasoned  and  which  is  free  from 
shakes  and  knots.  This  because  it  is  important  that  timber 
used  in  either  of  these  positions  should  possess  both  durability 
and  strength.  It  has  become  quite  fashionable  to  use  very  poor 
boards  for  floors,  and  then  cover  the  defects  with  carpets.  This 
does  not  seem  to  be  in  good  taste,  and  it  tends  to  compel  men 
to  buy  carpets  who  are  not  really  able  to  do  so.  Not  every 
farmer  can  spare  the  money  required  to  carpet  all  his  rooms. 
Better  have  a  floor  that  will  look  well  itself  Then  when  the 
owner  is  able  he  can  cover  it ;  but  there  will  be  no  excuse  for 
his  running  into  debt  for  a  carpet.  For  floor-boards,  yellow 
pine  is  one  of  the  very  best  kinds  of  timber.  These  boards 
should  be  nearly,  or  quite,  an  inch  and  a  half  in  thickness  and 
not  exceed  four  inches  in  width.  If  well  laid  upon  a  good 
foundation,  this  will  make  a  very  fine  floor  of  which  ncithct 
farmer  nor  gentleman  need  be  ashamed. 

In  modern  houses  Stairs  are  not  only  conveniences  but  are 
absolutely  necessary  for  the  comfort  of  the  occupants.  In 
some  houses  which  we  have  seen,  appearances  indicate  that  the 
stairs  were  considered  "  necessary  evils,"  and  were  crowded 
into  as  small  a  space  and  put  as  much  out  of  the  way  as 
possible.  While  it  is  very  desirable  to  economize  room  by 
using  it  to  the  best  possible  advantage,  it  is  not  well  to  make  the 
stairs  too  narrow  or  place  them  where  they  will  be  inconvenient 
of  access.  Any  one  who  has  had  experience  in  carrying 
furniture  up  narrow,  steep,  or  winding  stairs  will  heartily  second 
our  recommendation  that  all  the  stairways  in  a  house,  those 
from  the  back-room  just  as  truly  as  the  front-stairs,  should  be 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  39 

made  wide,  straight,  with  a  slow  elevation,  and  with  a  strong 
railing  at  the  side  opposite  the  wall.  Stairs  which  rise  six  feet 
in  a  distance  on  the  ground  of  three  feet  and  a  half  are  an  abom- 
inationj  yet  they  are  often  seen  in  old  houses.  For  women  and 
invalids  to  climb  such  stairs  is  terribly  hard,  while  for  children 
they  are  still  more  dangerous.  The  winding  stairs  which  are 
frequently  used  are  much  better  than  the  old  style  of  steep  and 
narrow  ways,  but  these  are  quite  inconvenient  about  carrying 
furniture  either  up  or  down.  For  ordinary  farm-houses  they  are 
far  inferior  to  the  straight,  wide,  and  slowly  rising  stairs  which 
we  recommend.  If  any  reader  is  tempted  to  think  this  a  matter 
of  small  importance  because  a  farmer  does  not  often  change  his 
residence,  and,  consequently,  is  not  often  obliged  to  carry 
furniture  over  the  stairs,  let  him  remember  that  the  occasional 
inconvenience  which  is  almost  sure  to  arise  might  and  ought 
to  be  avoided,  that  a  house  ought  to  be  so  constructed  that  a 
man  can  get  an  ordinary  lot  of  furniture  up  the  stairs  without  a 
great  deal  of  difficulty,  and  also  that  in  a  common  farm-house 
much  of  the  work  of  the  woman  who  cares  for  it  must  be  done 
in  the  chambers.  This  work  cannot  all  be  done  at  once,  but 
requires  attention  at  various  hours  of  the  day.  To  go  up  and 
down  a  pair  of  steep  stairs  several  times  every  twenty-four  hours 
is  enough,  of  itself,  to  tire  a  woman  who  is  not  very  strong. 
The  farmer  who  is  what  he  should  be  desires  to  have  an  abun- 
dance of  labor-saving  machinery,  and  to  arrange  his  work  in  the 
most  convenient  manner  possible.  He  knows  that  in  saving 
time  and  strength  he  is  saving  money.  He  ought  to  be  just  as 
ready  to  arrange  the  house  so  that  the  work  of  his  wife  can 
be  easily  and  rapidly  performed,  as  he  is  to  invest  labor-  and 
money  in  securing  convenience  in  managing  his  own  work. 
One  of  the  ways  in  which  he  can  aid  her  is  by  arranging  the 
stairs  so  that  the  labor  of  passing  over  them  will  be  reduced  to 
the  lowest  possible  point. 

Roofs. — Whether  the  roof  of  a  house  shall  be  flat  or  sloping 


90  FARMING   FOR  PROFIT. 

will  depend  upon  the  style  of  the  house,  the  amount  of  room 
required,  and  the  tastes  of  the  owner.  For  ordinar>'  farm-houses 
we  do  not  favor  flat  roofs.  With  a  given  ground-surface  they 
furnish  less  room  than  the  ordinary  style,  and  we  know  of  no 
advantage  which  they  possess  which  can  render  them  general 
favorites.  At  the  North,  especially,  where  large  quantities  of 
snow  fall,  they  need  a  greater  amount  of  care  in  the  winter  than 
most  farmers  are  willing  to  bestow.  For  covering  roofs  three 
kinds  of  material  are  in  very  common  use,  while  iron,  straw, 
gravel,  and  various  preparations  of  felt  and  tar  are  employed  to 
some  extent.  But  wood,  tin,  and  slate  are  principally  used  by 
farmers.  Various  kinds  of  wood  are  used  and  various  sizes  and 
styles  of  shingles  are  employed.  Cedar,  pine,  and  spruce  make 
splendid  shingles  if  no  sap-wood  is  used,  and  will  last  from 
twenty  to  fifty  years.  But  if  a  very  little  of  the  sap  is  allowed 
to  remain,  the  roof  will  leak  in  eight  or  ten  years. 

It  is  always  economy  when  buying  shingles  to  get  the  finest 
quality,  as  it  costs  no  more  to  lay  them  than  it  docs  poor  ones, 
and,  as  they  last  from  two  to  five  times  as  long,  the  cost  of 
several  rc-.^hinglings  is  avoided.  Tin  roofs,  if  well  made  and  con- 
stantly kept  painted,  will  last  a  long  time ;  but  in  most  sections 
the  cost  is  ver>'  much  greater  than  that  of  wood,  and  on  this 
account  tin  has  not  come  into  general  use  as  a  roofing  material 
for  farm  buildings.  Slate,  so  often  seen  upon  public  buildings, 
is  frequently  used  in  New  England  and  the  Middle  States 
upon  farm-houses  and  barns.  Being  close  to  the  quarries,  the 
cost  is  not  excessive,  while,  if  the  roof  is  very  strong  and  the 
slates  are  well  laid,  a  ver)'  durable  roof  is  obtained.  In  order 
to  make  a  good  roof  with  slate,  the  boards  upon  which  they  are 
laid  must  be  perfectly  tight,  so  as  to  prevent  the  penetration  of 
rain  and  snow  when  the  wind  blows,  and  the  rafters  must  be  so 
strong  that  no  amount  of  snow  which  falls  upon  the  roof  will 
deflect  them  in  the  least.  If  the  rafters  are  so  weak  as  to  allow 
the  roof  to  settle,  the  slates  will  be  pried  up  as  surely  as  a  man 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  91 

could  do  it  with  a  crowbar.  Being  very  brittle,  they  will  fre- 
quently break  when  subjected  to  such  a  strain.  If  they  do  not 
break,  the  nails  will  be  loosened  and  the  slates  will  come  off. 

When  wood  is  used  for  roofing  purposes  the  application  of 
some  cheap  paint  has  been  found  an  excellent  preservative. 
The  shingles  to  which  this  paint  is  applied  should  be  well  sea- 
soned, and  should  be  perfectly  dry  when  the  paint  is  used.  The 
presence  of  sap  in  the  wood,  or  of  dew  on  the  shingles,  will 
cause  the  paint  to  scale  off  in  a  short  time.  Various  prepara- 
tions for  painting  roofs  are  in  the  market.  Probably  the  cheapest 
material  is  crude  petroleum.  This  is  an  excellent  preservative. 
Whitewash  is  often  used,  but  is  too  liable  to  wash  off  Roofing 
paints  having  a  large  proportion  of  tar  are  highly  recommended 
by  some,  but  do  not  always  give  satisfaction.  Those  with  slate 
or  asbestos  for  their  basis  would  seem  to  be  better  adapted  to 
the  purpose.  Whenever  roofs  are  painted,  an  effort  should  be 
made  to  secure  a  fireproof  article  as  well  as  one  which  will  pre- 
serve the  shingles. 

Chimneys. — The  old  style  of  building  only  one  chimney  for 
each  house,  and  making  that  as  large  as  a  good-sized  room,  is 
extremely  bad  and  should  never  be  followed  in  a  new  house.  ^ 
All  house  chimneys  should  be  of  small  size  and  conveniently 
located.  Stovepipes  ought  never  to  traverse  a  long  distance 
from  the  fire  to  the  chimney.  Many  farmers  in  the  older  settled 
parts  of  the  country  have  taken  down  the  immense  piles  of 
brick  which  once  answered  for  chimneys  and  built  new  and 
smaller  ones.  We  never  knew  a  man  to  regret  making  this 
change.  The  use  of  a  larger  number  of  smaller  chimneys  gives 
much  more  room  in  the  house,  much  less  stove-pipe  is  required, 
the  draught  of  the  flues  is  greatly  increased,  the  danger  from  fire 
is  very  much  diminished,  and  the  general  plan  and  appearance 
of  the  house  is  improved.  Chimneys  should  be  built  with  the 
utmost  care,  and  only  the  very  best  and  most  conscientious 
workmen  should  be  employed  in  their  construction.     A  great 


92  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 

many  houses  are  burned  every  year  on  account  of  defective 
flues.  It  is  also  well  to  carry  the  chimneys  to  a  good  height 
above  the  roof,  both  in  order  to  secure  a  strong  draught  and 
also  to  diminish  the  danger  from  falling  sparks.  They  should 
always  be  built  upon  a  solid  foundation  in  the  ground.  If  the 
nicest  mortar  is  used  it  is  well  to  plaster  the  inside  of  the  chim- 
neys, but  a  poor  quality  of  mortar  will  only  make  a  bad  matter 
worse. 

Eave-Troughs. — These  should  be  found  upon  every  house. 
They  will  enable  the  owner  to  secure  rain-water  if  he  wishes  to, 
and  this,  where  the  well-water  is  hard,  is  quite  an  object.  They 
also  make  it  so  much  pleasanter  going  in  and  out  of  a  house 
when  it  rains,  that  a  man  who  has  once  had  the  benefit  of  one 
would  feel  as  if  deprived  of  a  luxury  if  it  were  taken  down. 
But  the  great  benefit  of  these  troughs  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact 
that  they  keep  a  vast  quantity  of  water  out  of  the  cellar.  This 
would  pay  for  their  cost  every  season.  Where  there  are  no 
eave-troughs  there  will,  of  necessity,  be  a  wet  cellar.  This  is 
both  unpleasant  and  unhealthy.  Consequently,  troughs  should 
be  provided,  and  should  lead  either  into  a  cistern,  or  to  some 
■common  point  from  which  the  water  may  be  taken  by  another 
trough  to  a  suitable  distance  from  the  house. 

Blinds. — These  may  be  classed  among  the  luxuries,  but  as 
they  are  not  very  expensive  they  can  be  secured  by  the  majority 
of  farmers.  Whether  they  will  pay  or  not,  each  one  must  decide 
for  himself  They  will  protect  the  windows,  make  the  rooms 
cooler,  keep  out  the  flies,  and  give  a  finished  appearance  to  th.e 
house  which  it  otherwise  could  not  possess.  They  are  among 
the  means  for  making  home  more  pleasant,  and,  as  such,  they 
should  not  be  despised.  When  buying  it  is  always  best  to  get 
good  ones,  and  they  should  be  carefully  fitted  and  hung. 

Piazza. — A  good  piazza  will  add  somewhat  to  the  cost  of  a 
new  house,  and  involve  a  still  greater  expen.se  if  attached  to  an 
old  one.     It  will  give  a  better  appearance  to  the  house,  and 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  9^ 

make  it  more  pleasant  to  live  in.  Climbing  vines  may  be 
trained  upon  the  posts,  and  a  pleasant  place  will  be  provided  in 
which  to  pass  the  leisure  hour  at  noon  in  the  summer  time,  and 
also  many  evenings  in  warm  and  pleasant  weather. 

Lightning- Rods. — On  account  of  the  many  swindles  which 
certain  agents  have  practiced,  and  also  because  a  great  many 
defective  rods  have  been  put  up,  there  is  a  very  common  im- 
pression that  a  farmer  had  -better  not  have  rods  put  on  his 
buildings.  But  this  seems  to  be  one  of  these  cases  in  which  a 
good  article  is  condemned  because  a  counterfeit  has  proved 
poor,  or  because  some  evil-minded  person  has  cheated  people 
in  its  sale.  While  a  poor  rod,  or  a  good  rod  badly  put  up,  or 
which  has  got  out  of  order,  becomes  at  once  a  source  of  danger 
rather  than  a  protection  from  evil,  we  think  the  facts  in  the  case 
will  warrant  the  assertion  that  a  first-rate  rod,  properly  put  up, 
and  constantly  kept  in  order,  is  an  almost  absolute  protection 
against  danger  from  lightning.  We  have  known  the  lightning 
to  strike  buildings  upon  which  there  were  rods,  but  we  never 
have  seen  a  case  in  which  there  was  loss  of  life  or  serious 
injury  to  property  when  there  was  a  good  rod,  and  it  was  in 
good  order.  In  buying  a  rod  care  should  be  taken  to  get  the 
very  best  one  in  the  market,  and  to  have  a  first-class  workman 
put  it  up.  The  rod  should  be  of  nearly  uniform  size  through- 
out. No  rod  with  small  joints  should  ever  be  bought.  It 
should  rise  to  a  reasonable  height  above  the  top  of  the  chimney, 
and  a  point  should  also  go  up  from  each  end  of  the  building. 
If  the  building  to  be  protected  is  very  large,  more  points  will 
be  needed.  The  height  to  which  the  points  should  rise  Avill 
depend  upon  the  size  of  the  building,  and  can  be  determined 
by  a  skilful  and  intelligent  workman.  Never  attempt  to  save 
money  by  using  very  short  tops,  or  by  placing  only  a  little  iron 
ill  the  ground.  In  all  cases  the  rod  in  the  earth  should  be  placed 
deep  enough  to  reach  a  strata  of  the  soil  which  will  never  be 
dry.     If  it  can  be  put   deep  enough  to  reach  a  living  spring  it 


J,4  FARMING   FOR  PROFIT. 

will  be  all  the  bettor  for  its  contact  with  water.  If  a  rod  gets 
out  of  order,  it  should  be  at  once  repaired.  It  is  to  defective 
rods  that  the  injury  to  buildings  which  are  professedly  pro- 
tected is  generally  due.  We  knew  of  one  case  in  which  the 
lower  section  of  a  rod  had  been  broken,  and  the  owner,  instead 
of  getting  a  new  piece,  was  in  the  habit  of  attaching  a  chain 
whenever  he  saw  a  shower  approaching.  All  such  arrange- 
ments greatly  increase  the  danger.  Better  not  have  any  rod 
than  to  have  such  make-shifts  as  that.  But  a  really  good  rod, 
well  put  up,  we  consider  a  great  safeguard,  and  would  not  be 
without  one  on  both  house  and  barn. 

Ventilation. — This  is  a  subject  of  vast  importance — one  upon 
which  many  volumes  have  been  written,  and  which  needs  to  be 
kept  constantly  before  the  minds  of  the  people.  It  is  the  fashion 
to  call  farm-houses  cold  and  open  structures,  and  to  consider 
them  wholly  beyond  the  need  of  anything  in  the  line  of  direct 
ventilation.  That  these  houses  are  not  as  close  as  many  city 
houses  is  true,  and  their  owners  ought  to  be  thankful  for  it ;  but 
in  the  whole  range  of  our  acquaintance  we  do  not  know  a  single 
instance  in  which  a  farmer  in  buikling  a  house  has  provided 
anything  approaching  adequate  ventilation.  We  know  of  cases 
in  which  an  effort  has  been  made  to  ventilate  old  houses,  but  not 
one  in  which  the  ventilation  of  a  new  farm-house  has  received 
special  attention.  As  a  rule,  the  new  houses  are  more  dan- 
gerous than  the  old.  They  are  closer  and  warmer,  consequently 
the  danger  is  increased.  We  say  danger  because  there  is  a  great 
deal  of  danger  involved  in  breathing  the  impure  air  with  which 
many  of  our  houses  are  constantly  filled.  We  can  gain  some 
light  from  a  few  facts  which  have  been  published.  Lest  our 
readers  should  imagine  that,  because  these  statistics  are  taken 
from  cities,  they  will  form  no  basis  for  calculations  concerning 
the  country,  we  will  say  that  many  careful  experiments  by 
scientific  men  have  fully  established  the.  fact  that,  except  in  the 
basements   and   gutters,  the  air  in  cities  is  almost   exactly  the 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  95 

same  in  composition  and  purity  as  that  of  the  country.     Even 
in  Manchester,  England,  where  two  milUons  of  tons  of  coal 
are  burned  every  year,  and  the  air  seems  full  of  smoke,  there  is 
hardly  a  trace  of  carbonic  acid.      This  discovery  led  one  of 
the  learned  investigators  to  exclaim,  "  How  insignificant  are  the 
works  of  art  in  contaminating  that  vast  ocean  of  air  that  is  con'- 
stantly  sweeping  over  the  surface  of  the  earth."     This  being  the 
case,  it  is  probable,  that,  in  respectable  quarters  of  our  ordmary 
cities,  the  air  is  fully  as  pure  as  it  is  in  the  country,  and  that,  on 
account  of  less  attention  to  ventilation,  the  women  and  children 
in  our  most  exposed  localities  really  suffer  more  from  impure 
air  than  the  better  classes  in  the  cities. 

To  give  some  idea  of  what  ventilation  will  accomplish,  a  sim- 
ple fact  from  the  mortality  tables  of  one  of  the  great  Dublin 
hospitals  for  infants  may  be  useful.     Before  any  special  effort  to 
furnish  pure  air  was  made,  the  death-rate  for  twenty-five  years 
had  been  one  in  six,  but.  during  the  next  twenty-five  years  after 
arrangements  were  made  for  thorough  ventilation,  the  deaths 
were  only  one  in  one  hundred  and  four.     In  our  own  country, 
Philadelphia  is  considered  a  very  healthy  city;  but,  in  1866,  it 
was  found  that  nearly  forty  per  cent,  of  the   deaths  each  year 
were  caused  by  impure  air-a  sacrifice  of  nearly  seven  thousand 
lives  every  year  for  want  of  thorough  ventilation.      In   ^ew 
York  the  deaths  by  foul  air  are  nearly  one-half  of  the  immense 
number  which   annually  occur.     The  number  of  children  who 
are  sacrificed  to  the  destroying  influence  of  impure  air  in  the 
cities  and  country  towns  every  year  is  almost  beyond  compre- 
hension.    The  vast  number  of  deaths  of  adults  which  are  oaused 
by  consumption  are  believed  to  be  almost  wholly  due  to  foul 
air      Dr.  Leeds,  who  has  given  a  great  deal  of  attention  to  tins 
subject,  says,  that  it  is  as  easy  to  prevent  consumption  by  the  use 
of  pure  air  as  it  is  to  prevent  drunkenness  by  the  use  of  water. 
Cholera,  and  many  other  diseases,  are  either  caused,  or  else  ter- 
ribly aggravated,  by  impure  air.     The  same   is  true  of  many 


96  FARMIXG   FOR    PROFIT. 

nervous  maladies.  While  wc  realize  that  a  great  multitude  of 
farmers'  wives  have  lost  their  health  partly  as  a  result  of  mo- 
notonous overwork,  we  arc  confident  that  if  the  houses  in  which 
they  lived  had  been  thoroughly  ventilated  they  would  not  have 
suffered  one-half  the  ills  to  which  they  have  been  subjected. 
The  farmer  and  his  boys  spend  much  of  their  time  in  the  open 
air.  Consequently,  though  they  may  work  hard,  they  are  not 
as  likely  to  lose  health  and  strength  as  the  wife  and  sisters  who 
are  obliged  to  breathe  a  contaminated  atmosphere. 

When  a  new  house  is  built,  or  an  old  one  repaired,  one  of  the 
great  things  to  be  considered  is  proper  ventilation.  If  the  house 
is  in  good  repair,  but  there  are  no  suitable  arrangements  for 
keeping  a  constant  supply  of  pure  air,  the  owner  should  not  risk 
the  health  of  his  family  by  allowing  it  to  remain  longer  in  this 
condition.  Just  how  to  ventilate  a  house  perfectly  without 
involving  a  great  expense  is  a  question  over  which  there  has 
been  much  discussion.  We  have  neither  time  nor  space  to  pre- 
sent the  many  plans  which  have  been  proposed  and  the  argu- 
ments by  which  they  have  been  sustained.  But  some  simple 
suggestions  may  be  made.  Windows  should  be  arranged  so  as 
to  let  down  at  the  top.  If  they  were  not  put  in  right  when  the 
house  was  built,  the  difficulty  may  be  readily  obviated.  A  car- 
penter, or  a  farmer  who  uses  tools  with  facility,  can  very  easily 
make  the  change.  In  summer  the  doors  and  windows  should 
be  freely  opened.  4^o  matter  if  the  sun  does  fade  the  ca'pet. 
Life  and  health  are  to  be  considered  before  carpets  and  furniture. 
If  there  are  no  other  means  of  ventilation,  open  the  doors  right 
through  the  house  every  few  hours  in  winter.  It  does  but  little 
good  to  merely  open  a  single  door  or  window.  For  the  room 
is  constantly  full  of  air,  and  while  what  is  in  remains  no  more 
can  enter.  We  can  no  more  crowd  air  into  a  room  than  we  can 
crowd  water  into  a  bottle  which  is  full.  When  a  window  is 
opened  to  let  in  air  the  door  or  window  on  the  opposite  side 
should  be  opened  to  let  the  foul  air  out.     An  old-fashioned  fire- 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  97 

place  is  a  splendid  means  for  ventilation.  It  allows  the  impure 
air  to  pass  up  the  chimney,  and  cold  air  can  be  admitted  by  win- 
dows, doors,  or,  still  better,  by  a  pipe  specially  arranged  for  this 
purpose.  Such  a  fire-place  will  also  allow  from  one-half  to  two- 
thirds  of  the  heat  to  escape.  This  makes  it  a  somewhat  expen- 
sive arrangement,  but,  as  Mr.  Waring  has  well  said,  this 
expense  is  the  price  which  is  paid  for  immunity  from  disease. 
But  in  many  of  our  modern  houses  there  are  no  fireplaces.  The 
fire  in  the  stove  causes  something  of  a  draught,  and  the  fresh 
air  comes  in  around  the  windows  and  doors  to  supply  its  place. 
But  this  is  far  from  sufficient.  The  best  method  in  such  a  case 
seems  to  be  to  have  a  ventilating  flue  built  close  to  the  chimney, 
so  that  the  heat  of  the  fire  will  warm  the  air  in  the  flue  and 
cause  a  draught,  with  an  opening  near  the  floor  for  the  escape 
of  foul  air,  and  a  pipe  with  one  end  in  the  external  air  and  the 
other  immediately  over,  or  almost  against,  the  stove.  Or,  the 
fresh  air  may  be  admitted  at  the  top  of  the  room  if  there  is  an 
opening  at  the  top  on  the  opposite  side  for  the  escape  of  the 
impure  air.  It  was  once  supposed  that  the  impure  air  would  be 
found  at  the  top  of  a  room  and  the  purer  air  near  the  floor,  but 
it  has  been  found  that,  except  when  unusually  heated  by  gas,  or 
lamps,  much  of  the  foul  air  will  descend,  as  the  carbonic  acid  is 
heavy,  and  will  be  found  near  the  bottom  of  the  room.  Even 
in  houses  which  are  old  and  have  many  cracks  around  the  win- 
dows and  doors,  there  should'  be  a  systematic  effort  to  secure 
ventilation,  because  when  air  comes  through  so  many  crevices 
the  inmates  of  the  room  will  be  very  likely  to  take  cold,  while, 
if  an  opening  is  made  which  is  larger  than  the  sum  of  all  these 
cracks,  and  the  air  is  conducted  to  the  stove,  the  danger  from 
this  source  is  avoided  and  there  is  a  greater  certainty  that  an 
abundance  of  fresh  air  will  be  secured.  Certainly,  in  some  way, 
even  though  the  cost  of  fuel  should  be  increased,  plenty  of  pure 
air  should  be  supplied  to  every  room  of  each  and  every  farm- 
house in  the  country. 


08  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

Various  Interior  Arrangements. — We  have  already  called 
attention  to  the  importance  of  having  the  rooms  so  arranged, 
that  as  little  useless  travelling  as  possible  will  be  required.  If 
the  rooms  were  properly  arranged,  the  work  of  some  house- 
keepers would  be  greatly  diminished.  In  new  houses  the  rooms 
can  be  adjusted  easily  enough,  but  in  one  already  built  some 
changes  may  be  necessary  to  secure  the  greatest  efificiency  and 
economy  of  labor.  In  some  cases  a  change  of  the  parlor  to  the 
uses  of  the  kitchen,  and  the  kitchen  for  the  parlor,  will  give 
great  relief.  The  kitchen  and  sitting.-room  ought  to  be  the 
pleasantest  located  rooms  in  the  whole  house.  In  "  Homes, 
AND  How  TO  Make  Them,"  Mr.  Gardner  well  says  that  as  the 
kitchen  is  the  chief  workshop  of  the  house,  it  should  be  close- 
to  the  dining-room,  and  "  fitted  up  and  furnished  precisely  as  an 
intelligent  manufacturer  would  fit  up  his  factory.  Every  possible 
convenience  for  doing  what  must  be  done,  a  machine  for  doing 
each  kind  of  work  and  a  place  for  everj^  machine.  Provision 
for  the  removal  and  utilizing  of  all  waste,  for  economizing  to 
the  utmost  all  labor  and  material,  should  be  made."  Not  only 
as  a  matter  of  convenience  for  the  farmer's  wife,  but  also  to 
promote  the  comfort  and  health  of  the  whole  family,  a  dining- 
room  should  always  have  a  place  in  the  farm-house.  There 
should  be  a  "back-room"  in  which  the  washing  can  be  done  in 
hot  weather,  and  which  can  be  used  for  many  purposes  to  which 
no  other  room  is  well  adapted.  A  large  arch  kettle  ^ould  be 
located  in  this  room.  This  can  be  used  for  cooking  vegetables 
for  stock,  and  will  be  very  "handy"  many  times.  A  play-room 
for  the  children,  which,  when  they  arrive  at  a  suitable  age,  can 
be  converted  into  a  work-room  for  the  boys,  ought  also  to  be 
provided.  A  room  in  the  attic  will  be  found  very  convenient  as 
a  place  for  drjnng  clothes  in  bad  weather.  There  should  be  a 
window  at  each  end  in  order  to  secure  a  circulation  of  air.  The 
sleeping-rooms  need  not  be  excessively  large,  but  should  be  of 
sufficient  size  to  admit  of  the  easy  performance  of  the  work 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  99 

which  it  is  necessary  to  do  in  them.  Many  persons  have  an 
idea  that  all  sleeping-rooms  should  be  very  high  and  large  ;  but 
Dr.  Leeds  has  shown  that  if  they  are  well-ventilated,  rooms  of 
moderate  size  will  do  very  well,  while  no  possible  amount  of 
size  and  space  can  render  them  safe  for  sleeping  apartments  if 
ventilation  is  neglected.  The  various  rooms  of  the  house  should 
be  well  supplied  with  closets  and  cupboards,  as  these  will  add 
greatly  to  the  convenience  of  doing  the  necessary  work  for 
the  family.  In  order  to  render  the  house-cleaning  as  easy  as 
possible,  the  wood-work  in  the  rooms  should  be  varnished.  The 
difference  between  cleaning  wood-work  which  has  been  merely 
painted  and  that  which  has  been  painted  and  varnished  is 
greater  than  would  naturally  be  supposed.  It  costs  but  little  to 
do  the  varnishing,  the  paint  will  wear  much  longer,  and  the 
room  will  look  much  nicer  for  its  application. 

Very  near  the  kitchen  there  should  be  a  room  for  the  storage 
of  fuel.  This  may  be  the  wood-shed,  devoted  wholly  to  the 
purpose  of  keeping  the  wood  from  injury  by  exposure  to  the 
elements,  or,  if  this  is  at  a  little  distance  from  the  house,  merely 
a  small  room  in  which  a  supply  of  dry  wood  and  kindlings  can 
be  constantly  stored.  Something  of  the  kind  ought  always  to 
be  provided,  and  plenty  of  good  fuel  should  be  constantly  at 
hand. 

The  Cellar. — It  was  once  the  fashion  to  build  a  very  large 

house,  set  it  nearly  on  a  level  with  the  ground,  and  have  a  deep 

cellar  under  the  whole.     Fortunately  this  style  has  been  greatly 

modified.     Houses  are  smaller,  are  set  up  higher  from  the  soil, 

and  there  are  cellars  under  only  about  half  the  surface  covered 

by  the  buildings.     Very  large  cellars  are  almost  sure  to  become 

a  place  of  storage   for  a   great   deal  of  waste   material,  which 

slowly  decays  and  gives  off  poisonous  gases,  which  seriously 

injure  the  health  of  those  who  occupy  the  rooms  above.     It  is 

considerable  work  to  properly  care  for  a  large  cellar,  and  it  is 

not  needed  on  a  farm. 
7 


loo  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

Sometimes  the  house-cellar  is  made  a  place  for  storing  large 
quantities  of  roots  for  cattle,  but  this  should  never  be  done. 
The  cellar  should  be  thoroughly  drained.  Even  very  dry  land 
is  almost  sure  to  be  wet,  or  damp,  after  heavy  rains.  Conse- 
quently a  drain  is  needed  in  the  dryest  of  cellars.  Where  the 
land  is  wet,  Mr.  Waring  recommends  the  laying  of  drain-tile 
a  foot  below  the  bottom  of  the  cellar,  and  the  same  distance 
inside  the  walls.  These  tiles  to  go  around  the  cellar,  and  be 
carried  into  a  tile-drain  which  shall  take  the  water  a  suitable 
distance  from  the  house.  The  bottom  of  the  cellar  then  to 
be  covered  with  stones,  and  cemented.  This  is  a  good  and  not 
very  expensive  method  for  accomplishing  a  very  desirable 
result.  Where  stones  cannot  be  used  for  the  bottom  and  walls, 
bricks  may  take  their  place.  The  cellar  should  be  the  same 
size  as  the  house  one  way,  in  order  to  secure  easy  and  perfect 
ventilation.  The  turf  under  the  remainder  of  the  house  should 
be  taken  .off,  gravel  thrown  in,  and  covered  with  cement  in 
order  to  prevent  the  gases,  which  will  otherwise  come  from  the 
soil,  making  their  way  into  the  rooms.  If  this  is  not  done  the 
underpinning  should  not  be  close,  but  large  spaces  should  be 
left  each  side  so  as  to  allow  a  free  circulation  of  air.  Some 
provision  for  ventilation  should  also  be  made  when  the  ground 
is  cemented.  Otherwise  the  timbers  and  floors  of  the  house 
will  soon  be  affected  with  dry-rot.  The  cellar-walls  should  be 
thick,  and  carefully  cemented  all  around.  Overhead  the  room 
should  be  covered  with  lath  and  plaster  as  neatly  as  a  kitchen, 
and  both  the  walls  and  the  top  should  be  occasionally  white- 
washed. Several  windows  should  be  provided,  and  they  should 
be  so  arranged  that  they  can  be  easily  opened  and  closed. 
These  windows  should  serve  the  double  purpose  of  furnishing 
light  and  a  means  of  ventilation.  There  should  be  stairs  from 
the  kitchen,  or  a  point  close  by,  and  another  set  of  large  and 
wide  ones  leading  out  of  doors.  If  it  is  impossible  to  have  the 
bottom  cemented  in  the  manner  noted,  an  ample  drain  should  be 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  101 

provided.  Both  light  and  ventilation  should  always  be  secured. 
Dark,  damp  cellars  are  not  only  a  cause  of  much  ill-health,  but 
they  are  also  very  bad  places  for  the  storage  of  family  supplies. 
The  Barn. — To  a  foreigner  it  must  seem  very  strange  that 
the  New  England  farmer  who  has  but  fifty  or  a  hundred  acres 
of  land,  much  of  which  is  not  very  productive,  should  build  a 
large,  nice  barn,  while  the  Western  farmer,  who  owns  a  large 
tract  of  richer  land,  has  either  a  very  small  barn  or  else  none 
at  all.  While  at  the  West  and  South  barns  seem  to  be 
regarded  as  luxuries,  the  farmers  at  the  East  consider  them 
absolute  necessities,  and  expend  large  sums  of  money  in  erecting 
them.  In  this  respect  we  think  the  New  England  custom 
much  the  best,  and  we  are  glad  to  see  indications  that  the  value 
of  barns  and  granaries  is  becoming  better  understood  in  the 
other  sections.  Probably  the  expense  of  construction  has  had 
much  to  do  with  the  general  neglect  to  furnish  barns  in  some 
quarters,  but  we  must  think  that  their  benefits  have  also  been 
underrated.  For  if  the  energetic  men  who  have  carried  on 
extensive  farms,  and  been  successful  in  their  business,  had 
realized  the  great  value  of  barns,  their  own  farms  would  not 
have  been  so  long  without  them.  Within  a  few  years  many 
barns  have  been  erected,  and  the  owners  have  rejoiced  that  they 
were  led  to  build.  The  best  farmers  are  not  only  building 
barns  for  themselves,  but  are  advising  others  to  follow  their 
example.  An  editorial  article  upon  this  subject,  in  a  late 
number  of  Colman's  Rural  World,  said  that  "One  of  the 
first  indications  of  an  enterprising  farmer  is  a  good  barn,"  and 
declared  that  good  farming  cannot  be  carried  on  without  it.  To 
show  that  there  is  no  necessity  for  the  farmer  to  do  without  a 
barn,  the  writer  said :  "  If  farmers  would  undertake  the  building 
of  barns  themselves,  and  not  depend  upon  some  number  one 
carpenter  to  do  it,  we  should  have  more  of  them.  We  built  a 
very  commodious  barn,  sixty  feet  square,  a  couple  of  years  ago, 
with  men  hired  at  fifteen  dollars  per  month.     The  timber  was 


102  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 

got  out  of  the  woods.  The  clapboards  for  shingles  were  rived 
in  the  woods.  All  the  lumber  bought  was  the  planks  to  enclose 
it.  The  cost  of  the  whole  barn  was  trifling  in  comparison  to  its 
value,  and  the  amount  saved  by  it  any  year  would  build  another 
like  it."  We  have  made  the  above  extract  in  order  to  show 
that  large  and  influential  farmers  find  that  a  barn  is  a  very  valu- 
able building,  and  may  be  made  the  means  of  saving  a  great  deal 
of  money.  There  is  no  need  of  arguing  that  hay  and  grain 
which  is  promptly  stored  in  a  good  barn  is  in  a  much  better 
condition  than  it  could  possibly  be  in  the  stack,  and  that  storage 
in  a  barn  will  prevent  a  great  deal  of  waste  in  quantity  as  well 
as  damage  in  quality.  Probably  no  farmer  who  has  ever  had  a 
good  barn  would  willingly  be  without  one  for  many  times  its 
cost.  The  extract  we  have  made  also  shows  that  farmers  who 
have  woodland  can  put  up  barns  at  \&xy  small  expense.  Not 
every  one  could  build  as  cheaply  as  the  writer  of  that  article, 
for  it  is  not  every  farmer  who  understands  the  use  of  tools  well 
enough  to  enable  him  to  build  without  more  skilful  help.  But 
when  a  good  carpenter  is  hired  to  frame  the  building,  the 
expense  of  construction  need  hot  be  heavy  if  the  farmer  will 
attend  to  the  work  himself,  and  hire  other  help  to  good  advan- 
tage. Not  that  a  workman  should  be  ground  down  in  his 
wages.  Better  do  without  a  barn  than  to  build  one  with  miser- 
ably paid  labor.  But  in  almost  every  town  there  are  farmers 
who  were  once  carpenters,  or  who  can  use  tools  with  skill 
enough  for  all  common  work,  who  do  not  value  their  services 
very  highly,  or  who  would  rather  work  on  a  barn  than  on  the 
land,  and  who  would  be  glad  to  work  for  a  trifle  more  than  farm- 
laborers  receive.  When  such  help  can  be  employed  the  cost  of 
a  barn  will  be  very  low.  But  when  circumstances  are  not  as 
favorable,  we  are  confident  that,  in  the  end,  it  will  pay  the 
farmer  well  to  have  one.  Fig.  5  represents  a  cheap  barn  with 
a  baling-press  conveniently  located.  The  plan  was  furnished 
by  P.  K.  Dederick,  Esq.,  of  Albany,  N.  Y. 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  103 

The  size  of  a  barn  must  be  governed  by  the  size  and  pro- 
ductiveness of  the  farm,  and  the  method  of  finishing  should 
depend  upon  the  financial  ability  of  the  owner.  We  are  strongly 
in  favor  of  baling  hay,  and  thus  saving  barn-room  to  a  great 
extent.  A  press  for  this  purpose  is  somewhat  expensive,  but 
will  be  much  cheaper  than  a  large  addition  to  the  barn.  A 
medium-sized  hand-press  might  be  obtained  for  a  moderate  sum, 
or  several  neighbors  might  buy  a  power-press  in  company  and 
use  it  together,  thus  reducing  the  individual  cost  to  a  very  low 
figure.  With  a  good  press  and  horse-power  four  men  and  two 
boys  will  bale,  weigh,  and  store  from  six  to  ten  tons  of  hay 


FIG.    5. — CHEAP   HAY-BARN. 

per  day.  The  cost  of  baling,  including  ties,  will  be  only  about 
a  dollar  and  a  quarter  a  ton.  Straw  can  also  be  baled,  and  thus 
put  into  a  fraction  of  the  space  which  it  would  otherwise 
occupy.  If  either  hay  or  straw  are  to  be  sold,  baling  will 
greatly  facilitate  the  handling  of  the  materials,  and  will  also 
admit  of  their  being  shipped  on  the  cars.  Not  only  is  much 
room  saved  by  baling  hay,  but  the  hay  is  much  less  liable  to 
injur>^  by  contact  with  the  air,  and  to  loss  by  scattering  around 
the  premises.  In  some  places  men  who  own  presses  go  out  baling 
hay  and  straw  for  a  certain  price  per  ton.  When  there  is  a  good 
press  in  the  neighborhood  which  can  be  hired,  it  may  not  pay 
the  farmer  to  buy  one,  but  a  great  many  farmers  can  afford  to 


104 


FARMING   FOR    PROFIT. 


buy,  either  singly  or  in  company  with  others,  much  better  than 
they  can  afford  to  do  without.  Figure  6  represents  the  "  Inger- 
soll  "  hand-press,  manufactured  by  James  N.  Balston,  Green 
Point,  L.  I. ;  and  Figure  7,  Dederick's  "  Perpetual  "  power-press, 
made  by  P.  K.  Dederick  &  Co.,  Albany,  N.  Y. 

In  several  respects  what  was  said  concerning  the  house  will 
apply  with   but  slight  modification  to  the  construction  of  the 


FIG.  6. — INGERSPLL   PRESS. 


bam.  In  most  parts  of  the  country  warmth  is  one  of  the  great 
benefits  to  be  obtained.  This  should  be  secured  by  close  and 
carefully  lined  boarding,  tight  floors,  and  well-fitting  doors  and 
windows.  In  New  England  there  are  a  great  many  barns 
which  are  so  loosely  boarded  that  the  air  comes  in  through  a 
multitude  of  large  cracks;  the  floors  are  laid  so  loosely  that 
there  are  many  strong  currents  of  air  rising  in  the  stables  when- 
ever the  wind  blows,  and  the  roofs  are  so  open,  and  the  doors 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  105 

and  windows  fit  so  poorly,  that  in  a  cold  or  stormy  day  they 
very  forcibly  remind  one  of  a  house  built  of  boughs  in  the 
woods.  Such  barns  are  not  only  very  uncomfortable  for  animals 
which  are  kept  in  them,  but  are  also  very  expensive  structures 
for  their  owners.  Cattle  which  are  constantly  cold  will  be 
terribly  hungry,  and  it  will  cost  much  more  to  keep  them  than 
it  would  if  they  were  warm.  Much  of  the  food  which  they  eat 
in  cold  weather  will  be  used  to  keep  up  the  animal  heat.  If 
more  than  sufficient  for  this  purpose  is  furnished,  the  waste  of 
the  system  will  be  supplied  ;  but  if  not,  the  animal  will  grow 
poor.    If  there  remains  any  nutriment  after  these  ends  have  been 


FIG.  7. — "  PERPETUAL  "  PRESS. 

secured,  the  surplus  will  be  used  to  fatten  the  animal,  or  answer 
other  productive  purposes.  Before  a  cow  can  give  milk  she 
must  have  food  enough  to  keep  her  animal  heat  up  to  a  certain 
point,  and  also  supply  the  waste  which  is  constantly  going  on. 
These  things  have  the  first  claim  in  the  animal  economy.  If  a 
cow  gives  milk  without  havmg  sufficient  food  to  answer  these 
requirements,  she  will  do  it  at  the  direct  expense  of  her  system, 
and  will  inevitably  grow  poor.  Men  who  have  made  a  business 
of  feeding  cattle  have  found  that  a  certain  quantity  of  food  will 
produce  a  much  larger  proportion  of  meat  if  the  animals  to  which 
it  is  fed  are  kept  warm,  than  it  will  if  they  are  exposed  to 
storms  and  severe    cold.     Farmers  are  well  aware  that  whern 


IQQ  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

they  are  out  in  the  woods  in  winter  they  need  more  food  than 
they  do  wlicn  they  remain  by  the  fire.  The  greater  the  exposure 
to  cold  the  greater  will  be  the  waste  of  animal  heat,  and  the 
larger  the  quantity  of  food  which  will  be  needed  to  produce 
heat  enough  to  keep  the  system  at  its  normal  temperature. 
The  same  principle  applies  to  animals.  This  makes  it  plain 
that  to  quite  an  extent  warm  stables  will  take  the  place  of  food. 
Cattle  must  in  some  way  be  kept  warm  enough  so  that  they  will 
not  freeze.  Shelter  can  do  much  toward  keeping  up  the  animal 
heat,  and  food  is  able  to  do  the  rest.  If  shelter  is  denied,  a 
double  burden  is  thrown  upon  the  food,  and  a  much  larger 
quantity  will  be  required  than  will  be  necessary  if  sufficient 
shelter  is  provided.  The  man  who  has  a  warm  barn  can  keep 
more  cattle,  and  keep  them  in  better  flesh,  than  another  who 
feeds  the  same  amount  of  hay  in  a  cold  barn.  Merely  in  order 
to  prevent  the  suffering  which  severe  cold  brings  to  all  domestic 
animals  in  our  Northern  States,  the  barns  should  be  made  warm, 
and  the  claims  of  the  owner's  pocket  will  strongly  seconci  those 
of  pure  humanity. 

Some  of  the  means  of  promoting  warmth  have  been  noted. 
In  case  it  is  desired  to  fill  under  the  stables  with  muck  in  order 
to  save  the  liquid  manure,  the  floors  should  be  laid  with  a  little 
space  between  the  planks,  but  all  upward  currents  of  air  should 
be  prevented  by  having  the  walls  under  the  sills  perfectly  tight 
and  by  keeping  a  suitable  quantity  of  muck  in  the  vault.  But, 
while  warmth  is  greatly  to  be  desired,  ventilation  must  not  be 
neglected.  Better  have  a  cold  barn  in  which  there  is  plenty  of 
pure  air  than  a  tight,  warm  one  in  which  the  animals  are  obliged 
to  constantly  breathe  a  badly  tainted  atmosphere.  The  air  in 
some  close  stables  is  terribly  offensive,  and  no  animal  can  remain 
healthy  if  obliged  to  breathe  it  for  any  length  of  time.  Upon 
the  top  of  every  well-covered  barn  there  should  be  a  good  ven- 
tilator, and  there  should  be  an  opening  near  the  floor  for  the 
entrance  of  pure  air. 


FA}<J\it  BUILDINGS.  107 

Thd  doors  which  lead  to  the  main  floor  should  be  wide  and 
high,  and  should  be  nicely  hung  on  rollers  or  hinges.  There 
should  be  a  way  for  safely  locking  all  the  doors  in  the  barn,  and 
also  for  fastening  them  open  when  this  is  desired.  The  stable 
doors  should  be  of  ample  size  and  nicely  put  up.  Windows 
should  be  furnished  in  abundance.  Nearly  all  barns  are  too 
dark  for  the  comfort  and  health  of  the  cattle  and  for  the  conve- 
nience of  the  men  who  take  care  of  them.  Both  horses  and 
cattle  are  injured  by  spending  their  days  in  dark  stalls. 

Instead  of  the  ladders  which  most  farmers  delight  to  use  in 
their  barns,  there  should  oe  good  stairs  leading  to  the  scaffolds 
and  beams.  For  transient  use,  a  portable  step-ladder  is  much 
superior  to  the  old-fashioned  styles.  Floors  should  be  laid  in 
all  the  "  bays ;  "  they  should  be  tight,  and  elevated  at  least  two 
feet  from  the  ground.  The  wall  beneath  the  barn  should  be 
tight  nearly  all  the  way,  but  a  place  should  be  left  upon  two 
opposite  sides  for  ventilation.  Between  the  underground  part 
of  the  barn  and  the  stables  there  should  be  a  tight  wall.  The 
main  flgor  should  be  smooth  and  nicely  laid,  the  stable  floors 
very  strong,  and  both  planks  and  sleepers  should  be  renewed 
before  they  are  seriously  weakened  by  use  or  age.  The  floors 
upon  the  scaffolds  should  be  tight  and  lined  in  order  to  prevent 
the  penetration  of  dust  and  dirt  into  the  stables,  while  upon  the 
"  great  beams  "  small  spaces  may  be  left  between  the  boards  in 
order  to  facilitate  the  drying  of  the  grain  which  is  stored  upon 
them. 

The  roof  of  the  barn  should  be  kept  in  good  repair  in  order 
to  prevent  injury  to  the  framework  of  the  structure,  damage  to 
the  crops  stored  within,  discomfort  to  the  animals,  and  loss  to 
the  owner.  Eave-troughs  should  always  be  provided  in  order 
to  keep  the  large  quantity  of  water  which  falls  upon  the  roof 
from  running  into  the  yard.  We  also  consider  a  lightning-rod 
almost  indispensable. 

The  Stables. — Even  at  the  South,  where  the  cold  does  not 


108  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

compel  stock-owners  to  house  their  animals,  it  is  advisable  to 
have  plenty  of  well-arranged  stables.  It  is  better  for  the  animals 
to  be  made  tame  by  coming  to  the  stables,  and  they  will  not 
waste  half  the  food  if  kept  in  them  that  they  will  if  fed  on  the 
ground.  In  cold  climates  stables  are  great  necessities.  They 
should  be  an  integral  part  of  the  barn  itself,  and  kept  as  warm, 
light,  and  well  ventilated  as  any  part  of  the  building.  The 
animals  which  are  kept  in  them  should  not  be  crowded.  Room 
is  essential  to  their  thrift  and  comfort  as  well  as  to  the  conve- 
nience of  the  man  who  takes  care  of  them.  Very  few  stables 
which  we  have  seen  were  high  enough.  All  stables  should  be 
built  so  that  a  tall  man,  with  a  tall  hat  on  his  head,  can  go 
through  them  without  stooping.  In  every  barn  in  which  stock 
is  kept  there  should  be  a  few  box-stalls,  each  one  so  arranged 
that  a  single  animal  can  be  turned  in  loose  if  desired.  These 
stalls  are  very  convenient  for  sick  animals,  for  cows  when  they 
calve,  and  at  many  other  times  they  are  much  better  than  ordi- 
nary stables.  We  do  not  favor  vciy  many  stalls  in  one  room. 
Between  every  half-dozen  stalls  there  should  be  a  partition  with 
a  door  which  can  be  securely  fastened. 

The  principal  methods  of  fastening  cattle  are  the  stanchion, 
the  chain  around  the  neck,  the  bow  around  the  neck  and  pass- 
ing through  a  ring  which  slides  upon  a  round  post,  and  the  rope 
around  the  horns.  Of  these  the  former  is  considered  the  surest 
fastening  and  is  much  the  most  convenient  for  the  man  who 
cares  for  the  stock,  but  it  is  not  as  easy  for  the  cattle  as  either 
of  the  other  methods.  The  chain  is  an  easy  and  pretty  safe  fas- 
tening. A  good  bow  will  usually  hold  and  is  not  troublesome 
to  the  animal,  though  inconvenient  for  the  man  who  uses  it.  The 
rope  is  inconvenient,  soon  wears  out,  and  is  liable  to  be  broken, 
but  if  cattle  are  quiet  it  is  not  a  very  uncomfortable  fastening. 
All  mangers  should  be  built  up  from  the  floor  high  enough  for 
the  cattle  to  eat  from  them  with  but  a  very  slight  lowering  of 
the  head,  should  be  perfectly  tight,  and  as  smooth  as  possible 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  109 

inside.     They  should  be  so  nicely  fitted  that  dry  meal  can  be 
fed  in  them  without  a  particle  of  waste. 

•  The  Barn-Cellar. — We  are  not  strongly  in  favor  of  a  barn- 
cellar — not  nearly  as  strongly  as  we  were  a  few  years  ago. 
These  cellars  have  many  manifest  advantages,  but  are  also  open 
to  grave  objections.  The  cellar  can  be  made  a  splendid  place 
for  the  manufacture  of  manure;  but  unless  a  great  deal  of  care  xi 
taken,  the  air  which  the  cattle  must  breathe  will  be  contaminated, 
and  a  source  of  ill-health  both  for  animals  and  for  the  inmates 
of  the  neighboring  houses  will  be  provided.  Decomposition  of 
manure  directly  under  a  barn  will  be  almost  sure  to  prove 
injurious  to  the  animals  which  are  kept  in  it,  and  will  also 
injure  the  quality  of  the  hay  and  grain  which  are  stored  in  the 
building.  Any  ordinary  system  of  ventilation  will  prove  only  a 
partial  and  a  very  inefficient  remedy.  If  means  are  taken  to 
prevent  the  decomposition,  they  will  probably  be  only  partially 
successful,  so  that  the  evil  will  be  modified  instead  of  removed. 
But  by  taking  such  a  course  the  farmer  cuts  himself  off  from 
the  principal  advantages  which  are  claimed  for  the  barn-cellar. 
It  is  a  significant  fact  that  many  intelligent  farmers  who  once 
'  considered  the  manure-cellar  a  very  valuable  adjunct  to  a  barn 
have  given  up  using  it  for  the  purpose  for  which  it  was 
originally  designed.  The  opinion  Seems  to  be  gaining  ground 
that  while  a  barn-cellar  is  a  splendid  place  for  the  manufacture 
of  manure,  it  is  subject  to  serious  drawbacks  which  mxore  than 
equal  the  good  which  can  result  from  its  use.  In  all  cases,  if  a 
cellar  is  used,  a  great  deal  of  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  a 
constant  and  an  abundant  supply  of  dry  earth,  or  some  powerful 
deodorizer,  on  hand,  and  by  its  use  prevent,  as  far  as  possible, 
the  evil  effects  which  result  from  the  presence  of  fermenting  and 
decaying  material  directly  under  the  cattle,  and  in  the  vicinity 
of  hay  and  grain. 

On  farms   upon  which  large  quantities  of  roots  are  grown, 
a  cellar  under  the  barn  may  be  the  best  place  for  their  storage 


110  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 

which  can  be  obtained.  The  bins  should  be  under  the  main 
bam  and  never  directly  under  the  stables.  When  the  barn  is 
built  upon  a  side-hill,  a  basement-room  can  sometimes  be  easily 
secured.  This  will  provide  a  place  for  roots  upon  one  side  and 
stables  upon  the  other.  The  stables  should  be  upon  the  ground- 
level,  and  the  whole  length  of  the  basement  should  be  exposed 
to  the  light  and  be  well  ventilated.  Dark,  damp,  and  badly 
ventilated  stables  are  terribly  unhealthy.  When  the  stables  are 
over  a  cellar  the  floors  should  be  made  very  strong,  frequently 
examined,  and  constantly  kept  in  good  repair.  Many  cases  are 
on  record  in  which  animals  have  been  killed  by  the  giving  away 
of  the  floors  upon  which  they  stood.  When  cattle  are  loept  in 
the  basement,  it  is  also  important  that  the  floors  overhead  should 
be  laid  upon  strong  timbers  and  be  kept  in  good  repair. 

The  Granary. — We  have  already  alluded  to  the  great  im- 
portance of  having  a  granary.  A  room  finished  off  in  the  barn, 
or  over  the  wagon-shed,  though  often  made  to  answer  the  pur- 
pose, is  not  a  satisfactory  substitute  for  a  building  devoted  to 
this  special  purpose.  The  granary  may  be  a  very  simple  structure, 
but  it  should  be  an  independent  building.  The  size  and  the 
details  of  construction  w  ill  vary  greatly  with  the  requirements  of 
different  farms,  but  there  are  a  few  general  principles  which  should 
be  universally  regarded.  The  building  should  be  set  upon  stone 
posts,  or  a  smooth  brick-wall,  which  should  rise  at  least  three 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  ground.  This  is  one  of  the  most 
effectual  methods  for  keeping  rats  away  from  the  grain.  If 
walls  are  used,  sp:ices  should  be  left  to  allow  a  circulation  of  air 
under  the  building.  Two  sides  of  the  granar}'  should  be  covered 
with  slats  two  and  a  half  or  three  inches  wide,  and  placed  half 
an  inch  apart.  The  other  sides  should  be  boarded  perfectly 
tight.  The  eaves  should  project  considerably  and  the  roof  be 
kept  constantly  in  repair.  The  floor  should  be  made  of  planks 
closely  fitted  and  smoothly  laid.  There  should  be  at  least  two 
windows  to  admit  the  light,  and  a  ventilator  should  also  be  pro- 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  \\\ 

vided.  Against  the  sides  covered  with  slats,  bins  for  holding  ears 
of  corn  may  be  built.  These  should  not  be  more  than  three  feet 
wide,  but  in  height  may  extend  nearly  to  the  roof.  Against  the 
sides  covered  with  boards  bins  for  wheat,  oats,  and  shelled-corn, 
may  be  constructed.  These  should  be  perfectly  tight,  with  well- 
fitting  covers  and  provided  with  locks  and  keys.  Bins  for  this 
purpose  should  not  be  more  than  three  or  four  feet  wide  and 
four  feet  high.  They  should  be  divided  off  by  partitions  into 
several  compartments,  each  holding  from  ten  to  forty  bushels  of 
grain.  We  do  not  like  the  idea  of  a  second  tier  of  bins  above 
the  one  on  the  floor.  We  should  much  prefer  to  put  up  extra 
bins,  from  the  floor,  in  front  of  the  others,  with  an  alley  three 
feet  in  width  between.  Over  these  bins,  and  high  enough  to 
allow  the  covers  to  be  raised  w'thout  obstruction,  a  scaffold 
may  be  built  which  will  be  found  v^ery  convenient  for  various 
purposes. 

Access  to  this  scaffold  may  be  had  by  means  of  stairs.  A 
step-ladder  should  also  be  provided  for  use  in  the  granary,  and 
provision  ought  to  be  made  for  temporary  stagings  to  be  put  up 
in  husking  time  and  removed  when  the  corn-bins  are  filled. 
The  outside  door  should  be  made  to  close  perfectly  tight  and 
should  be  provided  with  a  strong  lock. 

The  Hog-House. — Concerning  this  building  little  need  be 
said.  It  should  be  warm,  with  plenty  of  windows  to  admit  the 
light,  and  ample  means  of  ventilation.  The  roof  should  be  high 
enough  above  the  floor  to  allow  a  tall  man  to  stand  upright  in 
the  pens.  The  building  should  be  divided  into  two  or  more 
apartments  connected  with  each  other  by  a  door,  and  each  pen 
connected  with  the  yard  in  the  same  way.  In  front  of  the  pens 
there  should  be  a  wide  alley  which  should  always  be  kept  clean 
instead  of  being,  as  is  too  often  the  case,  made  a  storing-place 
for  tools,  old  barrels,  odd  pieces  of  boards,  and  all  manner  of 
rubbish.  The  boarding  between  the  alley  and  the  pen  should 
be  high  enough  to  prevent  all  attempts  on  the  part  of  the  pigs 


112  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

to  jump  over.  There  should  also  be  one  or  two  boards  laid 
across  the  front  of  the  pen,  directly  over  the  trough,  to  keep  the 
pigs  from  jumping  up  and  putting  their  forward  feet  near  the 
top  of  the  boarding,  thus  throwing  mud  in  the  face  of  the  man 
who  feeds  them.  Without  some  preventive,  pigs  will  soon 
learn  to  jump  up  when  any  one  comes  to  feed  them,  and  will 
make  the  operation  of  feeding  them  one  of  the  most  vexatious 
tasks  which  the  farmer  has  to  perform.  The  lower  boards  of 
the  partition  between  the  pen  and  the  alley  should  be  so 
arranged  as  to  be  swung  inside  the  pen,  leaving  the  trough  in 
the  alley,  while  the  food  is  being  put  in.  This  will  allow  the 
troughs  to  be  properly  cleaned  as  well  as  add  to  the  convenience 
of  feeding  the  pigs.  The  floor  of  the  pen  should  be  made  of 
planks,  well  fitted,  and  nailed  down.  Otherwise  the  pigs  will 
be  likely  to  tear  it  up.  In  order  to  keep  it  dry  the  floor  should 
slope  a  little  toward  the  yard.  In  one  corner  should  be  a  room, 
divided  from  the  main  pen  by  a  partition  six  inches  or  a  foot  in 
height,  for  the  pigs  to  use  as  a  sleeping  apartment.  Plenty  of 
straw  should  be  kept  in  this  corner.  When  the  bed  becomes 
foul  it  should  be  thrown  out  and  fresh  straw  supplied. 

If  the  raising  of  pigs  is  one  of  the  industries  to  which  the  far- 
mer devotes  his  attention,  larger  pens  will  be  needed  than  will 
be  required  for  simply  fattening  hogs.  The  building  must  not 
only  be  larger  but  finished  in  better  style,  and  in  the  Northern 
States  supplied  with  a  stove  and  other  conveniences.  It  is  well 
to  give  pigs  plenty  of  room  in  which  to  eat  and  sleep,  as  well  as 
a  good-sized  yard.  For  ordinary  purposes  a  house  need  cost 
but  a  small  sum,  and  even  where  the  raising  of  pigs  is  to  be 
a  prominent  business  the  expense  need  not  be  very  great. 

The  Hen-House. — This  may  be  a  small  and  inexpensive 
building,  but  something  for  the  purpose  should  be  found  upon 
every  farm.  For,  in  spite  of  all  the  mischief  which  they  do,  hens 
and  chickens  can  be  made  to  pay  well  for  all  the  expense  and 
trouble  of  growing  and   keeping   them.      But,  like   all    other 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  113 

animals,  they  need  food,  and  care,  and  protection  from  cold  and 
storms.  They  ought  not  to  be  compelled  to  roost  in  trees,  or 
on  fences,  or  in  wagon-sheds,  but  should  have  a  house  of  their 
own  just  as  much  as  the  hogs  or  the  sheep.  This  house  should 
be  set  high  enough  above  the  ground  to  avoid  dampness  and 
be  closely  underpinned,  with  spaces  for  ventilation  as  described 
for  the  preceding  buildings.  The  size  must  depend  upon  the 
number  of  fowls  to  be  kept.  A  house  ten  by  sixteen  feet  is  large 
enough  for  thirty  or  thirty-five  fowls.  Whatever  the  number 
which  is  to  be  kept,  the  farmer  should  remember  that  it  is  not 
safe  to  house  more  than  fifty  fowls  in  any  one  apartment,  even 
though  it  be  a  very  large  one.  If  more  than  this  number  are  to 
be  kept,  more  than  one  room  should  be  provided.  The  roof 
should  be  high  enough  to  allow  a  man  to  stand  upright  in  any 
part  of  the  building.  In  order  to  save  expense  the  roof  can  be 
made  upon  one  side,  having  the  other  side  of  the  building  per- 
pendicular from  the  ground  to  the  top  of  the  roof  Or,  if  only 
a  small  room  is  wanted,  the  upper'end  of  the  rafters  may  be  laid 
against  one  end  of  the  wagon-shed,  or  some  other  building. 
The  floor  should  be  made  of  matched  boards,  cement,  or  clay. 
The  room  should  be  closely  boarded  on  three-inch  studs  and 
lined  with  matched  boards,  or  else  with  lath  and  plaster.  The 
inside  of  the  roof  should  be  covered  in  the  same  way,  and  the 
outside  covered  with  the  best  shingles  or  with  slate. 

The  south  side  should  be  largely  of  glass,  and  there  may  be 
windows  in  other  parts  of  the  building  if  desired.  A  good  ven- 
tilator is  one  of  the  necessities,  and  must  not  be  omitted.  One 
or  more  good-sized  doors  should  be  provided,  and  should  be 
furnished  with  good  locks.  The  interior  arrangements  may  be 
quite  simple.  There  should  be  a  few  boxes  for  nests,  and  a 
sufficient  number  of  perches  to  accommodate  all  the  fowls.  Also 
a  box  to  contain  dust,  and  another  for  gravel.  A  large  iron 
dish,  or  something  which  will  answer  the  purpose,  should  be 
furnished  to  contain  water  for  drinking  purposes.     The  whole 


114  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

interior  of  the  building  should  be  whitewashed  three  or  four 
times  a  year. 

The  Wagon-Shed. — This  may  be  a  plain  building,  but 
should  be  closely  boarded  and  lined,  and  always  kept  well 
shingled.  The  size  will  depend  upon  the  number  of  wagons 
and  carts  which  are  used  on  the  farm.  On  very  small  farms  it 
is  sometimes  well  to  make  the  lower  floor  of  the  waeon-shed 
also  answer  the  purposes  of  a  tool-house.  It  may  also,  upon 
such  farms,  do  for  a  horse-barn  besides.  The  loft  overhead 
will  furnish  a  place  for  the  storage  of  plenty  of  hay,  and  room 
for  a  stable  can  easily  be  secured  on  the  lower  floor. 

On  large  farms  this  arrangement  should  not  be  made.  The 
ground-floor  should  be  reasonably  tight,  and  the  floor  over  the 
w^agons  should  be  lined  so  as  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  dust 
into  the  lower  room.  Many  sheds  are  left  open  in  front,  but  we 
think  it  better  to  have  doors.  Certainly  the  sheds  in  which  the 
nice  wagons,  carriages,  and  robes  are  kept  (which  should  always 
be  separated  by  a  close  partition  from  the  rest  of  the  building) 
should  have  doors  which  can  be  locked,  and  in  which  things 
can  be  safely  kept.  This  building  should  be  raised  but  little 
above  the  surface  of  the  ground,  as  it  would  be  hard  work  to 
draw  in  the  wagons  if  it  were  much  higher  than  the  land  around 
it.  There  is  a  strong  tendency  to  make  wagon-sheds  too  small, 
and  thus  convert  them  into  perfect  nuisances. 

For  a  small  farm  a  building  thirty-six  feet  long,  and  twenty- 
eight  feet  wide,  with  a  partition  running  through  it  lengthwise 
two  feet  one  side  of  the  centre,  will  answer  ver>-  well.  This  will 
give  one  room  thirty-six  by  sixteen  feet,  which  will  afford  space 
for  five  wagons  or  carriages,  with  room  to  pass  between  them  in 
getting  in  and  out,  and  another  room  thirty-six  by  twelve  feet, 
which  can  be  used  for  the  storage  of  the  mowing-machine,  hay_ 
tedder,  horse-rake,  plows,  harrows,  shovels,  and  other  tools.  It 
is  best  to  have  a  partition  dividing  each  of  these  rooms.  In  one 
corner  a  room  fourteen  feet  wide,  inside  of  the  posts,  may  be 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  115 

done  off  for  the  best  wagon  and  the  top-carriage.  This  should 
be  at  least  eight  and  a  half  feet  high,  so  that  it  will  take  in  a 
hicrh  carriage  without  letting  down  the  top.  If  it  is  desired  to 
save  all  possible  expense,  the  other  rooms,  in  which  tools  and 
wagons  are  kept,  may  be  left  open  in  front,  but  it  is  much  better 
that  the  whole  building  should  be  enclosed.  The  height  of 
these  rooms  need  not  exceed  seven  feet,  and  should  not  fall 
much  below  that  figure.  If  such  a  building  contains  more 
room  than  is  desired  for  the  purposes  named,  the  remainder  may 
be  utilized  for  a  horse-stall  as  already  suggested.  If  preferrec|, 
a  stable  for  a  few  sheep  may  be  furnished  instead  of  the  horse- 
stall.  The  loft  will  give  plenty  of  room  for  the  storage  of 
rowen  upon  which  to  feed  them  during  the  winter. 

The  posts  for  this  building  should  be  thirteen  feet  long. 
This  because  the  ground  size  proposed  needs  this  height,  in, 
order  to  make  a  well-proportioned  building,  and  also  because 
the  cost  will  be  but  a  trifle  more  than  it  would  if  short  posts 
were  used,  while  the  loft,  which  will  be  found  very  useful, 
cannot  be  secured  of  suitable  size  without  posts  of  about  this 
length. 

The  Wood-House. — This  may  be  a  very  simple  building,  but 
should  always  be  provided  on  farms  where  wood  is  used  for  fuel 
It  should  be  very  near  the  kitchen,  unless  a  special  wood-room 
is  done  off  in  the  house,  and  access  to  it  should  be  had  without 
going  out  of  doors.  In  any  case  it  should  not  be  far  from  the 
dwelling.  The  size  will  vary  with  the  size  of  the  family,  number 
of  fires  kept,  and  quantity  of  wood  which  is  used.  It  should 
be  large  enough  to  hold  rather  more  wood  than  is  needed  in  any 
ordinary  year.  This,  too,  without  building  the  piles  much  higher 
than  a  man  can  reach  comfortably  when  standing  on  the  floor. 
There  should  be  a  tight  floor  over  the  wood-room.  This  maybe 
reached  by  stairs,  and  will  furnish  a  good  place  for  the  storage 
of  many  things  which  are  often  needed  on  the  farm,  and  for 
which  there  seems  to  be.  no  other  convenient. location.      The. 


116  FARMING   FOR  PROFIT. 

buildings  should  be  closely  boarded  and  the  roof  kept  in  good 
repair.  The  wood  ought  never  to  be  laid  upon  the  ground ;  but 
a  good  floor  should  be  provided  for  the  whole  building.  The 
front  should  be  made  of  doors  which  can  be  opened  when 
desired,  and  there  should  be  one  or  more  windows  to  admit  the 
light. 

Closets  avd  Vaults. — Not  one  farmer  in  a  hundred  is  so 
situated  that  he  can  have  the  water-closet  which  is  in  common 
use  in  cities,  but  this  is  no  reason  why  the  great  majority  should 
furnish  only  small,  leaky,  inconvenient  buildings,  located  so  far 
from  the  house,  or  in  such  badly  exposed  situations,  that  the 
women  and  children  will  never  go  to  them  when  it  is  possible 
to  prevent  it,  or  will  be  obliged  to  run  the  risk  of  catching  a 
severe  cold  ever}''  time  they  venture  there.  No  small  amount  of 
ill-health  is  caused  in  this  way  every  year.  But  there  are  two 
other,  and  great,  sources  of  danger  connected  with  the  ordinary 
closet  as  found  on  the.  farm — sources  from  which  thousands  of 
deaths  result  every  year,  and  by  which  the  seeds  of  disease  are 
sown  in  the  systems  of  thousands  who  do  not  at  once  succumb 
to  the  evil,  but  baffle  it  for  a  while,  yet  only  in  a  multitude  of  cases 
to  be  defeated  in  the  not  distant  future.  These  are  the  fouling 
of  the  air  and  the  poisoning  of  the  water.  Many  of  the  clos- 
ets have  no  means  of  deodorization,  and  no  effort  is  made  to 
prevent  the  liquid  portion  of  their  contents  from  passing  freely 
into  the  ground.  In  the  former  manner  the  great  majority  of 
these  closets  work  an  immense  amount  of  mischief,  but  an 
amount  which  they  would  greatly  exceed  in  the  other  respect, 
were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  they  are  located  so  far  from  the 
houses  and  wells.  But  many  of  them  are  near  enough  to  wells 
to  taint  them  and  work  deadly  mischief  The  earth  possesses 
the  power  to  filter  poisonous  liquids  to  some  extent,  but  this 
power  is  gradually  lost,  and  in  time  the  soil  becomes  filled  with 
poison  and  then  cannot  purify  the  water  passing  through  it. 
Thus  it  happens  that  there  is  seldom  trouble  with  the  well  at  a 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  117 

new  liouse.  Even  though  the  closet  may  be  dangerously  near, 
the  soil,  for  a  while,  wards  off  the  evil.  But  the  time  comes  when 
all  the  earth  between  the  closet  and  the  well  is  foul,  and  the  day 
of  reckoning  is  then  at  hand.  The  inmates  of  the  house 
mysteriously  (to  them)  lose  their  health.  Headaches,  neuralgia, 
liver  troubles,  blood-poisons,  and  typhoid  fevers,  become 
frequent  and  dangerous  visitors.  The  doctors  are  called  and 
medicines  are  poured  down.  As  the  ihvalids  drink  but  little 
cold  water  a  temporary  relief  is  obtained.  Those  who  drink 
water  only  after  it  has  beerj  boiled  partially  escape.  But  ill-health 
is  the  rule,  and  un':imely  deaths  will  b^  almost  sure  to  occur. 
.  That  terrible  scourge,  diphtheria,  is  often  caused  by  foul  wells  and 
a  poisoned  soil.  Probably  not  one  farmer  in  a  thousand  realizes 
the  tremendous  danger  attending  these  old-fashioned  closets. 
If  far  from  the  house,  they  are,  in  bad  weather,  practically  in- 
accessible to  the  women  and  younger  children ;  they  foul  the 
air,  and  if  located  above  the  level  of  the  house  and  the  soil  is 
porous,  a  communication  is  soon  established  with  the  well.  If 
near  by,  the  air  is  poisoned  and  the  water  is  soon  spoiled. 
This  is  a  terrible  evil.  Physicians  realize  it,  but  there  are  few 
men  who  have  not  made  a  special  study  of  the  matter  v/ho  have 
any  adequate  idea  of  the  amount  of  the  evil  which  has  already 
been  accomplished,  or  the  danger  which  is  lurking  in  the 
present  and  the  future.  But  all  this  evil  can  be  avoided  in  new 
places  and  remedied  in  old  localities.  But  little  expense  need 
be  involved.  Care  and  skill  are  the  main  requisites.  The  closet 
should  be  placed  in  some  spot  which  is  sheltered  from  the 
storms  and  hidden  from  the  road.  It  should  be  reached  without 
going  out  of  doors.  If  this  is  impossible,  thick  rows  of  ever-- 
greens,  or  a  high,  tight  fence  may  serve  as  a  wind-break,  and  ' 
also  shield  the  passer  from  observation.  The  vault  should  be 
cemented  upon  the  bottom  and  all  its  sides.  Dry  muck,  road 
dust,  or  coal-ashes,  should  be  used  every  day  as  a  deodorizer 
and  absorbent. 


118  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

The  closet  should  be  large  enough  to  hold  two  or  three 
barrels  of  this  material.  From  two  to  four  quarts  of  either  of 
these  substances  thrown  down  every  day,  half  in  the  morning 
and  the  remainder  at  night,  will  keep  the  air  pure  and  prevent 
all  danger  of  injury  to  the  well,  if  the  latter  is  not  too  near  by. 
If  at  any  time  an  odor  should  arise,  more  dust  must  be  thrown 
down.  No  soap-suds,  or  slops  of  any  kind,  should  ever 
be  turned  into  the  vault.  The  closet  should  be  set  upon 
a  cemented  wall  a  little  above  the  surface  of  the  land ;  the  back 
walls  should  slope  a  little,  projecting  farther  at  the  bottom  than 
the  top,  and  the  vault  be  closed  by  a  plank-door  coated  with 
gas-tar  on  the  inside,  and  painted  on  the  outside.  This  door 
should  be  hung  on  hinges  so  that  it  can  be  readily  opened,  and 
a  hook  should  be  provided  to  keep  it  up  when  necessary  to 
clean  the  vault.  The  door  must  also  be  so  hung  as  to  fit  the 
projecting  walls,  hold  down  by  its  own  weight,  and  shut  per- 
fectly tight.  With  such  simple  and  inexpensive  arrangements 
as  these,  the  terrible  evils  which  have  been  pointed  out,  and 
from  which  thousands  of  farmers'  families  are  reaping  a  harx'est 
of  disease  and  death,  may  be  avoided.  But  there  must  be  no 
neglect.  The  deodorizer  must  be  used  every  day.  In  addition 
to  keeping  the  air  and  water  pure,  this  plan  also  obviates  all 
difficulty  in  clearing  out  the  vaults,  as  the  contents  will  be 
perfectly  inoffensive. 

The  Tool-House. — Upon  large  farms  there  certainly  ought 
to  be  a  building  devoted  expressly  to  the  storage  of  tools  and 
machines.  The  spare  room  in  the  wagon-shed,  which  has  been 
indicated  for  this  purpose  on  small  farms,  will  be  wholly  in- 
adequate on  large  ones.  That  wagons  ought  to  be  fully 
protected  from  the  weather  the  majority  of  good  farmers 
understand.  But  many  of  the  tools  and  machines  in  common 
use  upon  large  farms  are  as  valuable  as  ordinary  wagons,  while 
some  of  them  are  much  more  expensive.  It  is  utterly  ruin- 
ous to  allow  reapers,  mowers,  hay-tedders,  grain-drills,  plows. 


FARM  BUILDINGS.  119 

harrows,  and  similar  implements,  to  remain  exposed  to  the 
destructive  influences  of  the  weather.  A  plain,  cheap  build- 
ing should  therefore  be  erected  for  their  preservation.  This 
should  be  located  near  the  barn,  so  that  no  time  and  travel  shall 
be  lost  in  getting  the  teams  to  where  the  tools  are  kept.  The 
size  of  the  structure  should  depend  upon  the  number  of  im- 
plements in  use  upon  the  farm.  The  building  should  be  tightly 
covered,  provided  with  windows,  and  have  plenty  of  doors 
which  can  be  securely  fastened.  A  good  floor  should  be  made 
a  little  above  the  ground.  This  can  be  made  of  a  low  grade  of 
planks  so  that  its  expense  will  be  light.  It  is  not  well  to  have 
machines  stand  upon  the  ground,  as  there  will  inevitably  be  a 
dampness  arising  from  it  which  will  rust  the  iron  wheels  and 
gears  and  Swell  the  wood-work.  About  seven  feet  above  this 
ground-floor  should  be  a  scaffold,  upon  which  rakes,  forks, 
baskets,  and  many  of  the  lighter  implements  in  use  upon  the 
farm,  may  be  stored.  This  floor  should  be  perfectly  tight,  and 
be  reached  by  stairs  on  the  inside  of  the  building.  Pegs,  nails, 
and  shelf-room  should  be  provided  in  abundance,  and  there 
should  be  plenty  of  room  for  the  storage  of  all  implements  for 
which  no  more  suitable  place  has  been  supplied. 

The  Repair-Shop. — This  is  also  a  great  convenience,  almost 
a  necessity,  on  a  large  farm.  Tools  are  constantly  getting  worn, 
or  broken,  or  loosened,  or  need  cleaning,  or  painting,  or  some 
simple  repairs.  If  he  had  a  good  place  in  which  to  do  it  many 
a  farmer  might  repair  a  large  part  of  his  tools,  and  if  this  work 
were  done  as  soon  as  needed,  a  vast  amount  of  money  would  be 
saved.  It  is  now  too  often  the  case  that  machines  are  run  as 
long  as  possible  and  then  sent  off  for  repairs.  In  this  way  the 
tools  are  badly  injured  and  great  expense  is  incurred.  A  farmer 
who  is  handy  with  carpenters'  and  blacksmiths'  tools  could 
attend  to  these  matters  at  once  and  thus  save  both  the  wear  and 
the  expense.  There  will  be  many  jobs  which  he  cannot  do,  but 
he  will  find  many  more  which  he  can  perform,  and  by  doing 


120  FARMING   FOR  PROFIT. 

them  he  can  save  much  time  and  money.  This  shop  may  be  a 
plain,  closely  boarded,  well-lighted,  one-story  building,  with  a 
loft  for  storing  boards  and  light  pieces  of  timber.  There  should 
be  a  doorway  wide  enough  to  take  in  a  farm-wagon  or  hay- 
tedder.  There  ought  to  be  a  good  floor,  a  work-bench  on  one 
side  with  racks  and  shelves  to  hold  the  tools,  two  or  three  good 
horses  upon  which  planks  or  farm-tools  can  be  laid,  while  a 
forge,  and  a  good  lathe,  will  add  greatly  to  the  completeness  of 
the  structure.  In  this  room  mowing  machines  may  be  cleaned 
and  oiled,  wagon-bodies  painted,  wheels  and  axles  repaired,  rake 
teeth  put  in,  and  a  large  number  of  small  but  necessary  jobs 
performed.  In  order  to  make  the  room  comfortable  in  winter, 
when  much  of  the  repairing  should  be  done,  a  small,  tight  stove 
should  be  put  up,  and  the  pipe,  as  also  the  pipe  to  the  forge,  if 
one  is  used,  should  go  into  a  substantial  chimney.  This  build- 
ing should  be  located  near  the  house,  but  in  such  a  position  that 
there  will  be  no  danger  to  the  other  structures  from  the  sparks 
which  may  escape  from  the  chimney. 

The  Store-House. — This  is  also  a  great  convenience  upon 
large  farms.  It  should  be  located  near  the  house,  and  may  be 
very  plain,  but  should  be  closely  boarded,  well  lighted,  with  a 
wide  door  and  a  strong  lock.  In  this  room  bins  should  be 
made,  clean  barrels  stored,  and  shelves  placed  against  the  walls. 
The  floor  should  be  about  two  feet  above  the  ground,  so  as  to 
guard  against  dampness,  and  very  closely  laid.  The  size  and 
shape  of  this  building  must  be  modified  by  the  wants  of  the 
owner.  On  small  farms  this  structure  will  not  be  a  necessity, 
though  it  would  often  prove  a  great  convenience.  It  would  fur- 
nish a  place  for  the  ripening  and  curing  of  fruit,  the  drying  of 
nuts,  and  the  storage  of  roots  during  the  fall,  as  well  as  answer 
a  multitude  of  other  purposes. 

We  have  treated  the  subject  of  farm  buildings  at  considerable 
length  because  we  believe  it  to  be  one  of  great  importance  to 
the  farmer.     Without  suitable  buildings  his  health,  the  health 


THE    CAPACITY   OF  A    FARM.  12] 

of  his  family,  and  the  thrift  of  his  stock,  will  be  sacrificed ;  his 
crops  will  be  damaged  by  exposure  to  the  elements,  and  his 
whole  business  will  be  carried  on  at  a  great,  and  constantly 
increasing,  disadvantage.  The  buildings  need  not  be  costly. 
Mere  ornament  is  not  required.  If  it  is  necessary  to  practice  a 
close  economy,  let  that  economy  be  exhibited  in  other  directions, 
but  not  in  the  form  of  neglect  to  provide  suitable  buildings  for 
the  protection  of  the  fruits  of  the  farmer's  toil.  Plain,  substan- 
tial buildings  are  a  great  necessity,  and  no  farm  can  be  profitably 
managed  without  them.  The  attempt  to  do  without  them  shows 
a  want  of  appreciation  of  their  benefits,  and  is  usually  an  indica- 
tion that  a  "  penny  wise  pound  foolish  "  policy  is  being  pursued 


THIS  CiiFil.€ITT^  0'F  B.  l"il.HM» 

HE  actual  rate  of  production  is  not,  in  all  cases,  an  accu- 
rate standard  by  which  to  measure  the  productive 
capacity  of  a  farm.  There  are  a  great  many  farms 
which  are  not  now  producing  anything  like  the  quan- 
tity of  hay  and  grain  which  might  be  grown  upon  them.  Prob- 
ably the  great  majority  fall  far  below  their  possibilities  for  pro- 
duction. On  the  other  hand,  a  few  have  been  made,  by  high 
cultivation  and  the  use  of  excessive  quantities  of  stimulating 
manures,  to  exceed  their  natural  capacity.  Consequently,  a 
stranger  can  form  but  a  very  imperfect  idea  of  the  real  value  of 
a  farm  by  its  appearance.  Some  men  have  boasted  that  if  they 
could  see  the  crops  growing  they  could  tell  pretty  nearly  what. 
the  farm  would  do.  But  this  alone  will  do  nothing  towards 
determining  the  qirestion.  We  have  seen  splendid  land,  which 
was  capable  of  producing  large  crops,  which  was  almost  barren, 
while,  within  a  short  distance,  there  was  a  very  poor  farm  which 
was  growing  extremely  large  crops.  A  stranger  who  should 
judge  merely  by  the  appearance  of  the  crops  would  be  almost 


122  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

sure  to  be  deceived.  The  manure  which  is  applied  and  the  cul- 
tivation which  the  land  receives  does  far  more  toward  determin- 
ing the  quantity  of  the  crops  than  the  mere  capacity  of  land. 
The  best  of  land  may  be  so  badly  cultivated  as  to  appear  almost 
worthless,  while  land  which  was  naturally  poor  has  been  made 
excessively  rich.  A  stranger  seeing  the  crops  on  these  two 
fields  would  be  almost  certain  to  call  the  good  poor  and  the 
poor  good.  It  would  not  be  safe  for  him  to  reason  that  because 
the  poor  land  had  been  brought  up  to  a  high  rate  of  production 
therefore  it  must  now  be  good.  Just  as  well  say  that  because  a 
man  is  very  strong  while"  wild  with  a  fever  he  will  be  strong  as 
long  as  he  lives.  His  unusual  strength  is  caused  by  his  disease. 
As  soon  as  that  leaves  him  he  will  be  as  weak  as  a  child.  So  it 
is  with  land  which  has  been  forced  to  an  unnaturally  high  rate 
of  production.  There  is  no  more  productive  power  in  the  land 
than  there  was  before  large  crops  were  obtained.  These  crops 
were  the  result  of  high  manuring  and  extra  cultivation.  Just  as 
soon  as  these  cease  the  large  crops  will  become  things  of  the 
past.  Consequently,  in  buying  a  farm  the  mere  condition  of  the 
crops  should  not  be  allowed  to  have  too  great  influence.  The 
quantity  and  quality  of  the  fertilizers  which  have  been  applied, 
the  character  of  the  crops  which  have  been  grown,  and  the 
degree  of  cultivation  which  has  been  given,  should  be  taken  into 
the  account. 

This  subject  is  of  interest  not  only  to  men  who  are  about  buy- 
ing land,  but  to  every  one  who  is  both  owner  and  manager  of  a 
farm.  There  are  a  great  many  farmers  who  have  no  accurate 
idea  of  the  productive  powers  of  their  own  farms.  This  does 
not,  in  all  cases,  indicate  any  special  want  of  care  or  lack  of 
obser\'ation.  It  takes  a  long  time,  and  many  experiments,  to 
accurately  determine  the  capacity  of  a  farm.  A  field  may  do 
nicely  when  in  grass,  and  the  owner  may  consider  it  a  splendid 
piece  of  land ;  but  when  he  comes  to  plant  corn,  or  sow  oats,  or 
barley,  or  wheat,  he  may  find  that  for  one,  or  all,  of  these  crops 


THE    CAPACITY  OF  A    FARM.  123 

it  is  not  at  all  adapted.  A  man  may  have  a  piece  of  land  which 
he  considers  of  no  special  value,  but  which  may  be  well  adapted 
to  some  crop  which  he  has  never  grown.  There  are  farms 
which  have  resources  of  which  their  owners  have  hardly 
dreamed.  We  do  not  refer  to  those  upon  which  coal,  or  oil,  or 
metals  may  be  found,  but  shall  confine  our  attention  to  the 
strictly  agricultural  products. 

Whatever  he  may  have  done  or  neglected  to  do  in  the  past, 
it  will  certainly  pay  the  farmer  well  to  carefully  determine  the 
productive  capacity  of  his  farm.  He  ought  to  know  what  crops 
he  can  grow  to  advantage  and  the  quantity  of  each  which  he  can 
produce.  Even  in  New  England,  where  the  land  has  long  been 
under  cultivation,  there  are  many  farms  which  now  produce  but 
little,  yet  which  are  capable  of  becoming  very  productive.  There 
is  land  which  has  been  in  grass  so  long  that  it  produces  but 
little,  and  the  owner,  having  never  seen  anything  else  growing 
upon  it,  does  not  know  whether  a  fair  crop  of  grain  can  be 
obtained.  Such  fields  should  be  plowed  and  tested.  Cases 
have  occurred  where  land  which  had  been  kept  long  in  grass 
produced  only  very  light  crops,  although  repeatedly  top-dressed, 
but  which  proved,  when  plowed  and  planted,  to  be  some  of  the 
best  land  of  the  whole  farm.  If  this  process  had  been  com- 
menced sooner,  the  land  would  have  produced  at  least  twice  as 
much  grass,  with  no  additional  expense  for  fertilizers.  It  is 
sometimes  the  case  that  land  will  produce  good  crops  of  some 
kind  of  grain  which  the  owner  is  confident  will  not  grow  thereon. 
In  our  native  place  there  was  a  large  tract  of  flat,  and  rather 
cold,  land  which  from  time  immemorial  had  been  used  solely 
for  pasture.  It  was  owned  by  a  large  number  of  men  whose 
farms  ran  directly  across  it.  One  farmer  determined  to  plow 
a  small  piece  and  see  if  he  could  not  obtain  a  crop  of  corn. 
His  neighbors  were  confident  that  corn  would  not  succeed  in 
that  location.  But  he  plowed  the  land,  applied  a  moderate 
quantity  of  manure,  and  put  in  the  seed.     The  result  was  a  great 


124  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

success.  The  next  year  the  experiment  was  repeated,  and  a 
good  crop  was  secured.  Other  farmers  tried  the  same  plan  and 
were  successful.  The  land  which  was  supposed  to  be  very  poor 
has  now  been  growing  corn,  oats,  and  grass  for  thirty  years,  and 
is  considered  more  valuable  than  some  of  the  fields  which  were 
formerly  thought  to  be  far  superior.  The  experiment  of  this 
farmer  in  planting  land  which  was  thought  to  be  unsuited  to 
cultivation,  not  only  proved  a  great  benefit  to  himself,  but  also 
opened  a  large  tract  of  really  good  land  for  culture  and  gave 
many  other  farmers  an  opportunity  to  largely  increase  the  profits 
of  their  business  and  add  to  the  value  of  their  farms.  It  is  not 
to  be  expected  that  every  experiment  will  result  as  favorably  as 
this,  but  there  are  a  great  many  farmers  who  might  largely 
increase  their  crops  if  they  would  test  the  capacity  of  their  land. 
Too  many  farmers  work  after  the  manner  of  their  fathers, 
and  have  an  idea  that  because  certain  crops  never  were  grown 
on  their  land,  therefore  the  land  is  not  at  all  suited  to  their  pro- 
duction. But  it  is  not  at  all  certain  that  this  will  be  the  case. 
Because  no  wheat  has  ever  been  grown  on  a  certain  field,  it  does 
not  necessarily  follow  that  no  wheat  ever  can  be  produced  there. 
Neither  does  the  fact  that  the  farmers  of  former  generations 
thought  certain  tracts  of  lands  would  not  grow  certain  crops, 
prove  anything  upon  the  subject.  Even  if  they  had  tried  these 
crops  and  been  unsuccessful,  this  would  not  be  absolute  proof 
that  efforts  now  made  in  the  same  direction  would  result  in 
failure.  There  have  been  certain  climatic  changes  since  their 
day  which  may  exert  a  favorable  influence.  These  changes 
have  been,  apparently,  very  slight,  but  they  have  been  sufficient 
in  some  sections  to  considerably  modify  the  results  of  culti- 
vating certain  crops.  This  modification  may  make  it  still  more 
difficult  to  grow  the  doubtful  crops,  but  there  is  an  equal  chance 
that  it  will  prove  beneficial.  Again,  the  methods  of  cultivation 
now  in  use  are  much  more  perfect  than  those  with  which  our 
predecessors  were  acquainted,  and  this    difference   alone   may 


THE    CAPACITY  OF  A  FARM.  125 

make  all  the  variation  which  will  be  necessary  to  turn  uttei 
failure  into    brilliant  success.     Another    respect    in  which   the 
farmers  of  the  present  day  have  an  immense  advantage  over 
those  of  the  past  is  to  be  found  in  the  great  improvement  of 
varieties  which   has  been  secured.     It  is  now  easy  to  obtain 
much  hardier  and  more  productive  varieties  of  wheat  than  any 
which   our  fathers   ever  saw.     These  varieties   will   grow,  and 
ripen,  and  be  very  productive   on  land  where   the   old    kinds 
would  not  succeed.     The  same  principle  applies  to   corn  and 
oats  with  equal  force.     Except  in  the  case  of  crops  which  are 
wholly  out  of  their  sphere,  and  which  from  the  very  nature  of 
the  case  cannot  be  grown,  the  only  way  in  which  to  determine 
whether  any  particular  crop  will  be  successful  in  a  certain  field 
is  to  put  the  matter  to  a  practical  test.     Actual  trial  is  the  only 
way  in  which  there  can  be  anything  like  a  correct  settlement  of 
the  question.     This  trial  need  not  be  made  on  a  large  scale.     It 
is  not  necessary  to  plow  the  whole   of  a  twenty-acre  field   in 
order  to  prove  that  the  land  can  be  plowed.     And  in  testing  the 
adaptation  of  any  special  crop  to  the  soil,  it  is  not  best  to  do 
too  much  at  once.     A  small  area  will  determine  the  question  as 
well  as  a  large  one.     If  the  experiment  is  a  success,  the  crop 
can  be  grown    the  next    season  on  a  larger  scale.     If  it  fails, 
a  repetition  should  be  made,  as  the  failure  may  be  wholly  owing 
to  local  and  unusual  circumstances.     But  in  no  case  should  the 
first  experiment  with  an  untested  and  an  uncertain  crop  be  made 
on  a  large  scale. 

There  are  many  farms  which  are  specially  adapted  to  the 
production  of  certain  crops,  but  which  are  not  valuable  for 
ordinary  farm  purposes.  The  farmer  who  owns  such  land,  and 
understands  its  capacities,  is  sometimes  enabled  to  obtain  very 
large  returns.  The  cranberry  lands  of  New  Jersey  and  Massa- 
chusetts were  once  considered  almost  worthless.  But  when 
the  owners  came  to  understand  the  capacity  of  these  "bogs" 
and  "  flats,"  they  found  that  they  had   some  of  the   most  pro- 


126  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

ductive  land  in  the  country.  There  are  other  crops  which  are 
not  adapted  to  general  cultivation,  but  which  will  thrive  in 
some  peculiar  soils  and  which  can  be  made  very  profitable  for 
the  farmers  who  engage  in  their  production.  Not  only  should 
those  who  seem  to  have  special  privileges  in  this  direction  make 
careful  experiments  in  order  to  determine  the  capacity  of  their 
farms,  but  those  who  have  only  the  common  soils,  and  grow 
only  the  ordinary  crops,  should  not  be  contented  with  the 
present  yield  of  their  products  unless  they  have  proved  that  the 
limit  of  profitable  production  has  already  been  reached.  Many 
a  man  is  cutting  only  a  ton,  or  a  ton  and  a  half  of  hay  per  acre 
each  year  from  land  which  might  just  as  well  produce  two  tons. 
Others  are  buying  the  breadstuffs  for  family  use,  while  they  have 
plenty  of  land  on  which  they  might  grow  good  crops  of  wheat. 
Some  who  have  followed  the  old  system  of  farming  have  very 
little  idea  of  the  increase  of  crops  which  they  might  secure  if 
they  would,  by  the  application  of  fertilizers,  and  by  thorough 
cultivation,  test  the  productive  capacity  of  their  land.  We 
think  that  there  is  such  a  thing  as  crowding  up  the  rate  of 
production  too  high,  but  not  one  farmer  in  a  thou.sand  ever  errs 
in  this  direction.  The  great  majority  are  too  well  satisfied  with 
a  low  yield.  If  they  obtain  a  ton  and  a  half  of  hay  from  an  acre, 
they  do  not  think  of  asking  whether  the  same  land  might  not 
be  made,  without  much  extra  cost,  to  produce  tv.o  tons.  If 
they  get  fifty  bushels  of  corn  per  acre,  they  do  not  ask  whether 
the  land  is  capable  of  yielding  sevent\--five  bushels.  Neither 
are  they  as  careful  as  they  should  be  to  determine  whether 
their  land  is  best  adapted  to  corn,  or  wheat,  or  some  other  crop. 
In  short,  they  have  not  thoroughly  tested  their  farms,  and  do 
not  know  the  oroductive  capacity  of  their  land  in  regard  to  the 
quantity  of  the  crops  which  they  grow,  and  have  not  determined 
the  important  question  from  which  of  the  crops  they  do  or  can 
produce  they  can  obtain  the  largest  percentage  of  profit.  On 
this  account  many  farmers  are  working  at  a  great  disadvantage. 


ANAL  YSJS   OF    SOILS.  127 

They  are  very  much  in  the  dark  concerning  their  business. 
They  know  that  if  a  merchant  made  no  effort  to  sell  those 
classes  of  goods  which  pay  a  fair  profit  he  could  not  succeed. 
They  ought  to  see  that  it  is  just  as  important  that  they  should 
obtain  a  profit  on  the  crops  which  they  produce.  If  they  know 
juot  what  crops  will  pay  them  the  best,  and  then  grow  those 
crops  to  the  best  advantage,  they  will  be  very  sure  to  obtain  large 
returns ;  while  if  they  are  ignorant  of  the  capacity  of  their 
farms,  or  neglect  to  obtain  from  their  land  all  that  they  might 
and  ought  to  secure,  their  business  will  not  be  profitable,  and 
they  will  soon  be  complaining  that  "  farming  don't  pay." 


MMl^l^^BtB  OF  BQtlM. 

ITT ' WENT Y-FIVE  years  ago  it  was  thought,  by  men  who 
I  had  made  scientific  agriculture  a  close  study,  that  by 
(op^^,  means  of  an  analysis  the  degree  of  fertility  of  any^soil 
^G  could  be  accurately  determined.  It  was  supposed  that 
by  this  method  the  chemist  could  tell  the  farmer  which  crops 
would  yield  him  the  largest  quantity  per  acre,  which  were  best 
adapted  to  each  particular  field,  and  what  kind  and  quantity  of 
fertilizers  would  be  needed  to  keep  his  land  constantly  pro- 
ductive. But  when  brought  to  the  great  test  of  practical 
application,  there  were  found  to  be  two  objections  to  the  plan. 
In  the  first  place  it  was  very  expensive.  Unless  there  were  a 
reasonable  degree  of  certainty  that  a  great  deal  of  practical  and 
useful  information  could  be  obtained,  the  farmer  could  not 
afford  to  invest  the  amount  of  money  which  is  required  to 
make  anything  like  a  complete  analysis  of  the  soil  in  the 
different  fields  of  his  farm.  But  the  second  objection  was  still 
stronger  than  the  first.  Not  only  was  it  costly,  but  it  was  also 
just  about  useless.  It  did  show  the  farmer  the  constituents  of 
the  soil,  but  it  did  not  show  him",  what  it  was  fully  as  important 
for  him  to  know,  what  elements  were  in  a  condition  in  which 


128  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 

they  could  be  assimilated  by  the  crops.  It  had  been  supposed 
tiiat  if  a  soil  contained  large  quantities  of  the  elements  of  which 
the  crops  to  be  grown  were  composed,  it  would  certainly  be 
very  productive.  But  in  practice  it  was  found  that  because  a 
certain  field  contained  large  quantities  of  potash,  or  phosphoric 
acid,  or  lime,  it  did  not  follow  that  it  would  produce  large  crops. 
The  chemist,  with  his  powerful  agents,  can  obtain  from  certain 
soils  the  elements  of  fertility  in  great  abundance,  while  a  large 
proportion  of  these  elements  exist  in  such  a  condition  that  the 
plants  can  make  no  possible  use  of  them.  For  all  present  prac- 
tical purposes  these  soils  are  barren,  but  if  they  were  to  be 
judged  by  the  results  of  a  chemical  analysis,  they  would  be 
considered  extremely  valuable.  In  order  to  be  productive 
the  soil  must  not  only  contain  the  materials  of  which  plants  are 
composed,  but  must  have  them  well  distributed  throughout  the 
surface  of  the  land,  and  they  must  be  in  a  condition  in  which 
they  can  readily  be  used  by  the  crops.  The  mechanical  con- 
dition of  the  soil  has  ver>'  much  to  do  with  its  productiveness. 
Of  this  fact  the  chemical  analysis  makes  no  account.  But  in  a 
practical  point  of  view  it  is  one  of  the  determining  forces  which 
regulate  the  yield  of  the  crops.  If  a  soil  is  extremely  hard,  it 
is  easy  to  see  that  the  weak  roots  of  plants  cannot  easily  pene- 
trate it.  No  matter  how  much  plant-food  it  may  contain,  a  very 
large  proportion  of  it  is  locked  up  in  the  soil  beyond  the  reach 
of  the  crops,  and  is.  therefore,  practically  useless. 

On  the  other  hand,  a  soil  may  be  quite  deficient  in  the 
elements  which  plants  require,  and  yet  be  so  loose  and  open 
that  the  roots  can  reach  every  part  of  it  and  obtain  all  the  food 
which  there  is.  According  to  the  chemist  such  a  soil  would  be 
nearly  worthless,  but  for  practical  purposes  it  would  be  more 
valuable  than  the  other.  Again,  it  has  been  often  proved  that 
a  mixture  of  different  soils,  such  as  clay  and  sand,  has  produced 
much  larger  crops  than  either  kind  had  grown  before  the  change 
was  made.     Although  the  chemist  would  have  said  that  the 


ANALYSIS    OF  SOILS.  129 

clay  was  by  far  the  most  fertile,  and  it  would  naturally  follow 
that  an  intermingling  of  a  poorer  kind  of  soil  would  instantl5 
deteriorate  its  quality,  yet  the  invariable  effect  of  such  an 
operation  is  a  large  and  immediate  increase  of  its  productive 
power.  From  this  it  will  be  seen  that,  as  far  as  a  thorough 
analysis  of  the  soil  is  concerned,  the  farmer  has  but  very  little 
to  hope  from  the  aid  of  the  chemist.  It  must  not  be  inferred, 
however,  that  the  farmer  is  not  indebted  to  the  chemist,  and 
that  the  great  science  of  chemistry  can  throw  no  light  upon  the 
course  which  the  farmer  should  pursue.  Far  from  it.  Chemistry 
cannot  do  everything,  it  is  true.  In  some  respects  it  has  failed 
to  do  all  which  it  was  hoped  would  be  accomplished  by  its  aid. 
But  in  many  respects  it  has  proved  an  immense  advantage  to  the 
farmer,  and  it  is  every  day  aiding  him  in  his  work.  Even 
though  the  direct  analysis  proves  imperfect,  chemistry  teaches 
the  farmer  how  to  test  his  soils  so  as  to  determine  the  character 
of  the  fertilizers  which  they  require.  It  shows  him  the  com- 
position of  the  various  plants  which  he  cultivates,  and  the  quan- 
tities of  each  of  the  fertilizing  elements  which  an  average  crop 
abstracts  from  the  soil.  In  many  other  ways  it  also  proves  a 
great  help  in  the  work  of  the  farm. 

That  every  farmer  ought  to  know  what  elements  of  fertility 
his  land  contains  in  excess,  and  in  what  ones  it  is  deficient,  is  so 
plain  a  truth  that  it  needs  only  to  be  stated  in  order  to  be 
generally  accepted.  And  because  chemical  analysis  fails  to  give 
all  the  knowledge  which  is  desired  upon  this  subject,  it  by  no 
means  follows  that  this  knowledge  cannot  be  obtained.  Not  only 
is  it  not  beyond  the  reach  of  the  careful  and  intelligent  farmer, 
but  the  results  of  chemical  analyses  make  its  attainment  com- 
paratively easy.  Chemistry  teaches  us  that  plants  take  a  large 
part  of  their  constituents  directly,  or  indirectly,  from  the  air, 
and  the  remainder  from  the  soil.  Though  there  is  a  great 
difference  in  the  quantity  of  materials,  both  classes  are  abso 
lutely  necessary   for  the  growth   and  perfection   of    the  plant 


130  FARMIXG   I  OR   PROFIT. 

Even  if  there  were  an  unlimited  amount  of  the  atmospheric  and 
organic  elements  within  reach  of  the  plants,  they  would  not 
thrive  if  the  supply  of  a  single  one  of  the  mineral  ingredients 
were  deficient.  There  might  be  more  nitrogen  in  the  soil  than  ten 
crops  could  require,  and  all  in  a  condition  to  be  used,  together 
with  a  arge  over-supply  of  most  of  the  mineral  elements,  yet 
if  there  were  a  deficiency  in  any  one  of  the  constituents  of  the 
plant  the  growth  would  be  imperfect,  and  large  crops  could  not 
be  produced.  It  is  also  impossible  for  an  excess  of  one  mineral 
to  counterbalance  the  deficiency  of  another.  Potash  and 
phosphoric  acid  are  both  required  in  certain  well-defined  quan- 
tities, but  one  cannot  take  the  place  of  the  other,  and  too  much 
of  one  will  not  in  the  least  help  a  short  supply  of  the  other. 
Consequently,  if  any  one  of  the  principal  elements  of  plant 
nutrition  becomes  exhausted,  or  so  nearly  exhausted  that  it 
cannot  furnish  an  adequate  supply,  the  crops  will  be  small  until 
this  element  is  restored  to  the  soil.  The  element  to  be  supplied 
in  any  given  case  is  not  to  be  determined  by  an  analysis,  as  was 
formerly  supposed,  but  by  careful  experiment.  Only  a  very 
few  of  the  elements  are  at  all  likely  to  become  exhausted.  Of 
these  the  principal  mineral  ingredients  are  phosphoric  acid  and 
potash,  while  nitrogen  is  the  only  organic  element  which  the 
farmer  needs  to  supply.  It  is,  therefore,  very  easy  to  test  the 
requirements  of  a  field.  By  applying  nitrogen  upon  one  plot, 
phosphoric  acid  upon  another,  and  potash  upon  a  third,  and 
carefully  noting  the  effect,  the  owner  can  very  soon  tell  which  of 
these  materials  the  soil  needs  the  most,  and  can  form  a  very 
good  estimate  of  the  proportions  in  which  they  should  be  applied. 
In  some  cases  the  application  of  one  of  these  elements  will  be 
sufficient,  while  in  others  all  three  may  be  required.  This  point 
can  be  readily  settled  by  intelligent  observation.  The  expense 
involved  in  making  these  experiments  is  very  small.  The  pub- 
lishers of  the  American  Agriculturist,  Professor  Atwater,  of 
Connecticut,  and  the  "  Mapes  Formula  and  Peruvian  Guano 


'      ANAL  YSIS   OF  SOILS.  131 

Co.,"   have    made   an    arrangement  whereby  this   question   of 
the  needs  of  the  soil  may  be  very  easily  answered. 

The  various  fertilizers  for  supplying  the  different  elements  of 
plants  are  put  up  in  small  quantities,  sufficient  for  one  acre  of 
land,  which  is  to  be  divided  into  ten  equal  parts,  and  sold  at 
cost.  Full  instructions  for  use  accompany  each  sample  which 
is  sent  out.  To  the  farmer  who  has  soils  which  are  partially 
exhausted,  this  is  one  of  the  greatest  aids  which  has  ever  been 
offered,  and  it  can  also  be  made  very  useful  to  those  whose  land 
is  in  good  condition,  and  who  wish  to  keep  it  constantly  pro- 
ductive at  as  low  cost  as  possible.  Of  course,  the  farmer  can,  if 
he  prefers,  select  his  own  materials  and  try  his  experiments  with- 
out either  instruction  or  aid  from  others.  He  can  obtain  and  use 
a  supply  of  potash  in  the  form  of  wood-ashes,  he  can  obtain 
a  quantity  of  fish-guano  and  thus  supply  his  land  with  nitrogen, 
and  he  can  buy  a  lot  of  bones  and  obtain  phosphoric  acid.  But 
in  the  latter  method  there  is  much  uncertainty,  and  though  the 
application  of  any,  or  all,  of  these  materials  will  be  almost  sure 
to  be  highly  beneficial  some  time,  it  will  not  enable  the  farmer 
to  determine  either  readily  or  accurately  just  what  are  the  present 
requirements  of  his  land.  It  is  not  an  economical  manner  in 
which  to  conduct  his  experiments.  Though  very  much  better 
than  nothing,  it  is  very  far  from  being  the  best  method  which 
he  can  pursue.  He  needs  to  know  not  merely  what  will  make 
plants  grow,  but  what  particular  elements  of  plant-food  his  soil 
needs  at  the  present  time.  The  results  of  general  experiments 
will  not  prove  sufficiently  accurate  to  be  a  safe  guide  in. future 
and  more  extensive  operations. 


132  FARMING   FOR  PROFIT. 

HEN  wc  approach  the  subject  of  plant  life  and  growth,  we 
come  into  the  presence  of  a  great  mystery.  We  cast  a 
small  seed  into  the  earth.  For  months,  perhaps  for 
years,  that  seed  has  been  lying  dormant.  As  far  as 
mere  appearance  is  concerned  it  seems  as  devoid  of  life  as  the 
stones  in  the  field.  But  its  dull  and  lifeless  covering  contains 
a  germ  which  under  certain  favorable  circumstances  will  be 
developed  into  a  complete  organism.  The  moisture  of  the  earth 
causes  the  seed  to  swell,  and,  in  a  short  time,  a  tiny  stalk  pushes 
itself  toward  the  light  and  air,  while  a  little  root  starts  down- 
ward into  the  earth.  The  dormant  seed  has  become  a  living 
thing,  and,  if  no  untoward  event  befalls  it,  will  produce  a  plant 
which  will  ripen  many  seeds,  each  after  its  own  kind,  and  each 
possessing  the  mysterious  powers  of  life  and  reproduction.  The 
development  of  the  little  seed  into  the  larger  plant,  its  growth, 
its  ripening,  and  its  provision  for  an  unbroken  succession  of  the 
plants  of  its  kind,  are,  in  themselves,  simple  operations,  but  they 
indicate  the  existence  of  a  Cre.\tor,  an  Infinite  One,  whose 
wisdom  is  utterly  beyond  our  comprehension,  and  who  is  pos- 
sessed of  almighty  power.  We  can  see  the  various  processes 
of  grov/th,  and  we  can  facilitate  or  retard  them  if  we  choose. 
Man  can  stimulate  the  growth  of  the  seed  and  can  make  the 
plant  far  more  productive  than  it  was  in  its  natural  state.  By 
care  in  saving  and  storing  them  he  can  preserve  the  life  of  many 
kinds  of  seeds  for  a  long  period ;  but  when,  from  any  cause,  the 
seed  has  lost  its  vitality,  he  can  no  more  supply  the  life-giving 
principle  than  he  can  create  a  world.  We  know  that  under  cer- 
tain circumstances  seeds  which  have  not  been  injured  will  grow, 
and  we  also  know  that  certain  conditions,  many  of  which  we  can 
control,  are  highly  favorable  to  the  rapid  development  of  plants. 
Of  the  knowledge  at  our  command  we  should  make  all  the  prac- 
tical use  which  we  possibly  can,  for,  upon  our  attention  to,  or 


PLANT  LIFE   AND    GROWTH. 


133 


neglect  of,  this,  the  question  of  success  or  faikire  in  practical 
farm-life  will  very  greatly  depend.  Leaving,  then,  with  reverent 
awe  the  great  mystery  of  life  which  is  wrapped  up,  in  some  man- 
ner to  us  utterly  incomprehensible,  in  every  well-developed  seed, 
let  us  consider  our  subject  in  its  purely  practical  bearings. 

The  vast  majority  of  the  plants  with  which  the  farmer  has  to" 
do  are  grown  from  the  seed.  As  already  shown,  after  the  seed 
has  been  deposited  in  the  earth  and  has  absorbed  sufficient 
moisture,  the  growth  of  the  plant  begins  in  opposite  directions. 
Figure  8  represents  the  germination  of  a  kernel  of  Indian  Corn. 
Figure  9  shows  the  same  plant  after  the  first  leaves 
have  appeared.  Within  the  seed  there  is  stored  a 
quantity  of  food  to  supply  the  wants  of  the  plant 
until  its  roots  are  sufficiently  developed  to  secure 
nourishment  from  the  soil  and  its  leaves  are  larsre 
enough  to  perform  their  respiratory  and  absorbent 
functions.  From  these  facts  the  great  importance  of 
a  suitable  condition  of  the  soil,  and  of  placing  the 
seed  at  the  proper  depth  can  be  readily  inferred.  If 
the  land  in  which  the  seed  is  planted  is  full  of  water, 
germination  will  be  greatly  retarded  if  not  altogether 
prevented.  For,  while  a  certain  degree  of  moisture 
is  absolutely  necessary  to  the  growth  of  plants,  too 
much  v/ater  will  be  utterly  ruinous,  as  it  will  cause  the  seed  to 
decay.  The  young  plant  possesses  but  little  strength,  and  it  is 
important  that  the  soil  in  which  it  is  to  grow  should  be  very  fine, 
but  not  extremely  compact.  If  the  land  is  full  of  clods,  and 
there  is  little  or  no  fine  earth,  the  roots  cannot  obtain  a  sufficient 
supply  of  nourishment  to  hasten  the  growth  of  the  plants.  Even 
though  the.  soil  may  be  very  rich  in  plant-food,  if  its  mechanical 
condition  is  such  that  the  feeble  roots  cannot  avail  themselves 
of  it,  they  are  no  better .  off  than  they  would  be  in  an  utterly 
barren  field.  Many  a  farmer  does  not  obtain  anything  like  the 
crops  which  he  might  secure  if  he  would  only  fit  his  land  for  the 


FIO.   S. 


134 


FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 


reception  of  the  seed  in  such  a  manner  that,  during  the  early 
part  of  their  lives,  the  plants  could  easily  obtain  all  the  food 
which  is  necessary  for  their  rapid  growth. 

Not  only  should  the  soil  be  pulverized,  but  it  should  be  left 
loose  and  open  enough  to  admit  of  the  ready  and  easy  passage 
of  the  roots  of  the  plants.  Otherwise,  though  the  soil  may  be 
very  rich,  the  plants  cannot  grow  rapidly  because  the  food  which 

is  so  near  them  is  almost  as  unavailable 
as  it  would  be  if  it  were  in  a  distant 
field.  Roots  cannot  penetrate  a  stone, 
and  they  can  make  but  little  better 
progress  in  their  efforts  to  enter  sOme 
kinds  of  soil  which  have  not  been  well 
worked.  In  many  hard  soils  the  roots 
of  plants  will  attain  considerable  length 
if  they  can  once  get  started,  but  will 
utterly  fail  if  the  surface  soil  is  not 
made  fine  and  mellow. 

The  depth  to  which  the  seed  is 
planted  often  determines  the  question 
of  its  life  and  full  development  or  its 
early  destruction.  If  the  seed  is  not 
covered  sufficiently  it  will  not  obtain 
enough  moisture  to  insure  its  growth. 
It  may  start,  but  if  the  moisture  proves 
insuflFicient,  its  growth  will  be  checked 
If  only  covered  deep  enough  to  enable 
it  to  barely  live,  it  is  evident  that  the  seed  and  plant  must  be 
placed  at  certain  disadvantages,  and  be  much  more  liable  to 
injury  by  drought  or  accident  than  they  would  if  it  had  been 
properly  covered.  Too  deep  covering  is  also  ruinous  because 
the  supply  of  food  stored  in  the  seed  will  not  be  sufficient  to 
carry  the  stem  and  leaves  to  the  light  and  air,  without  which 
they  must  perish.     This  explains  why  large  seeds  require  much 


FIG.    9. 

and  the  plant  will  die 


PLANT  LIFE  AND    GROWTH.  135 

deeper  covering  than  smaller  ones,  why  very  small  seeds  should 
be  but  slightly  covered,  and  also  proves  a  partial  answer  to  the 
question  why  so  many  seeds  which  are  planted  fail  to  grow. 
With  some  seeds,  like  the  sorgo,  which  germinate  very  slowly, 
and  which,  on  this  account,  are  liable  to  fail  in  unfavorable  sea- 
sons, it  pays  the  farmer  to  do  what  he  can  to  hasten  the  process 
of  germination.  By  soaking  the  seeds  for  a  while,  from  twelve 
hours  to  three  or  four  days  according  to  the  character  of  the 
seeds  and  the  degree  of  difficulty  with  which  they  germinate,  in 
tepid  water,  they  will  be  more  certain  to  grow,  and  the  plants 
will  come  through  the  ground  very  much  sooner  than  they 
otherwise  would.  When  it  is  necessary  to  plant  corn  very  late 
in  the  season,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  soak  the  seed  until  the  kernels 
are  considerably  swelled.  It  should  then  be  rolled  in  plaster 
and  may  be  planted  with  a  machine  if  desired.  When  seeds 
have  been  kept  so  long  that  their  vitality  has  become  somewhat 
impaired,  soaking  in  a  weak  solution  of  oxalic  acid  will  cause 
them  to  germinate.  In  this  way,  if  they  have  been  well  pro- 
tected from  moisture,  very  old  seeds  of  some  kinds  of  plants 
can  be  made  to  gro\y.  But  unless  there  is  some  special  reason 
for  making  the  attempt,  it  does  not  pay  to  even  test  these  old 
seeds. 

With  but  very  few  exceptions,  new  seeds  furnish  the  best 
crops.  When  the  seed  is  good,  we  do  not  think  it  often  pays 
to  soak  it  in  order  to  hasten  its  germination.  The  only  excep- 
tions which  we  make  in  our  practice  are,  when  planting  sorgo, 
planting  over  corn  very  late  in  the  season,  and,  once  in  a  great 
while,  when  in  a  hurry  to  get  a  few  plants  started  in  the  garden 
or  the  flower-bed.  Whenever  we  have  reason  to  think  that  the 
seed  which  \ye  have  obtained  for  planting  is  not  fresh  and  good, 
instead  of  soaking  it  we  throw  it  away  and  buy  a  new  lot. 
Time  is  too  valuable,  and  labor  too  expensive,  to  make  it 
profitable  to  run  any  risk  on  the  quality  of  seeds.  Good  plants, 
if  grown   at  all,   will    be    grown    from   good   seed.      It   is  not 


136  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

sufficient  that  the  seed  is  not  so  old  that  it  will  not  grow.  It 
must  not  be  so  old  as  to  have  lost  a  particle  of  its  vigor.  There 
is  a  great  deal  of  seed  which  will  barely  grow,  but  which  will 
not  produce  vigorous  plants.  Such  seeds  should  never  be  used. 
After  the  plants  have  appeared  above  the  ground,  both  roots 
and  tops  should  grow  with  great  rapidity.  This  rapid  growth 
is  essential.  If  it  is  not  secured,  the  cultivator  will  not  obtain  a 
valuable  crop.  Whether  the  plants  will  grow  in  this  manner  or 
not,  depends,  in  a  great  measure,  upon  the  treatment  which 
they  receive.  The  manner  in  which  they  grow  makes  it  certain 
that  culture  will  be  useful  to  plants  of  ever)'-  description,  and 
may  be  made  a  great  aid  in  the  production  of  farm-crops.  The 
roots  increase  in  length  and  throw  out  branches  in  all  direc- 
tions. While  they  are  new  and  fresh,  nearly  all  their  surface  is 
engaged  in  absorbing  from  the  soil  the  moisture  in  which  the 
plant-food  is  dissolved.  By  making  the  soil  loose  and  open, 
the  farmer  can  enable  the  roots  to  make  a  very  rapid  growth. 
The  loosening  of  the  soil  also  acts  beneficially  in  time  of 
drought,  as  it  tends  to  condense  the  moisture  of  the  air  in  the 
form  of  dew.  When  rain  falls,  the  water  can  be  used  to  much 
better  advantage  if  the  soil  is  light  and  open,  than  it  can  in  a 
field  in  which  the  surface-soil  is  very  compact.  This  loosening 
can  be  secured  b}-  the  use  of  a  cultiv^ator,  plow  or  horse-hoe. 
The  same  end  can  also  be  secured  by  following  the  method,  in 
use  in  some  parts  of  the  South,  of  growing  the  crops  on  ridges 
of  three  or  four  furrows  each,  which  are  plowed  just  before 
planting  time.  As  the  roots  increase  in  length,  another  furrow 
is  occasionally  plowed  each  side  of  the  ridge.  Thus,  the  roots 
are  constantly  supplied  with  fresh  soil,  which  furnishes  them 
with  the  food  which  it  contains.  If  the  end  of  a  root  is  cut 
off,  it  does  not  continue  growing  in  that  direction,  but  sends 
out  branches  with  many  fibrous  roots,  which  in  a  rich  soil 
obtain  large  quantities  of  food,  and  thus  hasten  the  grov^th  and 
development  of*  the  plant.       On  this  account  root-pruning  may 


PLANT  LIFE    AND    GROWTLL  137 

prove  very  useful,  if  performed  when   the    plants   are  properly 
developed. 

The  stems  form  a  connection  between  the  tops  and  roots  of 
plants,  and  thus  furnish  a  mechanical  support  to  the  flowers  and 
seeds.  They  also  convey  the  nutriment,  which  the  roots  have 
secured  from  the  soil  and  the  leaves  have  obtained  from  the  air,  to 
all  parts  of  the  plant,  thus  providing  for  its  symmetrical  develop- 
ment. The  leaves  of  plants  are  also  vital  organs.  Through  their 
leaves  the  plants  secure  the  immeasurable  benefits  of  the  sunlight 
and  air.  They  are  the  lungs  of  the  plants,  and  their  removal,  when 
fully  developed,  will  prove  as  destructive  as  the  cutting  away  of 
the  tops  or  roots.  They  inhale  carbonic  acid  gas,  and  exhale 
water  and  oxygen.  To  quite  an  extent,  nutritive  gases  are  also 
absorbed  by  the  leaves,  and  the  vast  quantities  oi  surplus  water, 
which  are  taken  up  by  the  roots,  are  evaporated  by  their  aid. 
The  number  of  pores  in  a  single  leaf  is  very  large.  On  the 
under  side  of  the  apple  tree  leaf,  there  are  twenty-four  thousand 
of  these  pores  for  every  square  inch  of  surface.  Through  these 
pores  respiration  is  constantly  going  on,  and  in  the  leaves  the 
nutritive  matter  which  the  plant  has  secured  is  elaborated  and 
fitted  for  the  growth  and  development  of  the  whole  structure. 

Plants  are  liable  to  certain  diseases,  and  to  be  injured  or 
destroyed  by  insects  which  prey  upon  them.  As  far  as  the  dis- 
ease of  any  one  plant  is  in  itself  concerned,  it  is  of  but  little 
consequence,  and  it  would  be  time  and  money  lost  to  attempt 
to  eftect  a  cure.  One  stalk  of  wheat,  or  one  ear  of  corn,  would 
not  be  missed  from  the  smallest  field  ;  consequently,  it  is  use- 
less to  attempt  any  cure  of  the  individual  plant.  But  when  we 
reflect  that  a  disease  of  one  stalk  may  endanger  every  other 
stalk  in  the  field,  and  that  one  insect  will  be  almost  sure  to  be 
very  soon  reinforced  by  thousands  like  itself,  it  becomes  evident 
that  the  outbreak  of  a  disease,  or  the  appearance  of  insects,  even 
on  a  small  scale,  or  in  limited  numbers,  is  a  very  serious  matter. 
The  fungoid  diseases,  like  rust    and   smut,  with  which  wheat, 


138  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 

oats  and  other  grains  are  so  often  attacked,  and  which  prove  so 
destructive  to  the  crops,  spread  with  great  rapidity.  The  first 
appearance  of  either  of  these  diseases  may  be  in  itself  con- 
sidered of  little  moment,  but  its  results  upon  the  crops  for  the 
next  few  years  will  be  ruinous,  if  it  is  allowed  to  go  on  devel- 
oping and  multiplying  itself.  Here,  as  in  a  multitude  of  other 
cases,  prevention  is  worth  a  great  deal  more  than  cure.  The 
only  reasonable  hope  of  checking  either  of  these  diseases  is 
by  preventing  their  appearance  in  the  next  crop.  When  any 
particular  crop  is  attacked,  that  crop  cannot  be  cured.  If 
the  owner  succeeds  in  stopping  the  trouble  there,  he  will  be 
very  fortunate.  But  he  must  take  stringent  measures,  or  his 
crop  for  the  next  year  will  suffer  much  worse.  If  smut  is  the 
enemy,  great  care  must  be  taken,  not  only  that  no  badly  affected 
grains  are  used  for  seed,  but  all  the  spores,  which  are  the 
minute  organs  by  which  this  disease  is  propagated,  must  be 
destroyed.  In  selecting  seed-wheat  from  an  affected  field,  it 
will  not  be  enough  to  reject  all  the  heads  or  kernels  which  are 
discolored.  Every  kernel  which  is  to  be  sown  should  be 
immersed  in  very  strong  brine.  Many  of  the  lighter  grains, 
and  they  are  the  ones  which  are  most  liable  to  be  diseased,  will 
rise  to  the  top,  and  should  be  thrown  away. 

While  in  the  brine,  the  grain  should  be  stirred  in  order  to 
separate  all  the  poor  grains  which  can  be  made  to  float.  After 
remaining  for  about  five  minutes,  it  should  be  removed  from  the 
water  and  well  covered  with  water-slaked  lime.  This  lime 
should  be  thoroughly  mixed  with  the  grain  in  order  to  keep  the 
kernels  from  sticking  together,  and  also  that  the  grain  may 
gather  as  large  a  quantity  of  it  as  can  be  made  to  adhere. 
When  rust  is  the  disease  with  which  the  farmer  is  obliged  to 
contend,  the  same  care  should  be  exercised  in  the  selection  of 
seed,  and  the  soil  should  be  supplied  with  the  elements  which 
will  insure  vigorous  plant-growth.  On  some  soils  ashes  will 
produce  this  result.     Others    need  phosphoric   acid,  while  on 


PLANT  LIFE  AND    GROWTH.  139 

some  fields  salt  would  prove  a  great  help.  It  should  always  be 
remembered  that  weakness  in  a  plant  invdtes  an  attack  from 
these  fungoid  diseases,  and  that  the  weaker  the  plant  the  greater 
the  injury  which  an  attack  will  produce. 

The  same  principle  applies  to  the  injuries  by  insect  depreda- 
tions. If  the  land  is  poor,  or  is  not  suited  to  the  crop,  if  the 
plants  are  feeble  and  make  very  slow  growth,  insects  will  be 
almost  certain  to  make  an  attack,  and,  principally  because  the 
plants  are  so  weak,  do  a  great  deal  of  damage.  Although  it 
reduces  the  crop  from  what  it  would  be  if  no  enemy  appeared, 
yet  even  the  Hessian  fly  will  not  prevent  a  good  yield  of  wheat 
on  land  which  is  fitted  for  the  crop,  and  which  is  abundantly 
supplied  with  all  the  elements  of  nutrition  which  the  plants 
require.  If  the  very  best  seed  is  selected,  so  that  strong  and 
rapidly  growing  plants  will  be  produced,  and  these  plants  are 
constantly  supplied  with  all  the  food  they  can  use,  and  that 
food  is  in  a  condition  in  which  they  can  use  it  as  rapidly  as 
wanted,  the  vigor  of  the  plant  will  overcome  the  depressing 
influence  of  the  insect  foes.  These  insects  will  absorb  the 
juices  of  the  plant  to  quite  an  extent,  but  there  will  be  enough 
left  to  mature  a  fine  crop  of  grain. 

Insect  enemies  are  not  the  only  ones  with  which  plants  are 
obliged  to  contend.  There  are  plenty  of  supplanters  in  the  form 
of  weeds.  These  weeds  are  subject  to  the  same  laws  of  growth 
and  development  as  cultivated  plants.  The  main  difference 
between  them  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  our  cultivated  plants 
are  useful  to  man,  while  the  plants  which  are  denominated  weeds 
are  useless.  Being  of  the  same  nature,  and  subject  to  the  same 
laws  of  growth,  these  are  very  formidable  enemies.  They  can 
be  destroyed,  it  is  true,  but  a  great  deal  of  work  is  involved  in 
the  operation,  and  no  wholesale  methods  can  be  adopted,  because 
any  plan  of  this  description  which  would  destroy  the  weeds 
would  also  ruin  the  crops.  Therefore  a  careful  selection  must 
be  made,  and  the  weeds  separated  from  the  plants  which  are  to 


140  FARMING  I' OK   PROFIT. 

produce  the  crops.  Not  only  docs  the  similarity  of  their  natures 
and  methods  of  growth  increase  the  difficulty  of  destroying  the 
weeds  when  they  appear  among  the  crops,  but  it  also  renders 
their  presence  much  more  injurious  than  it  otherwise  would  be. 
If  they  used  an  altogether  different  class  of  elements  with  which 
to  perfect  their  growth,  the  weeds  and  the  corn  plants  might 
grow  side  by  side  without  greatly  interfering  with  each  other. 
But  we  find  in  practice  that  the  weed  takes  the  food  which  the 
corn  ought  to  use,  and  that  the  farmer  who  thoroughly  manures 
a  good  field  can  choose  whether  he  will  grow  thirty  bushels  of 
corn  and  a  heavy  crop  of  weeds  on  an  acre,  or  fifty  bushels  of 
corn  without  any  weeds.  There  will  not  be  plant-food  enough 
to  mature  fifty  bushels  of  corn  and  the  weeds.  It  will  be  a 
rule  to  which  the  practical  fanner  will  find  no  exceptions,  that 
the  more  weeds  he  grows  the  less  the  quantity  of  the  crops 
which  he  will  obtain. 

It  is  a  peculiarity  of  plant-growth  that  without  heavy  and 
frequent  manuring  no  class  of  plants  can  long  be  successfully 
grown  upon,  and  removed  from,  the  same  piece  of  land.  And  as 
a  general  rule,  to  which  there  are  a  few  exceptions,  unless  the 
fertilizers  which  are  used  are  specially  adapted  to  meet  the  wants 
of  the  particular  crop,  even  high  manuring  will  not  insure 
perfect  success  in  its  long-continued  cultivation  upon  the  same 
field.  Something  in  the  line  of  a  crop  can  be  grown  b}'  plant- 
ing corn  on  the  same  land  for  many  years  in  succession,  but 
unless  the  fertilizers  are  specially  fitted  to  supply  the  demands 
of  the  corn  crop,  the  yield  will  steadily  decrease,  and  will  soon 
fall  below  the  limit  of  profitable  cultivation.  But  if  corn  is 
followed  by  wheat,  and  the  wheat  by  grass,  and  in  a  few  years 
corn  is  planted  again,  there  will  be  no  such  falling  off  in  the 
yield.  The  explanation  of  this  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that 
while  our  cultivated  plants  are  composed  of  very  nearly  the 
same  substances,  these  substances  are  used  in  very  different  pro- 
portions by  different  crops.     Some  plants  require   large  quan> 


PLANT  LIFE  AND    GROWTH.  141 

titles  of  potash  and  but  little  nitrogen  for  their  perfect  develop- 
ment, while  others  need  a  great  deal  of  nitrogen  and  but  little 
potash.  On  this  account  a' change  of  crops  not  only,  insures  a 
much  larger  yield  than  could  otherwise  be  obtained,  but  it  also 
prevents  the  rapid  exhaustion  of  the  soil. 

All  good  soils  contain  the  elements  of  plant-food  in  vast 
quantities.  Chemistry  has  shown  that  the  average  American 
soil  contains  potash  enough  to  supply  the  wants  of  a  fair  crop 
of  cotton  for  more  than  twenty-five  hundred  successive  years. 
But  in  practice  the  cotton-grower  finds  that  he  must  regularly 
supply  his  soil  with  manures  containing  potash,  or  else  be 
content  to  produce  this  crop  only  once  in  a  term  of  years.  If 
he  attempts  to  grow  cotton  every  year,  without  fertilizers  con- 
taining quite  a  proportion  of  this  element,  he  will  miserably 
fail.  But  if  he  alternates  cotton  with  corn,  oats,  and  grass,  so 
that  this  particular  crop  is  grown  only  once  in  six  or  eight 
years,  he  will  have  much  better  success.  This  is  explained  by 
the  fact  that  of  the  immense  amount  of  potash  in  the  soil,  but 
a  very  small  proportion  is  ever  available  at  a  time.  A  little  can 
be  taken  this  year,  and  if  the  land  has  rest,  or  crops  which  use 
but  a  small  quantity  of  this  element  are  grown,  more  can  be 
taken  in  the  future.  By  the  action  of  the  sun,  and  rain,  and 
air,  chemical  and  mechanical  changes  are  constantly  being  made 
in  the  soil.  Day  by  day  the  disintegrating  process  goes  on. 
The  land  is  absorbing  nitrogen  from  the  air,  potash  and  phos- 
phoric acid  are  being  set  free  in  the  soil,  and  thus  a  supply 
of  plant-food  is  constantly  being  provided  by  nature.  A 
frequent  change  of  crops  draws  more  equally  upon  the  supplies, 
which  are  thus  made  ready  for  the  plants,  prevents  the  rapid 
deterioration  of  the  land  which  must  otherwise  result,  and  also 
secures  a  larger  percentage  of  profit  from  their  production  than 
could  be  obtained  if  no  change  were  effected. 

While  plants  very  closely  follow  the  law  that  like  produces 
like,  it  is  still  true  that  man  is  able  to  exert  a  very  strong  modi- 


142  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

fying  influence  upon  them.  By  careful  selection  and  skilful 
culture,  plants  can  be  bred  as  truly  and  as  exactly  as  animals. 
Their  time  of  reaching  maturity  can  be  hastened  or  delayed, 
their  size  can  be  largely  increased  or  diminished,  the  form  of 
their  flowers  can  be  changed,  and  they  can  be  made  much  more 
prolific  than  they  are  in  their  natural  state.  The  gardener  and 
the  florist  make  constant  use  of  their  powers  in  these  directions, 
and  the  practical  farmer  often  finds  it  beneficial  to  avail  himself 
of  the  results  of  their  efforts,  and  to  supplement  these  with  his 
own  labors  in  the  same  field.  The  principal  changes  in  the 
character  of  plants  which  farmers  desire  are  those  affecting 
their  size,  time  of  maturing,  and  their  yield  of  valuable  products. 
These  changes  are  secured  in  various  ways.  When  single 
specimens  are  wanted,  as  a  dwarf  maple  or  walnut,  the  Japanese 
method  of  severe  root-pruning  and  frequent  transplanting  may 
be  adopted.  The  union  of  different  trees  by  grafting  will  some- 
times accomplish  this  result.  The  dwarfing  of  the  pear  by 
grafting  it  upon  the  quince  is  a  very  common  practice,  and 
furnishes  a  good  illustration  of  the  principle  under  consider- 
ation. Garden  plants  may  be  dwarfed  by  frequently  cutting  the 
roots,  or  by  occasional  transplantings.  By  following  this  plan 
for  several  years,  and  carefully  saving  the  seed  of  these  plants, 
the  dwarf  habit  will  probably  become  fixed.  But  for  practical 
purposes  it  is  usually  found  better  to  increase  rather  than  check 
the  ordinar}'-  development  of  plants.  By  selecting  the  largest 
specimens  which  can  be  found  for  seed,  planting  them  on  rich 
land,  using  the  very  largest  specimens  which  result  from  this 
planting  for  seed  for  the  next  crop,  and  continuing  this  course 
year  after  year,  the  size  of  almost  any  variety  of  grain  can  be 
largely  increased.  Rich  land,  high  culture,  and  careful  selection 
of  seed,  will  be  very  certain  to  accomplish  the  desired  result. 

A  change  in  the  time  in  which  any  kind  of  grain  will  mature 
its  seed  can  be  effected  in  a  somewhat  similar  manner.  For, 
although  plants  are  specially  adapted  to  certain  conditions,  they 


PLANT  LIFE  AND    GROWTH.  143 

have  considerable  flexibility  in  adapting  themselves  to  the  cir- 
cumstances in  which  they  may  be  placed.  A  variety  of  corn, 
which  in  Canada  will  ripen  in  ninety  days  from  the  time  of 
planting,  if  taken  to  the  Middle  States,  will  gradually  grow 
larger  and  ripen  later.  Finding  that  it  has  much  more  time  in 
which  to  mature,  it  will  grow  with  reference  to  a  longer  season 
than  the  ones  to  which  it  had  been  accustomed.  So  rapid  is 
this  change  that  farmers  in  Southern  Massachusetts,  who  want 
a  variety  of  corn  which  will  ripen  early,  frequently  send  to 
Canada,  or  to  Northern  Vermont  for  seed.  The  first  year 
after  planting,  the  corn  ripens  very  early,  sometimes  as  soon  as 
the  middle  of  August,  but  the  second  year  it  is  later,  and  in  a 
few  seasons  it  becomes  so  thoroughly  acclimated  as  to  require 
as  much  time  in  which  to  mature  as  the  ordinary  varieties  need. 
On  the  other  hand,  if  corn  is  taken  from  a  warm  to  a  colder 
climate,  if  the  change  is  not  so  great  as  to  wholly  prevent  the 
ripening  of  the  seed,  a  directly  opposite  change  will  take  place. 
The  corn  will  ripen  earlier  than  it  did  in  its  Southern  home,  and 
thus  adapt  itself  to  surrounding  circumstances.  This  is  on  the 
supposition  that  natural  laws  are  allowed  to  have  their  full 
influence,  and  man  makes  no  effort  to  check  or  change  their 
workings.  But  by  skilful  management  the  tendency  which  has 
been  noted  can  be  fully  controlled.  If  desirable,  some  progress 
can  be  made  toward  the  other  extreme.  By  selecting  the  ears 
of  corn  or  heads  of  wheat,  which  ripen  first,  using  them  for  seed, 
and  from  their  crops  obtaining  the  earliest  specimens,  and  fol- 
lowing this  course  several  successive  years,  all  tendency  to  ripen 
later  in  the  season  can  be  overcome,  and  a  very  early  ripening 
variety  be  secured.  By  the  opposite  course  in  selecting  seed 
the  grain  can  be  made  to  ripen  much  later  than  its  natural 
time. 

Other  things  being  equal,  those  specimens  of  grain  are  the 
most  valuable  which  are  the  most  prolific.  Consequently  the 
skilful  farmer  makes  an  effort  to  increase  the  yield  of  his  crops, 


144  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

not  merely  by  increasing  the  fertility  of  his  land,  or  by  sowing 
an  excessive  amount  of  seed  in  order  to  secure  a  very  large 
number  of  plants,  but  by  selecting  the  most  prolific  plants 
which  he  can  find.  These  other  methods  have  often  been  tried, 
but  they  are  defective  both  in  theory  and  in  practical  appli- 
cation. It  is  necessary  to  have  the  land  in  good  condition,  and 
to  use  a  suitable  quantity  of  seed  in  order  to  secure  a  good 
crop.  But  after  reaching  a  limit  which  is  not  far  beyond  the 
general  practice  of  the  better  class  of  farmers,  an  increase  in  the 
former  direction  does  no  good,  while  an  increase  in  the  latter 
works  positive  evil.  The  main  hope  of  the  farmer  who  is  to 
improve  the  quality  and  increase  the  yield  of  his  grain  lies  in 
the  line  of  a  careful  and  intelligent  selection  of  the  seed  from 
which  his  crops  arc  to  be  produced.  The  quality  of  yielding 
large  crops  can  be  made  a  permanent  characteristic  just  as  truly 
as  that  of  early  ripening.  The  seed  from  a  very  prolific  plant 
w^ill  be  likely  to  produce  other  prolific  plants.  The  farmer  who 
will  take  advantage  of  this  characteristic  of  plant-growth  will  be 
able  to  do  much  toward  making  his  business  very  successful. 

In  their  natural  state,  and  when  left  to  follow  out  their  own 
inclinations,  the  smaller  plants  seem  to  live  and  grow  for  the  one 
end  of  reproduction.  When  they  have  matured  their  seed,  and 
thus  provided  for  a  succession  of  their  kind,  they  seem  to  have 
fulfilled  their  mission.  Soon  after  this  end  has  been  secured, 
the  plants  perish  and  are  succeeded  by  others.  The  larger 
class  of  plants,  including  trees,  which  require  many  years  in 
which  to  mature,  generally  produce  seed  annually  for  many 
successive  years.  But  the  plants  in  which  the  farmer  has  the 
deepest  interest  arc  comparatively  small  in  size  and  short-lived. 
Their  reproductive  functions  are  exercised  the  first  or  second  year 
of  their  growth.  They  are  divided  into  three  classes :  annuals, 
biennials  and  perennials.  The  former,  of  which  corn,  oats  and 
beans  are  examples,  grow  from  seed,  produce  flowers,  and  ripen 
their  seed  in  a  single  season.     There  is  no  way  by  which  they 


PLANT  LIFE   AND    GROWTH.  •  145 

can  be  kept  alive  more  than  one  year.  Biennials  live  only  two 
years:  beets,  carrots  and  onions,  are  familiar  examples  of  this 
class.  In  severely  cold  climates  many  biennials  need  protection 
during  the  winter,  or  they  will  be  destroyed  by  the  frost. 
During  the  first  season  these  plants  store  up  a  large  amount  of 
nutritive  matter  in  bulbs  or  roots,  with  the  design  that  this 
marerial  shall  be  used  the  next  year  to  supply  the  wants  of  the 
plant  during  its  exhausting  efforts  to  mature  its  seed.  The 
second  season,  if  the  plant  reaches  it  unharmed,  one  or  more 
seed-stalks  are  thrown  up,  flowers  are  produced,  the  seed  forms 
and  is  ripened,  and  when  the  pod  which  contains  it  falls  off,  or 
by  splitting  open  allows  the  seed  to  reach  the  soil,  the  plant 
dies.  The  bulb  which  grew  the  first  year  does  not  grow 
during  the  second  season  ;  and  the  stores  of  food  which  had 
been  obtained  and  stored  within  it  are  exhausted  in  the  pro- 
cesses of  flowering  and  seeding.  Theoretically,  perennial  plants 
are  "  ever  living."  But  many  of  the  plants  which  the  farmer 
cultivates  become  weakened  by  age,  so  that  it  is  found 
profitable  to  ignore,  to  some  extent  at  least,  their  perennial 
nature.  Some  of  our  best  grasses  are  perennial,  but  the  hay 
crop  can  be  largely  increased  by  re-seeding  the  land  every  four 
or  five  years.  The  same  is  true  of  some  other  plants.  Climate 
also  has  some  effect  upon  this  character  of  plants.  This  is 
illustrated  by  the  cotton  plant,  which  is  an  annual  in  this 
country,  but  a  perennial  in  hot  climates.  Whatever  the  length 
of  time  which  a  plant  has  to  live,  it  will  follow  a  fixed  order  of 
growth  and  development.  When  it  has  attained  a  certain  age, 
it  will,  if  the.  surroundings  are  favorable,  blossom,  and  from  the 
flowers  then  put  forth  produce  its  seed.  In  some  cases,  as  the 
apple,"  there  is  a  fruit  with  the  seed  enclosed.  In  others,  like 
the  pea  and  bean,  there  is  only  the  seed.  The  flowers  of  some 
plants  are  perfect,  and  provide  for  their  own  fertilization  and 
the  perfection  of  their  seed.  The  apple-blossom  furnishes  a 
good  illustration.     Other  plants  produce  different  flowers  which 


14b  .    '  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

are  imperiect  alone,  but,  if  both  are  allowed  to  develop,  are 
perfect  together.  The  common  corn  is  a  fine  specimen  of  this 
class  of  plants.  The  "tassel"  is  one  flower;  the  "silk"  the 
other.  One  fertilizes  the  other,  and  secures  the  production  of 
seed.  But  neither  one  alone  would  be  useful.  If  all  the  tassels 
were  removed  from  a  field  of  corn  as  soon  as  they  were  fairly 
out  of  their  leaves,  and  there  was  no  other  corn  in  the  vicinity, 
there  might  be  a  fine  growth  of  stalks  and  plenty  of  cobs,  but 
not  a  single  kernel  of  corn  would  be  produced  in  the  whole 
field.  The  preservation  of  the  "tassels"  and  removal  of  the 
"  silk  "  would  also  secure  the  utter  barrenness  of  the  plants. 
Some  varieties  of  the  strawberry  have  imperfect  flowers,  and, 
though  the  plants  may  be  very  strong  and  look  nicely,  when 
planted  by  themselves  they  will  produce  but  very  little  fruit. 
By  setting  a  vigorous  perfect  variety  in  every  third  or  fourth 
row,  all  the  plants  may  be  made  fruitful.  It  will  be  seen  that 
the  flowers  are  very  important  organs,  and  are  essential  to  the 
reproduction  of  the  plant.  If  the  blossoms  are  removed  or 
destroyed,  neither  fruit  nor  seed  can  be  obtaiited.  If  they  are 
weak,  or  imperfect  in  any  respect,  the  fruit  and  seeds  both  suffer 
in  consequence.  The  essential  organs  to  plant-reproduction  are 
the  stamens  and  pistils.  Plants  which  are  perfect  have  both, 
either  in  one  flower,  like  the  fertile  varieties  of  the  strawberry, 
or  in  two,  like  the  corn  plant.  The  stamens  secrete  a  fine  dust 
called  pollen,  which  is  received  and  absorbed  by  the  pistils, 
which  are  fecundated  thereby.  The  pollen  is  scattered  upon 
the  pistils  by  the  winds  and  by  insects,  which  in  great  numbers 
spend  much  of  their  time  in  going  from  flower  to  flower.  The 
experiment  of  artificial  fertilization  has  often  been  tried,  but 
has  seldom  proved  beneficial.  Nature  seems  to  have  made 
ample  provision  for  the  preservation  of  the  different  varieties 
of  plants. 

In  order  to  change  the  character  of  varieties,  horticulturists 
sometimes  resort  to  a  process  called  hybridization.     This  is  a 


PLANT  LIFE  AND    GROfVTH.  I47 

"  crossing  "  of  tw'o  varieties  which  belong  to  species  which  are 
very  closely  allied.  These  are  the  only  kinds  with  which  it  can 
be  effected.  The  method  which  is  adopted  is  to  remove  all  the 
stamens  from  the  flower  of  one  kind  which  is  to  be  "  crossed  " 
before  they  have  deposited  their  pollen,  and  dust  the  pistils  with 
pollen  from  the  other  variety.  This  is  done  in  the  hope  of 
combining  the  fine  qualities  of  both  kinds  in  a  single  plant. 
With  fruits  the  qualities  of  hardiness  and  earliness  possessed  by 
one  kind  can  sometimes  be  united  with  the  fine  flavor  which 
distinguishes  another,  and  thus  a  variety  greatly  superior  to 
either  of  the  parents  can  be  established.  It  is  a  difficult  matter 
to  obtain  any  great  degree  of  success  in  these  efforts,  but  they 
are  sometimes  very  well  rewarded.  Rogers'  Hybrid  grapes, 
some  of  which  are  veiy  fine  indeed,  are  examples  of  the 
successful  result  attending  some  experiments  in  this  direction. 

Lest  some  of  our  practical  readers  should  feel  that  we  have 
devoted  too  much  space  to  describing  how  plants  grow,  and 
imagine  that  we  have  lost  sight  of  our  expressed  intention  to 
\xy  to  show  how  farming  can  be  made  not  only  a  pleasant  busi- 
ness, but  also  how  it  can  be  made  to  pay,  we  will  briefly  allude 
to  some  of  the  points  which  have  been  brought  out,  and  show 
that  they  have  as  thoroughly  practical  a  bearing  as  an}'-  one  can 
desire.  Still,  we  think  if  this  were  omitted,  and  even  if  the 
processes  of  plant-growth  had  no  particular  bearings  of  a 
practical  nature  upon  a  farmer's  work,  the  space  devoted  to  a 
consideration  of  this  subject  would  be  far  from  wr.sted.  Knowl- 
edge is  valuable,  and  its  possession  makes  a  man  happier  than 
he  could  be  if  he  remained  in  ignorance.  It  gives  him  some- 
thing about  which  to  think.  There  are  men  so  ignorant  that 
they  work  very  much  like  their  horses  and  oxen.  Such 
men  are  not  usually  successful  in  any  sense  of  the  term.  The 
farmer  spends  a  large  part  of  his  waking  hours  in  the  great 
laboratory  of  nature.     He  knows  that  plants  grov/,  for  he  sees 

the  operation  going  on  all  around  him.     But  this  should  not  be 
10 


148  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

enough.  He  ought  to  inquire  how  they  grow,  and  by  what 
means  their  progress  can  be.  increased.  Especially  should  the 
boys  who  work  on  the  land  be  made  acquainted  with  the  prin- 
ciples of  plant  life  and  growth.  A  little  knowledge  upon  this 
subject  would  make  their  work  seem  lighter,  and  give  them  a 
taste  for  agricultural  pursuits. 

We  have  seen  that  the  well-developed  seed,  which  has  not 
been  injured,  is  pos.sessed,  in  some  mysterious  manner,  of  the 
undeveloped  powers  of  life  and  growth.  Though  man  cannot 
impart  vitality  to  a  seed  which  has  lost  its  power  of  germination, 
he  can  do  much  to  insure  the  prompt  germination  of  good  seeds, 
and  hasten  the  growth  of  the  plants  produced  therefrom.  The 
fact  that  in  the  first  stages  of  development  plants  are  very  weak, 
should  lead  the  farmer  to  carefully  prepare  his  land  for  the 
reception  of  the  seed.  For  if  the  land  is  not  in  good  condition, 
the  plants  Avill  not  be  able  to  obtain  nourishment  enough  to  give 
them  a  vigorous  start,  and  on  account  of  this  deficiency  in  the 
early  and  critical  stage  of  their  growth,  they  will  always  be 
weak,  and  will  be  comparatively  unproductive. 

As  the  plant  is  sustained  upon  the  nourishment  which  is 
stored  up  in  the  seed  until  its  roots  are  sufficiently  developed  to 
obtain  food  from  the  soil,  and  its  leaves  reach  the  light  and  air, 
it  is  a  matter  of  great  importance  that  the  seed  shall  not  be 
planted  too  deeply;  while  the  fact  that  a  certain  degree  of 
moisture  is  necessary  to  insure  the  rapid  germination  of  the 
seeds,  and  hasten  the  growth  of  the  plants,  makes  it  evident 
that  covering  to  a  proper  depth  is  essential  As  an  excess  of 
moisture  utterly  destroys  the  seed,  the  benefit  of  draining  land 
that  is  excessively  wet  is  apparent.  Because  seeds  must  have 
moisture  before  they  can  grow,  it  does  not  follow  that  they 
should  be  planted  in  the  water  or  in  a  water-soaked  soil.  The 
knowledge  that  germination  can  be  hastened  places  within 
reach  of  the  farmer  the  power  to  insure  the  growth  of  certain 
•crops,  which  if  planted  after  the  ordinary  manner  are  very  likely 


PLANT  LIFE  AND    GROWTH.  149 

to  fail.  It  also  enables  him,  when  obliged  to  plant  late  in  the 
season,  to  obviate  some  of  the  difficulties  in  which  he  would 
otherwise  be  involved. 

A  knowledge  of  the  way  in  which  plants  grow  shows  the 
farmer  the  great  benefits  which  result  from  a  frequent  and 
thorough  cultivation  of  the  land.  By  loosening  the  soil  around 
the  plants  he  enables  the  air  to  penetrate  it  to  a  greater  depth, 
thus  insuring  its  rapid  absorption  of  the  fertilizing  gases  of  the 
atmosphere.  He  also  aids  and  hastens  the  disintegrating  pro- 
cess which  nature  is  constantly  carrying  on,  and  by  means  of 
which  the  elements  of  fertility  which  are  locked  up  in  the  soil 
are  made  available.  Frequent  stirring  of  the  soil  makes  its 
particles  fine,  allows  them  to  be  easily  dissolved  by  rains  and 
dews,  and  thus  sets  free  the  plant-food  which  they  contain.  And 
if  the  ground  is  kept  loose  and  open,  the  roots  of  the  crops 
can  readily  penetrate  it  in  search  of  food,  and  thus  a  rapid 
growth  of  the  plants  can  be  secured. 

By  knowing  something  of  the  methods  of  plant-growth,  the 
farmer  is  able  to  labor  intelligently  to  destroy  the  insects  and 
prevent  the  diseases  which  prey  upon  his  crops.  Ignorant 
effort  would  avail  but  little.  But  the  farmer  who  knows  that  it 
is  possible  to  feed  his  plants  so  well  that  there  will  be  sufficient 
food  for  plants  and  insects  botJi,  can  easily  avoid  most  of  the 
evil  effects  of  their,  depredations.  The  farmer  who  is  wise- 
enough  to  soak  the  seed  of  his  grain  crops  in  something  which 
will  destroy  the  germs  of  disease,  will  thus  prevent  a  great  loss, 
and  be  far  more  successful  than  one  who  thinks  but  little  and 
reads  less.  The  farmer  who  knows  that  the  weeds  which  grow 
in  cultivated  crops  are  sustained  by  plant-food  which  the  crops 
ought  to  have  will  labor  more  intelligently,  and  with  greater 
perseverance  to  destroy  them  than  one  who  regards  them  merely 
as  obstacles  to  the  easy  harvesting  of  his  crops. 

The  man  who  knows  that  corn  and  potatoes  take  the  various 
elements  of  plant-food  from  the  soil  in  very  different  proportions 


150  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

will  not  commit  the  mistake  of  growing  either  crop  on  the  same 
land  year  after  year,  but  will  alternate  these  and  other  crops,  and 
will  thus  prevent  the  exhaustion  of  any  of  the  elements  from 
the  soil.  In  his  change  of  crops  he  will  labor  intelligently,  and 
if  he  is  a  careful  reader,  he  can  very  accurately  adapt  his  crops 
to  the  condition  of  his  land  and  the  quality  of  the  fertilizers 
which  he  is  able  to  apply.  His  knowledge  of  the  methods  of 
plant-growth  will  take  his  work  out  of  the  realm  of  chance. 
He  will  not  be  obliged  to  "guess,"  but  can  be  able  to  know 
what  crops  to  raise  and  how  to  grow  them  profitably. 

The  fact  that  knowledge  concerning  this  department  of  his 
business  will  enable  the  farmer  to  modify  the  size  of  his  plants, 
vary  their  time  of  ripening,  and  make  them  more  prolific,  is 
abundant  proof  that  the  information  given  about  the  methods 
of  plant-growth  is  not  merely  theoretical,  but  is  thoroughly 
practical.  While  it  may  confer  pleasure  and  satisfy  curiosity, 
it  also  yields  great  practical  benefits, 

A  knowledge  of  the  method  in  which  the  reproductive  process 
.  of  plants  is  carried  on  places  within  reach  of  the  farmer,  who 
has  time  and  patience  for  the  work,  the  means  of  greatly 
increasing  the  value  and  productiveness  of  his  crops.  It  is  this 
knowledge  worked  out  into  practical  experience  which  has  given 
the  farmers  of  this  country  their  best  varieties  of  grain,  their 
finest  fruits,  and  the  improved  potatoes  which  are  now  so  com- 
monly grown.  It  enables  th^  farmer  who  does  not  feel  able  to 
obtain  new  varieties  to  select  seed  in  the  best  possible  manner 
from  those  which  he  already  has,  and  to  rapidly  improve  both 
their  yield  and  quality. 

Instead  of  being  merely  theoretical,  and  calculated  only  to 
gratify  curiosity,  knowledge  upon  the  subject  of  plant  life  and 
gro\vth  is  of  immense  advantage  to  the  practical  man  who  will 
use  it  aright,  and  it  ought  to  be  secured  by  every  one  who  tills 
the  soil. 


FERTILIZERS,  151 

E  have  endeavored  to  show  that  plant-growth  is  not  a 
creation,  but  a  gradual  formation,  by  certain  well- 
defined  processes,  of  plants  out  of  substances  which  are 
contained  in  the  soil  and  air.  While  man  is  utterly- 
powerless  to  give  life  to  a  seed  which  has  lost  its  vitality,  or  to 
restore  to  vigorous  growth  a  plant  that  is  dead,  it  is  possible  for 
him  to  do  much  to  promote  the  growth  and  increase  the  yield 
of  plants  which  are  alive.  Some  of  the  methods  by  which  he 
can  accomplish  this  result  have  been  already  alluded  to,  but 
their  importance  demands  a  much  more  careful  consideration. 
It  is  not  enough  to  know  that  plants  obtain  food  from  the  soil, 
though  this  knowledge  is  valuable  and  may  be  made  the  base 
for  effective  action.  Neither  is  it  enough  to  be  acquainted  with 
the  methods  of  plant-growth.  We  must  go  farther,  and  make 
our  knowledge  available  for  practical  use.  Several  of  the  pecu- 
liarities of  plants  are  of  sufficient  importance  to  warrant  a 
careful  consideration  by  themselves.  Of  these,  the  kinds  of 
food  which  are  required,  and  the  method  of  obtaining  it,  are 
among  the  most  prominent.  It  is  a  matter  in  which  every 
farmer  is  deeply  interested  in  a  pecuniary  point  of  view,  and  of 
which  he  ought  also  to  obtain  all  the  knowledge  in  his  power. 
Let  us  examine  this  subject  in  connection  with  the  fertilization 
of  the  soil. 

Plants  need  food  just  as  truly  as  animals,  and  will  just  as 
surely  perish  if  no  food  is  supplied.  This  food  is  obtained  from 
two  sources :  the  soil  and  the  atmosphere.  Although  not  taken 
in  equal  proportions,  the  elements  from  each  source  are,  as  far 
as  the  plant  is  concerned,  of  equal  value.  No  excess  in  the 
amount  of  food  from  one  source  can  atone  for  a  deficiency  from 
the  other.  The  organic  and  inorganic  are  both  absolute  neces- 
sities. Of  the  former,  about  ninety-five  parts  in  every  one 
hundred  are  required.     Of  the  latter,  only  the  remaining  five 


152  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

one-hundredths.  The  organic  elements  can  be  destroyed  by  fire, 
and  under  the  influence  of  a  high  degree  of  heat  will  disappear 
in  the  form  of  invisible  gases.  The  inorganic  elements  were 
improperly  named,  for  they  are  as  essential  to  the  organization 
of  the  plant  as  the  organic.  When  a  plant  is  burned,  these 
inorganic  elements  remain  in  the  form  of  ash.  Though  only  a 
very  small  part  of  the  plant,  this  is  all  the  substance  which  it 
derived  directly  from  the  land.  It  has  been  estimated,  however, 
that  on  account  of  the  existence  of  all  the  atmospheric  elements 
in  the  soil,  plants  really  derive  about  one-half  of  their  material 
from  the  earth.  The  organic  elements  of  which  plants  make 
use  are  four  in  number:  oxygen,  hydrogen,  carbon  and  nitro- 
gen. Of  these  all  except  nitrogen  are  furnished  in  sufficient 
quantities  by  nature,  and  this  is  also  supplied  to  some  extent. 
As  we  shall  have  occasion  to  refer  to  this  element  many  times, 
it  may  be  well  to  say  that  it  is  always  obliged  to  undergo  a 
chemical  change  before  it  can  be  used  as  food  for  plants. 
Uniting  with  oxygen  it  forms  nitric  acid,  while  in  union  with 
hydrogen  it  forms  ammonia.  Both  of  these  are  powerful 
fertilizers,  but  it  is  in  the  latter  form  that  nearly  all  of  the 
nitrogen  which  plants  use  is  made  available.  Consequently, 
nitrogen  and  ammonia  are  often  used  as  interchangeable  terms. 
When  ammonia  is  spoken  of,  it  always  indicates  nitrogen  in  a 
condition  immediately  available  for  plant-food ;  but  nitrogen 
may  be  what  its  name  implies,  and  yet  be  in  such  a  form  that  it 
cannot  be  used  for  a  long  time.  Some  authorities  consider  the 
nitrogen  in  organic  matter  worth  only  three-fifths  as  much  as 
actual  ammonia.  This  point  should  always  be  kept  in  mind 
when  the  relative  value  of  fertilizers  is  under  consideration. 
Otherwise  serious  mistakes  will  be  made. 

The  inorganic  elements,  though  forming  such  a  small  propor- 
tion of  the  substance  of  the  plant,  are  eight  or  ten  in  number. 
But  with  several  of  these  the  farmer  has  but  little  to  do,  as  there 
is  a  great  abundance  in  all  soils,  and  he  never  needs  to  suppl)- 


FER  TIL  IZEIiS.  1 53 

them.  As  far  as  plant-food  in  itself  is  considered,  there  is  not 
often  a  necessity  for  applying  soda,  or  sulphuric  acid,  and 
except  in  occasional  instances,  or  for  special  crops,  there  is  no 
call  for  the  use  of  magnesia.  In  large  sections  of  the  country 
there  is  no  need  of  applying  lime  for  the  purpose  designated. 
The  elements  which  are  in  almost  universal  requisition,  which 
are  needed  almost  everywhere  and  almost  always,  and  the  only 
ones  for  which  there  is  anything  like  a  general  demand,  are 
phosphoric  acid  and  potash.  With  this  knowledge  of  the 
materials  of  which  they  are  composed,  it  seems  as  if  it  would 
be  very  easy  to  insure  the  rapid  growth  and  perfect  develop- 
ment of  plants.  It  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  if  man  will 
supply  an  abundance  of  the  raw  materials,  nature  will  elaborate 
them  and  convert  them  into  living  structures.  Practical  experi- 
ments continued  through  many  successive  years  prove  that 
this  is  as  true  in  practice  as  it  is  evident  in  theory.  If  man 
furnishes  the  proper  materials  in  sufficient  quantity  and  in  a 
suitable  condition  for  use,  and  will  take  good  care  of  his  plants, 
he  will  be  amply  rewarded  by  a  bountiful  crop. 

It  is  now  in  order  to  consider  the  Sources  of  Supply  of 
these  elements  of  which  plants  are  composed.  These  are 
several  in  number,  and  diverse  in  character.  Of  some  of  these 
materials  the  Atmosphere  furnishes  an  inexhaustible  supply. 
These  are  distributed  everywhere.  Man  can  neither  increase 
nor  diminish  the  supply,  and  there  is  not  the  slightest  need  of 
his  making  the  attempt.  It  is  wonderfully  compounded,  and  is 
perfect  in  its  action  and  its  effects.  Whether  the  soil  is  rich  or 
poor,  whether  the  plants  are  well  supplied  with  mineral  ele- 
ments, or  are  starved  for  want  of  them,  there  will  be  no 
scarcity  of  the  atmospheric  materials  which  are  required,  for 
their  growth.  Still,  it  is  possible  for  man  to  cut  himself  off  from 
the  benefits  so  liberally  bestowed.  If  he  grows  his  plants  in 
such  dense  masses  that  the  air  cannot  obtain  access  to  them, 
they  will   not  thrive  as  they  ought.     The  sunlight  and  air  are 


154  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

absolutely  necessary  to  the  securing  of  rapid  and  healthful  plant- 
growth.  It  is  utterly  useless  to  attempt  to  grow  plants  without 
them.  For,  though  there  are  materials  enough  in  the  air  to 
supply  all  the  elements  in  rich  abundance  which  ever  come  from 
that  source,  there  must,  of  necessity,  be  room  for  the  circulation 
of  the  air,  the  admission  of  the  sunshine,  and  space  enough 
between  the  plants  to  allow  the  rapid  evaporation  of  water 
which  may  fall  in  heavy  showers  or  long-continued  storms.  If 
he  will  simply  give  room  enough  to  allow  the  fulfillment  of  these 
conditions,  the  farmer  may  rest  assured  that  all  the  oxygen, 
hydrogen,  and  carbon,  which  his  plants,  require,  will  be  fur- 
nished free  of  cost.  Of  the  remaining  organic  element, 
nitrogen,  the  atmosphere  also  furnishes  a  considerable  quantity, 
but  not  enough  to  supply  the  needs  of  plants.  Some  of  these 
elements  are  used  in  the  form  of  water,  others  are  inhrJed  by 
the  leaves,  while  the  remainder  pass  from  the  air  to  the  soil 
before  being  used  by  plants.  Water  may  also  be  considered  as 
one  of  the  sources  of  supply  of  food  for  plants..  As  plants 
receive  their  food  from  the  soil  in  a  liqui4,  soluble  form,  and 
cannot  make  use  of  it  in  any  other  way,  it  is  evident  that  water 
plays  an  important  part  in  plant  life  and  growth.  It  is  composed 
of  oxygen  and  hydrogen,  and  furnishes  both  of  these  elements 
to  the  plant.  It  brings  down,  when  falling  as  rain,  nitrogen 
from  the  air,  and  also  absorbs  it  during  dry  weather.  Many 
plants  are  very  largely  composed  of  water,  and  could  not  flourish 
without  large  quantities  were  constantly  supplied.  The  cabbage 
plant  is  nearly  nine-tenths  water,  and  potato-tubers  owe  three- 
quarters  of  their  weight  to  the  same  material.  Other  plants 
use  much  smaller  proportions,  but  cannot  grow  without  some 
water  is  supplied.  As  water  serves  the  triple  purpose  of 
supplying  plant-food  in  its  own  constituents,  absorbing  it  from 
the  air,  and  acting  as  a  vehicle  for  carrying  to  the  plant  the  food 
already  contained  in  the  soil,  it  can  be  readily  seen  that  the 
success  of  the  farmer  will  be  largely  influenced  by  the  water- 


FER  TIL  IZERS.  155 

supply  of  his  plants.  The  regulation  of  this  supply  is  also  a 
matter  of  great  importance,  and  will  be  considered  in  due  time. 

The  sources  from  which  plant-food  are  obtained  which  have 
been  already  considered  are  subject  to  the  control  of  man  in 
only  a  small  degree,  and  many  of  the  elements  which  are  thus 
provided,  are  furnished  in  such  abundance  as  to  need  no  effort 
on  the  part  of  the  farmer  to  increase  the  quantity  which  nature 
bestows.  It  now  remains  for  us  to  consider  the  Soil  as  not 
only  an  important,  but,  as  far  as  man  is  concerned,  by  far  the 
most  important  of  any  of  the  sources  from  which  food  for  plants 
can  be  obtained.  A  large  part  of  his  labor  is  devoted  to  its 
cultivation,  and  to  the  soil  he  adds  the  fertilizing  elements 
which  he  uses  to  increase  the  growth  of  his  crops.  In  itself 
the  soil  is  a  great  storehouse  of  plant-food,  and  it  is  constantly 
absorbing  valuable  elements  from  the  air,  and  securing  them 
from  the  decomposition  of  vegetable  and  animal  substances  in 
and  upon  the  land.  The  supply  of  plant-food  is  not  uniform  in  all 
soils,  but  in  those  which  have  not  been  injured  by  the  removal 
of  successive  crops  without  an  adequate  return  of  fertilizing 
materials,  or  which,  on  account  of  some  peculiar  local  causes, 
are  barren,  there  is  a  large  quantity  of  materials  which  are 
capable  of  being  converted  into  plant-food.  If  we  consider  their 
formation,  we  shall  find  that  soils  have  within  themselves  a 
wonderful  recuperative  power,  and  that  those  which  have  been 
exhausted  can  again  be  made  fertile  by  means  of  the  changes 
which  are  wrought  by  time.  It  will  also  be  evident  that  all  soils 
now  in  good  condition  can  be  easily  kept  up  to  their  present 
state  of  fertility. 

It  is  supposed,  and  this  theory  does  not  conflict  with  a 
reverent  acceptance  of  the  Bible,  that  the  land  which  is  now 
capable  of  being  cultivated  was  once  solid  rock,  and  that  ages 
ago,  long  before  man  was  created  upon  the  earth,  this  rock  was 
ground,  and  scratched,  and  scoured,  by  vast  fields  of  ice  which 
m  the  form  of  glaciers  flowed  over  the  continents ;  that  by  the 


156  FARMING   FOR  PROFIT. 

means  of  terrific  storms,  by  the  alternations  of  cold  and  heat, 
and  the  various  chemical  and  mechanical  changes  which  were 
thus  effected,  the  rock  was  fitted  for  the  production  of  certain 
plants  of  a  low  order.  These  sprung  up,  matured,  and  decayed. 
Others  succeeded  them  in  the  same  course.  When  sufficient 
organic  matter  had  been  formed,  a  higher  class  of  plants  ap- 
peared. These  in  turn  absorbed  from  the  air  vast  quantities  of 
those  elements  of  plant-food  which  it  is  its  office  to  supply, 
drew  from  the  earth  the  mineral  elements  necessary  for  their 
perfection,  and  in  due  time  perished,  leaving  all  their  rich 
accumulations  of  plant-food  in  and  upon  the  soil.  Meanwhile 
climatic  changes  had  been  going  on,  and  the  earth  was  being 
fitted  for  man.  During  these  ages  the  soil  was  not  only  fitted 
to  produce  the  plants  which  are  useful  to  men,  and  which  now 
cover  the  earth,  but  vast  quantities  of  carbon  were  taken  from 
the  air  by  the  dense  vegetation  which  at  some  periods  covered 
the  world,  and  were  stored  up  for  the  iise  of  men  and  plants  in 
the  future.  The  great  beds  of  coal  which  are  found  in  various 
parts  of  the  world  are  stores  of  carbon  which  were  gathered  by 
plants  in  the  olden  time.  This  coal  not  only  proves  of  immense 
value  for  fuel,  but  when  it  is  burned  it  sets  free  a  large  quantity 
of  carbonic  acid  which  goes  into  the  atmosphere  and  furnishes 
food  for  the  support  of  plant-life.  Thus  even  the  coal,  which 
the  farmer  would  naturally  suppose  could  be  of  no  benefit  to 
him  except  to  keep  him  warm,  becomes  an  active  agent  for 
supplying  his  plants  with  one  of  the  elements  of  their  food 
which  they  need  in  large  quantities.  The  rocks  which  had  been 
pulverized  furnished  mineral  food  for  plants,  the  decay  of  vast 
masses  of  vegetation  supplied  carbon  and  ammonia,  and  the  air 
and  water  furnished  oxygen  and  hydrogen  in  great  abundance. 
In  this  way  the  world  was  slowly  adapted  to  become  the  abode 
of  man,  and  to  produce  those  plants  and  fruits  which  are 
necessary  to  promote  his  comfort  and  happiness. 

Soils    \2iry   greatly    in    color    and    in    some   of  their   other 


FERTILIZERS.  157 

characteristics.     This  difference  is  caused  by  the  different  nature 
of  the  rocks  of  which  they  were  composed.     The  sandstone, 
granite,  and  Hmestone  rocks  have  been  converted  into  different 
colored  soil,  but  this  color,  while  showing  the  origin  of  the  soil, 
does  not  furnish  an  index  to  its  fertility.     In  addition  to  the 
soils  which  were  formed  from  the  underlying  rocks  there  are, 
in  many  localities,  tracts  of  land  the  surfaces  of  which  have  been 
formed   wholly  by  deposit.     These  are  usually  very  productive. 
Where  they  are  still  subjected  to  an  annual  overflow  of  rivers  and 
deposit  of  the  impurities  of  the  water,  they  produce  good  crops 
without  manure  and  retain  their  fertility.     But  ordinary  soils 
cannot  endure  this  treatment  without  injury.    They  will  produce 
crops  which,  if  allowed  to  decay  where  they  grow,  will  make  the 
land  more  fertile,  as  they  will  return  not  only  all  which  they 
have  taken  from  the  soil,  but  also  all  the   organic  materials 
which    they   secured    from   the   atmosphere.     But   when    man 
removes  a  crop,  he  thereby  takes  from  the  soil  all  the  mineral 
elements  contained  in  what  he  secures.     If  he  returns  nothing, 
his  soil  grows  poorer  and  poorer  with  the  growth  of  every  crop, 
and   in   time  will  become    unproductive.     Some  soils  become 
deficient  in  one  ingredient  while  having  plenty  of  the  other  ele- 
ments which  are  needed,  while  from  others  a  different  element  is 
first  exhausted.    Therefore  it  is  necessary  to  know  something  of 
the  formation  of  an  exhausted  soil,  and  the  cropping  which  it  has 
received,  before  it  will  be  plain  what  particular  fertilizers  to  apply. 
In  some  measure  the  soil  can  be  made  self-fertilizing.     The 
rocks  of  which  our  soils  have  been  made  contained  the  mineral 
elements  of  plant-food.     By  the  grinding,  and  pulverizing,  and 
chemical  changes  through  which  they  have  passed,  these  rocks 
have  been  fitted  for  the  sustenance  of  crops.     But  this  has  been 
done  in  a  very  gradual   manner,  and  in  this  way  the  process  is 
still  going  on.     Only  a  very  slight  proportion  of  the  soil  is  yet 
fitted  for  plant-food.     The  weight  of  an  ordinary  soil  on  one 
acre  of  land,  calling  it  six  inches  deep,  is  about  six  hundred 


158  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

tons.  The  weight  of  inorganic  matter  removed  from  the  soil  in 
a  large  crop  of  wheat,  say  thirty  bushels  of  grain  and  thirty-six 
hundred  pounds  of  straw,  is  only  two  hundred  and  fifty-two 
pounds.  Yet  there  are  very  few  soils  which  have  been  long 
under  cultivation  which  will  produce  thirty  bushels  of  wheat 
per  acre  without  manure.  And  the  failure  to  produce  large 
crops  of  wheat  is  frequently  owing  solely  to  a  deficiency  of 
the  inorganic  elements  in  the  soil.  The  quantity  of  grain  and 
straw  required  for  a  good  crop  could  not  be  grown,  because  in 
a  whole  acre  of  land  there  was  not  two  hundred  and  fifty-two 
pounds  of  the  inorganic  materials,  which  would  have  been 
needed  to  produce  this  yield,  in  a  form  in  which  they  could  be 
appropriated  by  the  crop.  There  are  soils  on  which  wheat  does 
not  yield  well,  because  they  are  deficient  in  organic  matter.  Yet 
thirty  bushels  of  wheat  and  thirty-six  hundred  pounds  of  straw 
would  require,  in  a  soluble  form  and  properly  distributed,  only 
about  sixty-two  and  a  quarter  pounds  of  organic  material,  in 
addition  to  that  which  is  freely  supplied  by  water  and  the  air. 
In  such  a  case  the  failure  results  from  the  want  of  this  very 
slight  quantity  of  plant-food,  in  a  condition  in  which  it  can  be 
used,  in  a  whole  acre  of  land  By  means  of  the  decay  of  plants, 
and  the  death  of  worms  and  insects,  together  with  absorption 
by  the  soil,  the  land  is  being  constantly  replenished  with  organic 
materials,  while  the  chemical  and  mechanical  changes  constantly 
going  on  slowly,  but  surely,  add  to  the  stock  of  mineral  elements 
which  plants  require.  The  gradual  decomposition  of  the  soil  is 
a  wise  provision  for  preventing  its  waste  by  the  carelessness  of 
man,  and  keeping  a  constant  supply  of  food  ready  for  each 
generation  of  plants  as  its  needs  may  require.  The  soil  is  really 
inexhaustible  as  far  as  its  mineral  elements  are  concerned.  It 
may  be  badly  used — so  badly  that  only  very  small  crops  can  be 
grown — but  there  will  still  remain  vast  quantities  of  plant-food 
waiting  the  proper  time  for  their  change.  To  some  extent  man 
can  hasten  the  process  which  nature  is  constantly  carrying  on. 


FERTILIZERS.  159 

He  cannot  do  this  so  rapidly  as  to  involve  a  great  waste  of  these 
elements,  but  he  can  secure  all  that  the  largest  crops  which  can 
be  grown  will  require.  The  method  is  simple,  and  consists  in 
merely  following,  on  a  smaller  scale,  the  processes  which  natu-j 
has  so  long  carried  on.  Pulverizing  the  soil  will  certainly  un- 
lock stores  of  plant-food  which  otherwise  had  remained  un- 
available. By  taking  a  peck  of  soil  from  a  common  field  which 
has  been  long  under  cultivation,  drying  and  sifting  it,  it  will  be 
found  that  much  the  larger  part  will  remain  in  the  form  of  frag- 
ments of  rocks,  gravel,  and  hard  lumps  of  earth,  which  will  not 
pass  a  fine  sieve.  It  is  only  the  very  fine  particles  which  are  in 
any  condition  to  yield  the  plant-food  which  they  contain.  Con- 
sequently, only  a  small  proportion  of  the  soil  has  its  plant-food 
in  an  available  form.  But  the  fragments  of  rocks,  the  pebbles, 
the  gravel,  and  the  lumps  of  earth,  all  contain  some  of  the 
elements  which  plants  require,  and  will  surrender  them  just  as 
soon  as  they  are  pulverized  and  rendered  soluble.  This  pulveri- 
zation must  be  largely  done  by  nature,  but  man  can  hasten 
the  work.  By  using  the  plow,  harrow,  clod-crusher,  cultiv^ator 
and  hoe,  he  can  break  up  the  lumps  of  earth  and  so  open  the 
soil  that  the  carbonic  acid  from  the  air  can  fix  "  its  corrosive 
teeth  "  in  the  atoms  of  granite,  and  limestone,  and  other  rocks, 
and  break  them  in  pieces  for  the  use  of  plants.  Mechanical 
and  chemical  changes  are  constantly  going  on,  but  the  more  the 
soil  is  stirred,  and  the  freer  the  access  which  the  air  can  have, 
the  more  rapid  will  be  their  progress.  So  much' can  this  process 
be  hastened  that  some  farmers  have  insisted  that  frequent 
culture  was  fully  equivalent  to  manure,  and  that  if  the  land 
could  have  an  occasional  rest  and  be  thoroughly  cultivated,  it 
would  produce  good  crops  without  the  addition  of  foreign  sub- 
stances. We  do  not  favor  this  extreme  view,  but  there  can  be 
no  reasonable  doubt  of  the  truth  of  the  supposition  that  the 
chemical  changes  which  are  constantly  going  on  in  the  soil  arc 
continually   setting   free   some  of  the   elements  of  plant-food, 


J  00  faa'Mjxg  for  profit. 

and  that  this  result  may  be  greatly  facilitated  and  increased  by 
cultivation. 

On  many  farms  the  Subsoil  is  also  capable  of  furnishing  a 
supply  of  plant-food.  Many  farmers  have  an  idea  that  this  is  a 
wholly  inert  substance,  and  good  for  nothing  except  to  furnish 
a  foundation  upon  which  the  surface  soil  can  rest.  They  have 
very  carefully  avoided  plowing  it,  as  they  thought  its  admixture 
would  certainly  weaken  the  land  which  they  were  in  the  habit 
of  cultivating.  Others  have  tried  the  experiment  of  throwing 
up  some  of  the  subsoil,  and  have  not  been  pleased  with  the 
result.  Their  crops  have  not  been  increased.  In  some  cases 
they  have  been  very  perceptibly  diminished.  These  men  have 
no  faith  in  mixing  the  subsoil  with  the  surface,  and  do  not 
believe  that  it  will  furnish  plant-food  if  loosened  and  left  where 
it  is. 

Still  another  class  of  farmers  have  tried  the  plan,  and  are 
pleased  with  the  results  which  were  obtained.  Some  plowed  up 
the  subsoil,  thus  exposing  it  to  the  influences  of  the  light  and 
air,  while  others  merely  loosened  it  without  changing  its  relative 
position.  The  different  effects  which  have  been  obtained  as  the 
result  of  practical  experiment  can  be  traced  to  various  causes. 
Prominent  among  these  may  be  named  the  fact  that  the  subsoil 
in  some  localities  is  very  different  from  that  of  other  sections. 
While  that  of  one  field  may  be  rich  in  the  elements  which  plants 
need,  that  of  another  may  be  very  deficient  or  may  contain  things 
which  will  be  positively  injurious.  Again,  some  soils  need  an 
admixture  of  their  subsoils  to  make  them  more  retentive  of 
moisture,  more  compact,  or  to  produce  other  mechanical  changes 
in  their  texture.  There  are  also  some  fields  in  which  a  loosen- 
ing of  the  subsoil  proves  very  advantageous  in  the  removal  of 
surplus  water.  On  the  other  hand,  there  are  fields  which  are  in 
a  much  better  mechanical  condition  than  they  would  be  if  their 
subsoils  were  mixed  with  their  surfaces,  and  others  in  which  a 
compact  subsoil  is  of  very  great  advantage  in  preventing  the 


FER  TIL  IZERS.  1 0 1 

leaching  of  manure  beyond  the  reach  of  the  roots  of  plants. 
Consequently,  it  is  not  at  all  certain  that  subsoiling  will  benefit 
any  and  every  field  which  the  farmer  owns.  It  may  benefit  one 
and  injure  another.  As  far  as  supplying  plant-food  is  con- 
cerned, it  seems  as  if  it  might  be  of  great  benefit.  The  subsoil, 
as  a  general  thing,  is  composed  of  the  same  rocks  as  the  surface 
soil,  and  should  be  rich  in  mineral  elements.  It  is  almost  cer- 
tain that  the  injury  which  some  farmers  have  thought  resulted 
from  mixing  the  subsoil  with  that  above  it  was  caused  by  the 
use  of  too  large  a  quantity  at  a  time.  When  first  plowed  up,  the 
materials  of  the  subsoil  are  in  a  crude  state.  They  need  to  be 
warmed  by  the  sun  and  be  chemically  acted  upon  by  the  light 
and  air  before  they  are  fitted  for  supplying  the  wants  of  plants. 
If  a  large  quantity  of  these  crude  materials  is  thrown  upon  the 
soil  at  once,  a  thorough  mixture  is  utterly  impossible  and  tem- 
porary evil  will  almost  certainly  result.  In  some  cases,  where 
the  quantity  of  subsoil  thrown  up  did  not  seem  excessive,  a  very 
perceptible  diminution  of  the  crops  has  resulted  for  several  suc- 
cessive years,  while  in  others  a  marked  improvement  in  the  yield 
was  noticed  the  first  season  and  seems  to  have  become  perma- 
nent. It  is  certain  that  the  subsoil  is  one  of  the  sources  of  sup- 
ply of  plant-food,  but  there  are  difficulties  and  disadvantages 
connected  with  its  use  which  in  some  localities,  and  under  some 
circumstances,  make  it  practically  unavailable.  Unless  the  char- 
acter of  the  soil  is  such  that  common  sense  will  readily  show 
that  such  an  effort  will  be  utterly  wasted,  practical  experiment 
must  determine  whether  subsoiling  can  be  made  to  pay  m  any 
particular  field. 

These  great  natural  sources  for  the  supply  of  food  for  plants 
— the  atmosphere,  water,  soil,  and  subsoil — are  sufficient  to 
cause  a  luxuriant  growth  on  nearly  all  the  land  which  is  so 
situated  as  to  be  adapted  to  cultivation.  Under  the  undisturbed 
reign  of  nature  the  products  of  the  land  would  neither  decrease 
in  quantity  nor  be  impaired   in  quality.     There  would  be  no 


1(52  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

"  running  out."  The  process  of  disintegration  which  is  con- 
stantly going  on  in  the  soil  would  furnish  the  mineral  elements 
as  fast  as  they  would  be  required,  while  the  air  and  the  decay  of 
plants  in  the  soil  would  supply  plenty  of  the  organic  materials. 
But  in  his  effort  to  secure  large  crops,  and  to  grow  plants  on 
soils  which  are  not  their  natural  homes,  man  destroys  this  equi- 
librium. Instead  of  allowing  the  vegetable  products  of  the  land 
to  decay  thereon  and  return  to  the  soil  all  the  mineral  elements 
which  they  had  abstracted,  and  increase  its  stores  of  organic 
matter  by  the  addition  of  that  which  in  their  growth  they  had 
secured  from  the  air,  man  carries  off  a  large  proportion  of  the 
plants  which  are  produced.  In  this  way  he  removes,  with  every 
crop,  both  organic  and  inorganic  materials.  The  disintegrating 
processes  of  nature  are  not  carried  on  rapidly  enough  to  supply 
this  waste,  and,  if  he  makes  no  return,  the  farmer  will  find  his 
land  steadily  growing  poorer  with  each  crop  which  he  removes. 
Consequently,  he  must  seek  other  sources  of  supply  than  those 
which  nature  provides'if  he  wishes  to  grow  good  crops  and  keep 
his  land  uninjured. 

We  have  found  that  all  the  organic  elements  except  nitrogen 
will  be  supplied  by  the  atmosphere,  water,  and  the  soil,  and  that 
many  of  the  mineral  elements  exist  in  such  abundance  in  the 
land  that  it  is  very  seldom  that  the  farmer  needs  to  supply  them. 
But  there  will  usually  be  a  deficiency  in  the  soils  which  have 
long  been  under  cultivation  of  both  phosphoric  acid  and  potash. 
These  three  elements,  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash,  the 
farmer  who  is  to  manage  his  business  either  intelligently  or 
profitably  must  supply.  For  certain  crops  he  may  occasionally 
need  to  furnish  some  of  the  other  elements  which  plants  need, 
and  he  may  also  find  it  profitable  to  use  some  of  them  for 
another  purpose  than  that  of  directly  furnishing  plant-food  from 
their  own  substance.  Where  shall  he  obtain  the  materials  which 
he  needs  in  addition  to  the  quantity  furnished  by  the  natural 
agencies  which  have  been  considered  ?     This  is  a  very  important 


FERTILIZERS.  ,^,, 

ib.J 


question  to  the  farmer,  and  one  with  which  the  profits  of  his 
business  are  intimately  connected.     It  is  of  no  consequence  to 
the  plants  where  the  materials  come  from  or  what  they  cost 
If  they  are  only  in  a  condition  to  be  used,  the  plants  will  take 
them  without  regard  to  their  original  character.     It  makes  no  dff- 
ference  with  the  plants  whether  the  nitrogen  which  thev  receive 
.s  furnished  by  barn-yard  manure  or  by  Peruvian  guan'o  •  but  it 
may  make  a  great  difference  with  the  profit  of  a  crop  whether 
the  farmer  uses  manure  which  was  made  on  his  own  farm  or  is 
obliged  to  pay  a  high  price  in  money  for  the  food  which  the 
plants  require.     The  only  thing  with  which  .the  plant  is  con- 
cerned is  that  the  food  shall  be  furnished  in  an  available  form 
^ith  the  farmer  there  is  the  added  consideration  of  the  cost 
which  will  be  involved. 

There  are  sources  of  supply  which  are  altogether  too  expen- 
sive to  be  drawn  upon  by  the  practical  farmer.     These  we  have 
neither  time  nor  space  to  notice,  but  will  devote  our  efforts  to  a. 
consideration    of  those    sources    from   which    either   the    great 
majority  of  farmers  can  obtain  sufficient  food  for  their  plants  on 
which,  at  least,  -large  classes  will  find  useful  for  this  purpose 
It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  circumstances  of  farmers  in 
different  parts  of  the  country  are  very  diverse,  and  that,  on  this 
account,   materials   which    the   increased   crop   will   well    repay 
one  farmer  to  purchase   may  be  altogether  too  expensive  for 
another.      If  other  things  are  equal,  or  nearly  so,  the  farmer 
who  can  obtain  a  dollar  a  bushel  for  his  corn  can  afford  to  pay 
much    higher  prices    for   plant-food    than    one  who    is    oblicxcd 
to  sell  for  twenty  cents  a  bushel.      The  man  who  has  a  re^dy 
and  convenient  market,  and  can  sell  for  high  prices  all  the  crops 
which  he  can  raise,  can  use  materials  which  a  man  in  opposite 
circumstances  can  in  nowise  afford  to  buy.      The  man  who  is 
obliged  to  sell   his  crops  for  a  low  price   must  grow  them  at 
very  small   expense   for   fertilizers,  or  he   will    lose  money  by 
the  operation.     He  must  not  only  seciar^  something  which  will 


1Q4  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

make  plants  grow,  but  he  must  also  obtain  it  cheap.  Neglect 
of  this  very  evident  principle  has  involved  many  a  farmer  in 
loss.  Too  many  men  have  taken  it  for  granted  that  if  a  certain 
fertilizer  would  make  crops  grow,  it  must  be  a  good  one  for 
tbem  to  obtain.     Against  this  error  it  will  be  well  to  guard. 

We  shall  not  be  obliged  to  go  very  far  back  in  the  hi.story  of 
agriculture  to  find  a  time  when  almost  the  sole  reliance  of  the 
farmer  for  fertilizers  was  placed  on  Animal  E.xcrement.  The 
barn-yard,  pig-sty  and  sheep-fold,  were  the  places  where  the 
plant-food  used  upon  the  farms  was  accumulated.  Here  it 
remained  until  it  was  wanted  for  use,  and  it  was  not  diluted  by 
the  admixture  of  any  foreign  substances.  Neither  composting 
nor  the  importation  of  concentrated  fertilizers  had  to  any  extent 
been  attempted.  These  old  sources  of  supply  have  not  gone  out 
of  date,  but  they  have  been  largely  supplemented  by  the  use  of 
materials  which  our  forefathers  either  considered  worthless,  or 
else  knew  nothing  about.  Men  of  the  present  day  have  learned 
how  to  grow  crops  without  the  use  of  materials  which  our  pre- 
decessors called  manure,  but  they  have  not  rendered  these 
materials  worthless,  nor  shown  us  how  to  farm  to  the  best 
advantage  without  them.  We  need  all  the  fertilizers  which  can 
be  made  on  the  farm,  and  can  often  profitably  avail  ourselves  of 
some  outside  sources  of  supply.  Everything  in  the  form  of 
manure  should  be  carefully  saved.  A  waste  of  m.^.nurc,  either  in 
point  of  quantity  or  quality,  is  fully  equivalent  to  a  waste  of 
money.  For  the  money  which  the  farmer  receives  is  obtained 
from  his  crops,  and  the  quantity,  quality  and  value  of  the  crops 
will  depend  largely  upon  the  liberality  with  which  they  arc 
manured.  If  the  manure  is  carefully  saved  and  used,  large  and 
profitable  crops  may  be  obtained;  while  if  it  is  wasted, the  crops 
must  be  small  and  will  fail  to  pay  a  fair  profit. 

There  are  two  principal  ways  in  which  a  great  deal  of  manure 
is  wasted  by  those  who  design  to  be  careful  farmers.  These  are 
by  undue  exposure  to  the  weather,  and  by  uncontrolled  fermen- 


FERTILIZERS.  165 

tation.  It  is  not  as  common  now  as  it  was  a  few  years  ago  to 
see  the  manure  which  cows  have  dropped  in  the  stable  thrown 
into  piles  in  the  open  barn-yard,  often  directly  under  the  eav-es, 
where  the  sunshine  evaporates  a  large  part  of  the  nitrogeneous 
elements,  while  by  the  heavy  and  frequent  rains  to  which  it  is 
thus  exposed  the  inorganic  materials  are,  to  a  considerable 
extent,  leached  out  and  lost.  This  was  the  old  and  almost 
universal  method  of  neglecting  the  stable-manure,  but  the  better 
class  of  farmers  at  the  present  day  provide  cellars  under  the 
stables,  or  sheds  outside  of  them,  in  which  the  manure  is  fully 
protected  from  both  sunshine  and  storms.  Something  of  this 
nature  ought  always  to  be  provided.  Otherwise  the  best  part 
of  the  manure  will  be  lost  to  the  crops,  and  all  the  labor  of 
carting  and  applying  it  will  be  done  at  a  great  disadvantage. 
It  costs  the  farmer  just  as  much  to  apply  a  load  of  manure  from 
which  the  best  elements  of  plant-food  have  been  evaporated  and 
leached,  as  it  does  an  equal  quantity  which  has  not  been 
injured.  But  the  results  of  the  labor  in  one  case  will  be  nearly, 
sometimes  quite,  double  what  they  will  in  the  other.  Injury  by 
excessive  fermentation  sometimes  takes  place  in  the  compost 
heat,  but  more  frequently  because  nothing  of  this  kind  is  pro- 
vided. The  horse-manure  is  specially  liable  to  injur}'-  from  this 
cause,  and  often  becomes  so  "  burned  "  as  to  lose  half  of  its 
value.  To  prevent  this  great  waste,  the  frequent  application  of 
water  to  the  heap  will  be  useful.  A  better  way  is  to  mix  the 
horse-manure,  which  is  very  heating,  with  an  equal  quantity  of 
cow-manure,  which  heats  very  slowly.  This  should  be  done 
every  day  when  the  stables  are  cleaned,  and  will  prevent  undue 
fermentation  of  the  mass.  If  for  any  reason  this  process  is  im- 
practicable, or  it  is  desired  to  keep  the  horse  or  the  cow-manure 
separate,  a  frequent  treading  of  the  pile  will  convert  it  into  a 
solid  mass,  and  almost  wholly  prevent  injury  from  burning. 

Not  only  are  the  solid  excrements  of  animals  of  great  value 
for  supplying  food  for  plants^  but  the  liquid  portion  is  also  very 


166  FARMING   FOR  PROFIT. 

useful.  The  urine  of  the  horse  is  more  valuable  than  the  solid 
manure.  That  of  the  cow  is  much  inferior  to  her  solid  excre- 
ments, but  is  still  very  beneficial  to  plants.  The  urine  from 
an  ordinary  cow  in  one  year  will  weigh  about  two  thousand 
pounds,  and  is  considered  worth  nearly  three  dollars.  This  is 
quite  an  item  among  the  various  products  of  the  cow,  and,  like 
all  other  liquid  manures,  ought  to  be  carefully  saved.  Yet  on  a 
great  many  farms,  even  in  New  England,  where  economy  is  con- 
sidered a  great  virtue,  and  where  the  facilities  for  saving  urine 
are  much  greater  than  they  are  either  at  the  West  or  South,  this 
valuable  material  is  almost  wholly  wasted.  We  know  of 
farms  which  are  managed  by  very  economical  men — men  who 
are  too  "  saving  "  to  take  an  agricultural  paper,  or  buy  an  agri- 
cultural book — who  do  not  make  the  slightest  effort  to  utilize 
the  liquid  manure  made  in  their  stables  and  yards.  After  their 
grain  has  been  har\-ested,  they  carefully  rake  the  fields  in  order 
to  obtain  the  small  number  of  heads  which  were  scattered,  and 
thus  save  a  trifle  which  would  otherwise  be  wasted ;  but  they 
allow  the  most  valuable  part  of  the  manure  of  their  horses, 
and  much  of  the  fertilizing  material  which  they  might  obtain 
from  their  cows,  to  run  to  waste  without  an  effort  to  retain  and 
make  it  useful.  Even  some  of  the  most  intelligent  farmers, 
men  who  read  and  study  papers  and  books  which  treat  of 
their  special  business,  do  but  little  to  save  the  liquid  manure, 
which  ought  to  enrich  their  land,  and  feed  their  crops.  Their 
neglect  is  not  due  to  ignorance  or  to  carelessness,  but  is  caused 
by  a  failure  to  .<5ee  how  the  waste  can  be  easily  prevented.  The 
plans,  proposed  by  some  writers,  of  having  troughs,  and  tanks, 
and  pumps,  seem  so  complicated,  and  involve  so  much 
labor,  that  the  average  farmers  think  they  cannot  afford  the 
expense.  While  something  of  this  kind  may  be  very  desirable 
for  large  stock-farms,  we  think  it  possible  for  a  man  who  only 
keeps  a  few  cattle  and  horses  to  follow  a  more  economical 
method,  by  which  equally  good  results  may  be  secured.     If  a 


FER  TIL  IZERS.  167 

sufficient  quantity  of  dry  earth  is  used  for  "bedding,"  and  a 
little  plaster  is  added  at  proper  times,  nearly  all  of  the  manure, 
both  solid  and  liquid,  can  be  saved,  and  can  be  retained  for  an 
indefinite  length  of  time  without  injury.  In  carrying  out  this 
plan,  considerable  labor  is  involved,  but  the  results  will  amply 
justify  its  expenditure.  The  best  material,  all  things  considered, 
for  this  purpose  is  muck  or  peat.  This  should  be  dug  from  its 
bed,  and  exposed  to  the  air  for  several  months  before  being 
used.  This  is  necessary,  because  in  its  crude  state  it  contains  a 
large  proportion  of  water,  and  various  acids  which  render  it 
unfit  for  use  in  stables.  The  process  of  decomposition  can  be 
hastened  considerably,  and  the  water  can  also  be  evaporated 
more  rapidly,  if  the  pile  is  shoveled  over  every  {q^  weeks.  If 
time  and  labor  for  this  purpose  cannot  be  spared,  the  muck  may 
be  treated  with  lime.  The  lime  should  be  slacked  with  water, 
and  three  or  four  bushels  (the  measure  before  slacking)  evenly 
mixed  with  a  cord  of  muck.  The  addition  of  a  bushel  of  salt  to 
the  lime  is  said  to  be  very  beneficial.  This  should  be  dissolved 
in  the  water  in  which  the  lime  is  slacked.  If  lime  cannot  be 
obtained,  fifteen  or  twenty  bushels  of  unleached  wood-ashes  may 
be  used  in  its  stead.  This  preparatory  process  should  never  be 
neglected,  for,  until  the  water  with  which  muck  is  filled,  and  the 
acids  which  are  always  present  in  vegetable  deposits  which  lie  in 
their  original  beds,  and  which  are  only  partially  decomposed,  are 
disposed  of,  the  material  is  totally  unfit  for  use.  The  water 
must  be  evaporated,  and  the  acid  condition  must  be  corrected. 
The  former  can  be  done  by  exposure  to  the  air,  and  shelter  from 
rains,  while  the  latter  requires  either  considerable  time,  or 
the  aid  of  lime  or  ashes  as  suggested  above.  Having  pre- 
pared the  muck,  the  next  thing  to  be  attended  to  is  to  store  it 
in  a  convenient  shed  or  stable  from  which  it  can  be  taken  when 
wanted.  If  the  material  is  thoroughly  dry,  only  a  small 
quantity  per  day  will  be  needed  to  absorb  the  liquid  manure  of 
each  animal. 


168  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 

In  order  to  utilize  what  might  otherwise  be  waste  products  ot 
the  farm,  and  also  to  increase  the  quantity  and  value  of  the  fer- 
tilizer, broken  straw,  coarse  hay,  and  corn-butts,  should  be  used 
in  connection  with  the  muck.  These  materials  should  be  run 
throuf^h  a  feed-cutter  before  they  are  spread  on  the  stable-floor. 
This  to  hasten  decomposition,  increase  their  action  as  absorb- 
ents, and  make  it  easier  to  load  and  unload  the  manure.  A 
small  quantity  of  the  muck  and  a  little  of  the  strawy  material 
should  be  scattered  upon  the  stable-floors  before  the  cows  are 
let  in  at  night.  Early  in  the  morning  the  manure  and  litter 
should  either  be  thrown  out  upon  the  pile,  or  else  a  light 
sprinkling  of  muck  should  be  thrown  over  it.  When  the  cows 
are  turned  out,  the  stables  should  be  cleaned,  and  care  should 
be  taken  to  mix  the  muck,  manure,  and  .straw,  as  thoroughly  as 
possible.  We  greatly  prefer  this  to  the  method  which  some 
farmers  have  adopted,  of  cleaning  the  stables  only  at  long 
intervals,  and  keeping  the  animals  clean  by  the  daily  use  of 
considerable  quantities  of  bedding.  But  in  no  case  should  the 
manure  be  thrown  into  an  open  yard  where  the  sun  will  shine 
upon  it,  and  the  rain  from  the  eaves,  as  well  as  what  would 
naturally  fall  upon  it,  leach  out  its  mo.st  valuable  inorganic 
elements.  If  there  is  no  cellar  in  which  to  store  it,  a  shed  for 
the  protection  of  the  manure  will  pay  for  itself  in  a  very  short 
time. 

In  addition  to  the  materials  already  mentioned  for  common 
use,  plaster  can  be  advantageously  employed.  A  small  quantity 
may  be  sprinkled  in  the  stables  every  day.  It  is,  in  itself,  of 
some  value,  as  it  contains  sulphuric  acid  and  lime,  both  of  which 
materials  are  used  either  as  plant-food,  or  to  prepare  food  for 
plants.  In  the  stables  it  absorbs  ammonia  (the  valuable  element 
of  nitrogen)  and  retains  it,  thus  proving  a  great  help  in  pre- 
venting the  waste  which  would  occur  without  the  use  of  this  or 
some  other  powerful  absorbent.  It  is  specially  valuable  in 
horse-stables  where  the  liability  of  loss  is  greatest.      In  most 


FER  TIL  IZERS.  j  g  9 

sections  its  low  price  renders  this  an  inexpensive  aid  in  saving 
the  volatile  elements  of  the  manure. 

Sheep-manure  is  also  a  very  valuable  fertilizer,  and  should  h^ 
carefully  saved.  It  is  much  more  efficient  in  producing  crops 
than  either  horse  or  cow-manure.  This  is  owing  more  to  its 
better  mechanical  condition,  than  to  a  superiority  of  the 
materials  of  which  it  is  composed.  Considerable  bedding  may 
be  used  in  the  sheep-pens  to  good  advantage.  For  this  pur- 
pose either  straw  or  coarse  hay,  cut  into  short  lengths,  will 
do  very  well.  Although  it  will  remain  uninjured  for  a  long 
time  if  it  is  let  alone,  sheep-manure  is  subject  to  violent  fermen- 
tation when  it  is  forked  over  and  exposed  to  the  air.  Conse- 
quently it  should  either  be  composted  or  else  plowed  into  the 
ground  as  soon  as  it  is  removed.  It  should  never  be  used  in 
the  hill,  or  near  the  seed  of  any  plants,  before  fermentation  is 
completed. 

The  pig-pen  ought  to  furnish  quite  a  quantity  of  good  manure. 
It  is  one  of  the  merits  of  the  pig  that  he  is  capable  of  manu- 
facturing a  large  quantity  of  manure  for  a  comparatively  low 
price.  Give  him  plenty  of  muck,  straw,  and  other  materials, 
and  he  will  patiently  mix  and  work  them  over.  When  properly 
managed,  the  manure  from  the  pig-pen  will  produce  heavy  crops 
of  corn,  and  its  good  effects  can  be  seen  many  years  after  the 
crop  to  which  it  was  originally  applied  has  been  removed. 
Many  farmers  take  advantage  of  the  industrious  habits  of  the 
pig  and  keep  him  in  a  shed  into  which  the  manure  from  the 
horse  and  cow-stables  is  thrown.  This  he  th'^roughly  works 
over  and  greatly  improves.  Sometimes  la'ge  quantities  of 
muck  or  sand  are  added,  and  are  thoroughly  incorporated  into 
the  mass  by  the  labors  of  the  pigs.  This  course  insures  a  large 
quantity  of  valuable  manure,  but  it  is  open  to  many  objections. 
W2  very  much  prefer  the  plan  of  having  a  house  and  yard 
specially  for  the  hogs.  In  this  yard  muck  and  other  material 
may  be  thrown  and  converted  into  manure.     As  it  is  constantly 


170  FARMING    FOR   PROFIT. 

worked  over,  fermentation  will  proceed  very  slowly  and  can  do 
no  harm.  The  great  things  Ibr  the  farmer  to  attend  to  are  to 
keep  a  proper  quantity  of  material  ready  for  use  and  to  furnish 
a  sufificient,  but  not  excessive,  supply  of  moisture.  The  first 
of  these  requirements  is  easily  complied  with,  but  to  arrange 
the  latter  in  a  perfectly  satisfactory  manner  is  a  matter  involving 
greater  difficulty.  If  the  yard  is  left  open,  and  there  are  no  eave 
troughs  to  the  house,  so  that  all  the  water  which  falls  on  one- 
half  the  roof  as  well  as  what  naturally  belongs  there,  is  poured 
into  the  yard,  there  will  at  times  be  so  much  moisture  as  to 
make  it  very  muddy.  Though  pigs  like  an  occasional  wallow 
in  the  mire,  they  do  not  prefer  a  muddy  place  for  a  permanent 
home,  and  will  not  thrive  as  well  if  kept  in  a  filthy  place  as 
they  will  if  they  have  clean,  dry  quarters.  The  quality  of  the 
manure  is  also  injured  by  the  presence  of  too  much  water.  But 
if  the  yard  is  covered  with  a  roof  it  will  soon  become  too  dry, 
and  will  need  the  addition  of  water  from  a  well  or  cistern. 
Some  farmers  roof  o\'er  part  of  the  yard  and  leave  the  rest 
uncovered.  This  furnishes  a  partial  remedy  for  the  evils 
caused  by  too  much  or  too  little  moisture.  In  some  way  the 
quantity  of  .water  which  enters  the  yard  should  be  controlled, 
and  the  material  therein  kept  constantly  moist,  but  never 
soaking  wet. 

Poultry-manure  is  also  of  considerable  value  and  should  be 
carefully  saved.  As  farmers  usually  allow  their  hens  free  range 
during  the  day,  the  quantity  which  can  be  secured  from  this 
source  is  comp.iratively  small.  A  good  shed,  or  house,  should 
be  provided  for  \heir  night  quarters,  and  the  droppings  should 
be  removed  often  enough  to  keep  the  room  clean.  Dry  eg,rth 
may  be  occasionally  sprinkled  over  the  floor,  and  be  made  to 
add  to  the  quantity  without  greatly  injuring  the  quality  of  the 
manure.  It  should  always  be  mixed  with  earth  before  it  is 
used,  and  ought  to  be  scattered  broadcast  and  harrowed  in 
lightly. 


FER  riL  IZEKS.  yi^ 

Human  excrement  is  one  of  the  most  powerful  fertilizers,  and 
though  only  a  small  quantity  can  be  obtained,  it  should  be 
carefully  saved  and  used.  The  Chinese  make  great  use  of  this 
material,  and  have  proved  themselves  the  niost  successful 
farm.ers  on  the  globe.  Although  we  do  not  want  to  live  as  the 
Chinese  do,  though  our  people  could  not  live  and  carry  on  their 
great  industries  without  better  food  than  the  Chinese  have,  yet 
their  example  in  growing  vast  quantities  of  useful  plants  on  small 
areas,  without  importing  fertilizers,  and  without  diminishing  the 
productive  capacity  of  the  soil,  although  this  process  has  been 
going  on  for  ages,  is  worthy  of  our  imitation;  and  their  success, 
working  as  thev  have  without  scientific  knowledge,  is  one  of  the 
wonders  of  the  agricultural  world.  In  the  use  of  this  fertilizer 
in  its  crude  state  there  is  danger  of  injuring  the  plants,  but  if  it 
is  properly  composted  it  will  promote  a  luxuriant  growth.  There 
should  be  a  daily  addition  of  a  little  dry  earth,  or  charcoal-dust, 
to  the  contents  of  the  privy.  If  the  material  is  dry,  as  it  always 
ought  to  be,  it  will  answer  several  important  purposes.  It  will 
prevent  all  offensive  odors,  will  absorb  the  urine  so  that  it  will 
not  poison  the  well,  it  will  increase  the  quantity  of  the  fertilizer, 
and  the  whole  mass  will  be  of  better  quality  than  any  part  of  it 
would  have  been  without  the  addition  of  foreign  material,  it  will 
make  it  directly  beneficial  to  the  plants,  and  will  also  make  it  as 
inoffensive  to  handle  as  any  yard-manure. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  value  of  animal  excrement 
will  depend  largely  upon  the  condition  of  the  animal  and  the 
food  which  it  receives.  The  manure  of  a  fat  cow  will  be  much 
richer  in  the  elements  which  plants  require  than  that  of  one 
which  gives  large  quantities  of  milk,  for  in  the  latter  case  con- 
siderable of  the  nitrogen  and  phosphates  of  the  food  are  used 
in  the  production  of  the  milk.  A  growing  animal  also  requires 
these  elements  to  build  up  the  bodily  structure,  and  its  manure 
will  therefore  be  comparatively  deficient  in  them.  Fat  animals 
which  are  fed  with  large  quantities  of  Indian-meal,  oil-meal,  or 


172  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

similar  substances,  furnish  very  valuable  manure.  But  all  the 
manure  made  on*  the  farm,  from  each  and  every  source,  should 
be  carefully  saved.  It  is  the  capital  of  the  farmer,  and  if  wasted 
will  greatly  reduce  the  profits  of  his  business. 

The  following  estimate  of  the  quantity  and  value  of  the 
manure  made  in  one  year  by  some  farm  animals  and  man, 
was  published  by  Mr.  Bruckner,  in  his  valuable  book  on 
"American  Manures  : " 

Amount.  Value. 

Horse 2,000  lbs $9-94. 

Cow 2,000  "    S'S- 

Pig 200   " 62. 

Sheep 50    " 40. 

Human..., 100    "    50. 

In  the  last  three  we  think  the  quantity  is  too  small,  and  the 
value  much  too  low.  By  judicious  composting  the  value  can 
certainly  be  more  than  doubled.  Manure  from  fat  oxen  is  con- 
sidered much  more  valuable  than  any  noted  in  the  table.  Some 
farmers  in  New  England  who  buy  oxen  in  the  fall,  feed  them 
heavily  during  the  winter,  and  sell  them  in  the  spring  for  beef, 
consider  the  manure  which  they  obtain  during  this  period  to  be 
worth  ten  dollars  per  ox.  We  consider  this  a  fair  but  not  at  all 
leaning  toward  an  excessive  valuation. 

Composting. — The  easiest  methods  of  composting  have 
already  been  indicated.  The  use  of  plenty  of  dry  earth,  or 
other  absorbents,  in  the  stables,  pig-yards,  and  privies,  if  attended 
to  at  the  proper  time,  will  give  good  results  in  saving  the  urine 
and  preventing  the  escape  of  fertilizing  gases.  But  as  different 
methods  are  sometimes  preferred,  it  may  be  well  to  note  some 
of  those  which  seem  likely  to  be  the  most  useful.  When  no 
absorbent  but  straw  is  used,  much  of  the  urine  in  the  stables 
will  run  through  the  cracks  in  the  floor  into  the  cellar,  or  upon 
the  ground  beneath.  By  throwing  a  few  loads  of  dry  muck 
under  these  floors  in  the  fall  an  excellent  fertilizer  can  be  secured 
the  next  spring.     Professor  Pendleton^  of  Georgia,  saves  the 


FERTILIZERS.  173 

liquid  manure  in  a  tank,  under  the  stable-floor,  in  which  a  quan- 
tity   of  ground    phosphate    and   sulphate    of    lime    (plaster)  is 
placed.     When  well  saturated  the  material   is  removed  and  a 
fresh  lot  supplied.     In  this  way  a  valuable  ammoniated  super' 
phosphate  is  obtained.     The  solid  excrements  are  then  mixed 
with  bone-dust,  or  put  with  it  in  the  land  devoted  to  corn  and 
cotton.     When  something  more  elaborate  is  desired,  a  compost 
heap  may  be  made.      If  properly   managed  this   will  be  very 
useful,  but  on  account  of  the  limited  means  which  many  farmers 
possess,  and  the  rapidity  with  which  the  work   is  performed,  it 
often  happens  that  the  results  are  not  very  satisfactory.     If  he 
had  enough  to  do  with,  the  farmer  could  obtain  better  results  in 
composting.     Still  many  farmers  are  convinced  that  it  will  pay 
any   one   who  keeps  stock  to  also   have  a  compost  heap.     In 
making  such  a  heap  it  is  a  good  thing  to  place  boards  at  the 
bottom..    A  high  and  dry  spot  should  be  selected  for  the  pur- 
pose.   The  object  in  view  is  to  rapidly  decompose  the  substances 
in  the  pile,  and    decomposition   cannot    go  on,  to  any  extent, 
under  water.     The  heap  should  be  five  or  six  feet  high,  in  order 
that  the  rains  which  fall  upon  it  may  not  leach  it  and  carry  off 
its  valuable  properties.     A  layer  of  muck,  or  good  loam,  a  foot 
thick,  may  be  placed  at  the  bottom.     Upon  this  an  equal  layer 
of  stable-manure.     Then  leaves,  corn-stalks,  straw,  and  similar 
substances,  may  be  thrown    on    and  mixed  with    the   manure. 
Another  layer  of  muck  may  then  be  used,  followed  by  leaves 
and  similar  substances  and  covered  with  manure.     The  muck 
may   be    employed    quite    freely — two    loads  of  muck    to    one 
of    stable-manure  being   a  fair  proportion.     To    each    load  of 
material  twenty-five  pounds  of  plaster  should  be  added.     Some 
farmers  mix  ashes  in  the  compost  heap,  but  we  consider  them 
more  valuable    to  use   alone    as   a   fertilizer  for    .special   crops. 
Others  throw  in  old  boots  and  shoes,  soap-suds,  brine,  sawdust, 
and  all  such  refuse.     From  these  materials  a  small   quantity  of 
plant-food  may  be  obtained,  and  if  properly  used  they  xnay  be 
made  to  help  in  the  process  of  decomposition. 


174  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

The  addition  of  two  hundred  pounds  of  a  good  supeq^hos- 
phate  of  hme  to  each  cord  of  the  other  materials,  if  well  mixed 
with  the  whole  mass,  will  prove  of  immense  benefit.  This 
material  most  farmers  would  be  obliged  to  purchase.  Those 
who  can  obtain  it  without  paying  excessive  rates  for  transporta- 
tion will  probably  be  gainers  by  using  it.  Finely  ground  bone 
is  also  a  ver>'  good  addition  to  a  compost  heap,  and  if  the  super- 
phosphate cannot  well  be  obtained,  this  may  take  its  place.  Of 
course,  the  top  of  a  compost  heap  should  be  covered  with  muck 
or  loam.  In  a  few  days,  if  the  weather  is  reasonably  warm,  fer- 
mentation will  set  in.  This  will  gradually  increase  to  a  certain 
point  and  then  slowly  die  away.  Some  farmers  attempt  to  con- 
trol this  fermentation  by  the  use  of  water  which  they  apply  liber- 
ally if  they  think  the  pile  is  getting  too  hot.  Others  consider 
water  an  injury  and  rely  upon  the  plaster  to  keep  the  contents 
of  the  heap  uninjured.  In  itself,  this  fermentation  is  a  great 
advantage.  The  only  danger  is  that  it  will  proceed  too  rapidly 
and  cause  the  loss  of  some  of  the  most  valuable  elements.  If 
this  takes  place  it  will  be  indicated  by  the  escape  of  vapor 
which  has  a  strong,  pungent  odor,  similar  to  hartshorn.  If  this 
odor  is  not  apparent  the  heap  is  suffering  no  loss.  But  when  it 
does  appear,  ammonia  begins  to  escape,  and  the  value  of  the 
material  will  be  rapidly  reduced  if  the  fermentation  is  not  at 
once  retarded.  There  are  two  ways  of  checking  this  evil.  The 
application  of  water,  or,  still  better,  a  covering  of  plaster  and  a 
final  light  coating  of  dry  earth.  Some  guard  against  too  rapid 
fermentation  by  making  the  compost  heap  in  October  and  rely 
upon  the  cold  weather  to  retard  decomposition.  When  this  is 
done,  the  heap  should  be  shovelled  over  once  or  twice  in  the 
.spring.  When  any  other  system  is  followed,  it  is  also  a  good 
plan  to  throw  over  the  heap  before  it  is  used.  Sometimes  freshly 
slaked  lime  is  used  in  compost  heaps,  but  the  practice  is  not 
to  be  commended.  It  will  hasten  decomposition  and  get  the 
heap  in  condition  to  use  much  sooner  than  it  otherwise  could 


FER  TIL  IZERS.  j  75 

be,  but  it  involves  the  loss  of  too  much  nitrogen  to  make  it 
orofitable. 

The  time  required  for  the  proper  composting  of  manures  will 
vary  greatly  with  the  quality  of  the  materials  which  are  used, 
the  way  in  which  they  are  handled,  and  the  degree  of  exposure 
^o  cold  and  rain  to  which  they  are  subjected.  The  process 
should  not  be  hastened  by  lime,  and  the  material  should  not  be 
used  until  it  is  thoroughly  broken  up  and  separated  into  its 
elements.  From  six  months  to  two  years  is  usually  required, 
though  Mr.  Waring  claims  that  by  the  proper  use  of  liquid 
manure,  soap-suds,  slops,  and  similar  material  (with  which  a 
tank  is  filled  when  the  heap  is  begun,  and  from  which  it  is 
pumped  over  the  mass  once  or  twice  a  week,  and  through 
which  it  filters  back  into  the  tank),  a  heap  can  be  reduced  to  fine 
condition  in  a  single  month.  We  think  a  longer  process  is  more 
desirable.  When  the  subject  of  composting  first  attracted  gen- 
eral attention,  many  farmers  drew  large  quantities  of  dirt  to  their 
barn-yards  in  the  fall,  allowed  the  cows  to  stand  upon  it  during 
the  day-time  in  winter  and  sleep  upon  it  during  the  n:ght-time  in 
summer,  and  the  next  fall  carted  it  upon  their  fields.  Some 
used  to  plow  their  yards  once  or  twice  during  the  summer,  and 
a  few  piled  up  the  dirt  in  heaps.  But,  incredible  as  it  may  seem, 
many  followed  the  course  first  described.  Such  composting  as 
this  is  not  worthy  of  the  name  it  bears,  and  is  not  worth  the 
work  which  it  involves.  Simply  drawing  dirt  into  a  yard  and 
then  drawing  it  out  again  amonnts  to  nothing.  And  the  quan- 
tity of  manure  which  animals  leave  upon  dirt  thus  used  is  so 
small  in  comparison  with  the  whole  mass  as  to  but  slightly 
improve  the  quality  of  the  dirt  itself.  But  the  methods  of  com- 
posting previously  described  are  quite  satisfactory,  though  we 
very  much  prefer  the  use  of  dry  earth,  and  other  suitable 
materials,  in  the  stables. 

Green   Manuring. — Very  few  methods  of  fertilization  have 
been  so  strongly  recommended  by  their  advocates  or  so  severely 


J  76  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 

denounced  by  their  opponents  as  green  manuring.  It  is  a  sys- 
tem which  has  both  advantages  and  drawbacks,  which  cannot 
be  universally  used,  which  may. be  carried  too  far,  yet  one  from 
which  the  average  farmer  may  obtain  a  great  deal  of  help  in  his 
efforts  to  furnish  food  for  his  plants.  For  making  fertile  the 
worn-out  lands  in  some  parts  of  New  England,  upon  which 
corn,  rye,  and  buckwheat  have  been  grown  until  the  soil  is 
so  utterly  worn  that  it  is  practically  unproductive,  and  the 
exhausted  tobacco,  cotton,  and  cane  fields  of  the  Scuth,  this 
system  seems  specially  adapted.  It  requires  some  time  and 
labor,  but  does  not  need  much  capital.  Various  crops  are  used 
for  the  purpose.  Almost  any  crop  will  do,  but  some  are  much 
better  than  others.  Corn,  millet,  clover,  r}-e,  buckwheat,  mus- 
tard, and  turnips  have  been  recommended.  For  lands  which 
are  badly  exhausted  we  prefer  buckwheat,  as  it  will  grow  where 
corn  or  rye  would  utterly  fail.  After  growing  two  or  three 
crops  of  buckwheat,  some  other  grain  may  be  tried.  The  land 
ought  then  to  be  rich  enough  to  produce  almost  anything  which 
is  used  for  the  purpose.  Before  sowing  any  crop  with  a  view  to 
enrich  the  soil  by  means  of  green  manures  a  small  quantity'  of 
well-rotted  manure,  or  two  hundred  pounds  of  guano,  bone-dust, 
or  grass  fertilizer  should  be  applied  to  each  acre  of  land  in  order 
to  give  the  plants  a  start  and  feed  them  until  they  get  well 
rooted.  After  getting  the  land  so  that  it  will  produce  a  good 
crop  of  clover,  the  preceding  crop  should  be  turned  in  and  a  fair 
juantity  of  clover  seed  sown.  If  manure  enough  is  used  to  give 
it  a  vigorous  start,  clover  may  be  used  as  the  first  crop  in  the 
course  of  improvement.  It  ought  always  to  be  used  before  the 
course  is  completed.  This  will  be  evident  from  a  brief  con- 
sideration of  the  method  by  which  green  manures  fertilize  the 
soil.  The  substances  of  which  they  are  composed  must  be  prin-' 
cipally  drawn  from  some  source  outside  of  the  soil.  Otherwise, 
there  would  be  no  benefit  in  growing  these  crops  for  manun: 
The  land  would  not  need  them,  for  it  would  just  as  well  grow 
croDs  for  the  ^af'mcr  to  use> 


FERTILIZERS.  177 

We  find  that  clover  obtains  a  great  deal  of  its  food  from  the 
atmosphere,  and  that  the  mineral  elements  which  it  obtains  are 
largely  drawn  from  the  subsoil.  The  long  roots  of  the  clover- 
plant  penetrate  the  hard  subsoil  and  obtain  food  which  other 
crops,  having  shorter  or  weaker  roots,  cannot  secure.  The 
opponents  of  this  system  of  fertilization  claim  that  if  long 
continued  the  subsoil  will  become  exhausted  and  thus  the  effort 
to  improve  the  land  will  fail.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  it  is 
thought  that  the  decay  of  the  mass  of  roots  in  the  subsoil 
hastens  the  disintegrating  process  which  is  always  going  on,  and 
that  under  this  influence  it  will  furnish  a  full  supply  of  plant- 
food  as  fast  and  as  long  as  it  is  wanted.  Doubtless  there  are 
extremes  either  way,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  on  many 
worn-out  soils,  green  manuring  has  worked  a  complete  restora- 
tion to  fertility.  Joseph  Harris,  who  is  an  acknowledged 
authority,  calls  clover  "the  grand  renovating  crop  of  America." 
Although  it  has  long  been  used  for  a  fertilizer  in  some  sections, 
clover  does  not  seem  to  have  come  into  general  use  for  this 
purpose.  That  it  will  be  more  largely  grown  in  the  future  is 
both  to  be  hoped  and  expected.  It  is  cheaply  grown,  easily 
used,  and  almost  always  gives  satisfaction.  In  the  few  cases 
which  have  been  reported  where  green  clover  has  "soured"  the 
soil  the  difficulty  can  be  directly  traced  to  an  improper  method 
of  using.  And  it  is  a  noticeable  fact  that  some  who  are  opposed 
to  the  use  of  green  clover  are  strongly  in  favor  of  growing  it 
for  use  as  a  fertilizer  when  dry.  On  light  soils  there  is  very 
little  danger  of  injurious  fermentation  taking  place.  The  same 
is  true  in  heavy  soils  if  the  plowing  is  shallow.  But  if  deeply 
covered  in  such  soils,  temporary  ill  effects  may  be  observed. 
For  these  soils  it  has  been  recommended  that  the  first  crop  of 
clover  be  cut  when  in  full  bloom,  the  second  crop  allowed  to 
grow  up  through  it,  and  that  when  the  second  is  sufficiently 
matured  it  should  be  cut  and  allowed  to  decay  for  a  while  before 
the  land  is  devoted  to  the  production  of  a  crop  which  is  to  be 


178  I-ARMIXG   J- OR   PROFIT. 

removed.  By  following  this  plan  all  the  evils  will  be  obviated 
and  nearly  all  the  benefits  will  be  secured.  Or  if  it  is  desirable 
to  plow  oftencr,  a  coating  of  lime  may  be  sown  upon  the  clover, 
and  it  can  be  turned  in  without  injury.  The  principal  objection 
which  can  be  brought  against  clover  is  that  it  is  sometimes 
difficult  to  get  it  started.  The  young  plants  are  feeble,  and  if 
the  weather  is  unfavorable  many  of  them  die.  Some  seasons 
we  have  splendid  success  with  it,  while  in  other  years  the  seed 
fails.  This  is  a  quite  common  complaint.  Dr.  Harlan,  in  his 
small  but  able  and  comprehensive  work  on  "  Farming  With 
Green  Manures,"  has  suggested  as  a  remedy  that  buckwheat 
should  be  sown  with  the  seed.  When  the  buckwheat  is  in 
blossom  it  can  be  cut,  will  mulch  the  clover,  and  be  a  <xreat  aid 
in  securing  a  good  crop. 

Another  important  consideration  is  whether  clover  can  be 
used  constantly  and  be  made  to  supply  the  place  of  barn-yard 
manure.  If  it  can,  it  must  be  evident  to  all  observers  that  it  is 
a  great  desideratum  for  farmers  who  own  land  at  a  distance 
from  their  buildings,  to  which  it  would  be  both  laborious  and 
expensive  to  apply  the  contents  of  the  barn-yard,  and  for  all 
who  have  an  insufficient  supply  of  yard-manure.  If  used  with 
care  we  see  no  reason  why  it  may  not  be  used  continuously. 
Hon.  George  Geddes  said,  a  few  years  ago,  that  he  had  a 
field  which  for  seventy-four  years  had  been  manured  with 
nothing  except  clover  grown  upon  it  and  plowed  in  ;  that  he  has 
grown  wheat,  corn,  oats,  barley,  and  grass,  on  this  field ;  that  the 
clover  has  for  fifty  years  been  regularly  treated  with  gypsum,  and 
that  the  land  is  increasing  in  fertility.  Other  fields  have  been 
treated  by  less  noted  writers  for  shorter  periods,  but  long  enough 
to  prove  that  a  judicious  use  of  clover  can  be  long  continued 
and  steadily  produce  the  best  of  results.  Some  farmers  mow 
the  first  crop,  use  it  for  hay,  and  pIoAV  in  the  second,  while 
others,  on  good  land,  mow  and  feed  two  crops  and  merely  plow 
in  the  roots.     Of  course,  the  greater  the  quantity  of  materia] 


FERTILIZERS.  I79 

which  is  left  upon,  or  plowed  into  the  soil,  the  greater  will  be 
the  benefits  resulting  from  the  green  manuring.  Doubtless  the 
land  may  be  improved  by  taking  off  the  tops  of  a  good  clover 
crop  and  plowing  in  the  roots,  but  the  increase  in  fertility  will, 
of  necessity,  be  comparatively  slow.  To  get  large  crops  and 
improve  the  land  at  the  same  time  and  by  the  same  means  is  a 
somewhat  difficult  operation.  Too  much  in  this  line  should  not 
be  attempted. 

We  have  treated  thus  at  length  of  clover  because  we  consider 
it  the  representative  crop  for  all  purposes  of  green  manuring. 
Many  farmers  favor  the  use  of  corn,  others  of  millet,  and  still 
others  of  the  various  other  crops  which  we  have  named  in  con- 
nection with  this  subject.  Under  certain  circumstances,  some 
of  these  crops  may  be  superior  to  clover.  This  has  already  been 
suggested  in  relation  to  buckwheat.  No  special  directions  are 
needed  for  these  crops,  except  the  caution  that  when  some  of 
them  are  grown,  care  should  be  taken  to  either  plow  or  cut  the 
first  crop  before  it  matures  its  seed. 

Although  not  produced  for  the  specific  purpose  of  furnishing 
food  for  plants,  sod  is  a  very  valuable  fertilizer  for  the  ordinary 
farm  crops.  We  call  attention  to  it  here  because  we  think  its 
value  is  greatly  underrated.  We  know  many  farmers  who  keep 
their  land  in  grass  as  long  as  they  can  obtain  fair  crops — some- 
times until  it  is  almost  "  run  out."  If  they  realized  the  great 
value  of  a  heavy  turf  for  plant-food  they  would  plow  their  grass 
lands  while  they  were  quite  productive.  Probably  many  far- 
mers have  noticed  that  some  of  their  best  grass  fields  produced 
better  corn  when  planted  upon  the  inverted  turf  than  they  did 
during  the  succeeding  seasons  who  have  not  traced  this  effect,  to 
its  cause.  They  have  not  thought  that  in  the  roots  and  stubble 
of  the  grass  vast  quantities  of  food  for  the  corn  were  contained. 
There  seems  to  be  little  doubt  that  the  weight  of  this  material  will 
range  from  fifty  tons  per  acre  in  light  turf  to  one  hundred  tons 

in  a  heavy  sod.     Such  a  vast  quantity  of  material,  containing  as 
12 


130  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

this  does,  the  elements  of  fertility  in  a  high  degree,  cannot 
decay  in  the  soil  without  furnishing  an  immense  amount  of 
plant-food. 

The  substances  which  we  have  thus  far  considered  as  the 
sources  of  supply — animal  excrement,  compost,  green  manure, 
and  sod — are  all  in  the  line  of  complete  manures.  Some  are 
better  than  others,  but  each  one  is  supposed  to  contain,  to  a  cer- 
tain degree,  all  the  elements  which  it  is  necessary  to  supply  to 
the  soil  in  order  to  promote  the  growth  of  plants.  In  addition 
to  these  there  are  several  valuable  fertilizers  each  one  of  which 
furnishes  only  a  part,  but  a  very  important  part,  of  the  elements 
required.  One  will  supply  the  farmer  with  potash,  another 
with  phosphoric  acid,  while  others  will  supply  other  elements 
which  the  plants  need. 

Wood-Ashes  ought  to  hold  an  important  place  among  the 
manurial  resources  of  the  farms  in  those  sections  in  which  wood 
is  used  for  fuel.  They  furnish  large  quantities  of  potash  in  an 
easily  available  condition,  act  quickly,  energetically,  and  with  a 
considerable  degree  of  permanence.  They  ought  to  be  carefully 
saved,  and  should  be  kept  quite  dry  until  they  are  used.  Ashes 
from  hard  woods  are  much  better  than  those  from  the  soft  spe- 
cies, though  these  are  very  useful.  Leached  ashes  upon  some 
soils  give  good  results,  but  for  general  use  they  are  much 
inferior  to  those  which  remain  in  their  natural  condition.  Leach- 
ing removes  nearly  all  of  the  potash,  together  with  a  part  of  the 
phosphoric  acid  and  lime,  but  enough  of  the  latter  remain  to 
make  them  very  useful  to  crops  in  which  potash  in  large  quan- 
tities is  not  an  essential  ingredient.  Coal-ashes  are  of  but  little 
value  for  fertilizing  purposes,  but  are  said  to  be  useful  in  small 
quantities  around  pear  trees,  and  they  sometimes  improve  the 
mechanical  condition  of  heavy  soils. 

Marl,  a  soil  containing  clay,  lime,  and  other  materials,  is  also 
a  source  of  supply  for  farmers  living  in  the  vicinity  of  its  deposits. 
Some  beds  of  marl  contain  larger  quantities  of  clay  than  others, 


FERTILIZERS.  181 

and  it  is,  in  other  respects,  of  variable  composition.  The  green- 
sand  marl  of  New  Jersey,  the  best  which  has  yet  been  dis- 
covered, contains  lime,  potash,  silicic  acid,  sulphuric  acid,  and 
phosphoric  acid,  in  quantities  sufficient  to  make  it  a  valuable 
fertilizer.  Those  who  live  near  marl  beds  should  test  their  value 
for  fertilizing  purposes. 

Common  Salt  supplies  plants  with  soda  and  chlorine — both 
constituents  of  plants — the  former  an  element  which  is  occasion- 
ally needed  from  outside  sources,  while  the  latter  is  seldom 
required  in  larger  quantities  than  can  be  furnished  by  the  soil. 
Its  greatest  value  consists  in  its  power  to>  render  other  plant-food 
which  the  soil  may  contain  more  available.  Not  more  than  five 
or  six  bushels  per  acre  should  be  used  at  a  time,  and  this 
application  will  not  need  frequent  repetition.  There  are  many 
soils,  too,  which  contain  silicic  acid  (common  sand)  in  abun- 
dance, but  in  which  it  does  not  appear  in  an  available  condition. 
This  is  especially  true  in  sections  where  grain-growing  has  long 
been  a  prominent  industry.  It  is  made  apparent  by  the  weak- 
ness of  the  straw  and  the  consequent  falling  down,  or  lodging,  of 
the  grain.  When  this  occurs,  salt  should  be  applied  to  the  soil 
to  combine  with  the  sand  and  make  it  available  for  the  plants. 
There  is  no  need  of  applying  sand  to  any  kind  of  soil  merely  for 
plant-food.  For  this  purpose  there  is  enough  there  already. 
If  it  can  be  made  available  it  will  furnish  all  this  kind  of  food 
which  is  required.  Ashes,  or  potash  in  other  forms,  will  tend 
to  make  it  available,  but  will  usually  be  found  much  more 
expensive  than  salt.  On  stiff,  heavy  soils  the  application  of 
sand  in  order  to  improve  their  mechanical  condition  is  some- 
times advisable,  but  for  merely,  feeding  plants  it  is  far  better  to 
use  an  alkali  to  act  upon  the  sand  already  in  the  land. 

Plaster,  or  Gypsum,  supplies  plants  with  sulphuric  acid,  and 
with  very  small  quantities  of  sulphur.  But  its  principal  value  is 
as  an  absorbent  of  ammonia.  It  is  useful  to  sprinkle  in  stables, 
privies,  and  the  compost  heap.     On  many  soils  its  application 


132  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

produces  an  immediate  effect  in  increasing  the  yield  of  crops, 
while  on  others  it  seems  perfectly  useless.  Where  its  effect  is 
beneficial  it  needs  judicious  handling.  Within  sight  of  the 
window  by  which  wc  are  writing  there  are  many  worn-out  fields, 
which  the  older  inhabitants  say  have  been  ruined  by  plaster. 
It  was  found  that  plaster  alone  would  produce  good  crops  upon 
this  land,  and  the  owners  cropped  it  year  after  year  until  plaster 
had  no  effect,  and  the  crops  were  not  worth  the  cost  of  gather- 
ing them.  Here  plaster  acted  as  a  stimulant.  It  seemed  to 
unlock  all  the  treasures  of  plant-food  which  the  soil  contained, 
and  finally  left  it  utterly  barren.  If  clover  had  been  grown  and 
plowed  in  once  in  two  or  three  years,  or  if  manure  had  been 
occasionally  applied,  so  as  to  return  to  the  soil  the  elements 
which  the  crops  removed,  plaster  might  have  been  used  with 
good  results.  But  alone  it  proved  like  the  whip  to  a  jaded 
horse — making  him  go  until  the  last  possible  moment,  and 
leaving  him  worthless.  It  is  much  better  to  feed  and  rest  a 
tired  horse  than  it  is  to  keep  him  going  by  means  of  the  whip. 
Precisely  the  siame  principle  applies  to  the  use  of  the  land. 
Upon  soils  which  show  no  immediate  improvement  under  the 
use  of  plaster  it  will  not  pay  to  apply  it.  We  have  seen  it  sown 
upon  a  nice  field  in  strips  which  were  liberally  coated,  but  upon 
which  the  succeeding  crops  showed  no  increase  over  the  rest  of 
the  field.     We  should  never  buy  plaster  to  use  on  such  fields. 

Bones  furnish  large  quantities  of  phosphate  of  lime,  together 
with  considerable  nitrogen.  Consequently,  they  are  extremely 
valuable  for  fertilizing  purposes,  and  produce  good  results  upon 
nearly  all  soils,  and  with  nearly  all  kinds  of  crops.  In  their 
natural  state  they  act  very  slowly.  Therefore  they  should  be 
subjected  to  some  process  for  making  them  more  immediately 
available.  The  finer  they  are  made  the  more  rapidly  and 
profitably  they  will  act.  There  are  various  methods  of  reducing 
bones  to  a  finer  state.  Burning  accomplishes  the  purpose,  but 
it  drives  off"  the  nftrogen  and  thus  diminishes  the  value  of  the 


FERTILIZERS.  183 

material.  Grinding,  in  a  mill  made  for  the  purpose,  is  very- 
much  to  be  preferred.  The  finer  the  powder  into  which  they 
are  made  the  better.  If  no  mill  is  at  hand,  bones  can  be  reduced 
by  composting  with  ashes,  but  considerable  time  and  some  care 
is  required.  A  water-tight  barrel,  or  hogshead,  should  be  used. 
Into  this  bones  enough  to  fill  it  three  inches  in  depth  should  be 
placed,  upon  them  an  equal  quantity  of  the  best  wood-ashes, 
then  more  bones,  covered  as  before,  until  the  supply  gives  out 
or  the  barrel  is  full.  These  should  be  kept  always  wet.  A 
little  plaster,  or  weak  sulphuric  acid,  may  be  occasionally  thrown 
upon  the  mass  with  good  results.  Bones  treated  in  this  way 
will  not  be  ready  for  use  in  less  than  a  year.  When  thoroughly 
softened  they  should  be  taken  out,  broken  into  fine  pieces,  and 
applied  to  the  land.  The  ashes  will  also  prove  an  excellent 
fertilizer.  By  adding  sulphuric  acid  to  the  ashes  of  bones  super- 
phosphate of  lime  is  obtained.  This  is  a  valuable  fertilizer — one 
of  the  most  valuable  which  can  be  obtained.  It  is  very  readily 
dissolved,  and  consequently  can  be  easily  used  by  plants.  It 
supplies  phosphoric  acid  in  a  form  in  which  it  can  be  taken  by 
plants  in  the  early  stages  of  their  growth,  while  its  action  is 
lasting  enough  to  carry  them  through  the  season.  For  grain 
crops  and  pastures  this  fertilizer  is  of  special  value.  On  many 
soils  the  addition  of  this  one  element  will,  for  years,  produce 
good  crops,  while  without  it,  though  manures  deficient  in  this 
substance  may  be  applied,  the  land  will  yield  but  very  small 
returns  for  cultivation.  We  do  not  approve  of  using  one  element 
alone  to  any  great  extent,  but  call  attention  to  the  fact  that  this 
one  can  be  so  used  in  order  to  show  its  immense  importance  to 
the  practical  farmer.  In  obtaining  this  substance  there  are  two 
difficulties  with  which  the  farmer  will  have  to  contend.  One  is 
the  difficulty  of  obtaining  bones  without  being  obliged  to  pay 
more  than  they  are  worth,  while  the  other  is  found  in  the  danger 
of  handling  sulphuric  acid.  A  very  few  bones  can  be  saved  on 
the  farm,  but  the   quantity  to  be  secured  in  this  way  is  quite 


184  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

limited.  They  can  be  bought  in  the  cities  and  large  towns,  but 
fertilizer  manufacturers  are  generally  ready  to  pay  well  for  them. 
The  acid  needs  handling  with  the  greatest  care.  We  have 
spoiled  too  many  clothes,  and  had  our  hands  made  sore  too 
often  to  recommend  the  use  of  this  material  without  giving  a 
caution  concerning  its  use.  As  a  general  thing  wc  think  it  is 
better  for  the  farmer  to  buy  his  superphosphate  ready  made. 
Men  who  are  engaged  in  the  business  on  a  large  scale,  and  have 
facilities  for  its  prosecution,  can  make  as  good  an  article  and  do 
it  much  cheaper  than  the  farmer.  But  care  must  be  taken  to 
secure  it  of  well-known,  or  fully  responsible,  manufacturers,  for 
a  great  deal  of  miserably  poor  material  has  been  palmed  off 
upon  our  farmers  for  genuine  superphosphate.  Thanks  to  the 
fertilizer  laws  in  many  of  our  States,  such  swindles  are  now 
much  more  difficult  to  perpetrate  than  they  were  a  few  years 
ago,  and  are  quite  likely  to  involve  the  unscrupulous  dealer  and 
maker  in  a  great  deal  of  trouble. 

Another  source  of  supply  of  phosphoric  acid  is  furnished  by 
the  mineral  phosphates  which  are  found  in  various  parts  of  the 
world.  One  of  the  largest  deposits  yet  discovered  is  in  South 
Carolina,  near  the  city  of  Charleston.  These  mineral  phos- 
phates should  be  treated  with  sulphuric  acid,  as  they  are  not 
soluble  to  any  extent  in  water.  When  properly  managed  they 
are  capable  of  producing  the  best  of  effects  upon  crops,  and  it  is 
highly  probable  that  the  discovery  of  this  material  will  have  a 
very  beneficial  influence  upon  the  agriculture  of  the  Southern 
States. 

Lime. — Although  the  use  of  lime  is  considered  by  many 
farmers,  and  by  some  agricultural  writers,  as  the  very  foundation 
of  successful  farm-business,  it  is  by  others  believed  to  be  useless 
if  not  actually  injurious.  We  do  not  think  it  as  valuable  as  it 
has  many  times  been  called,  but  believe  it  may,  in  many 
sections,  be  very  useful.  As  far  as  the  mere  feeding  of  plants 
is  concerned,  we  consider  its  application  useless — certainly  so 


FERTILIZERS.  185 

on  all  soils  of  granite  or  of  limestone  formation.  Only  a  very 
small  quantity  of  lime  is  used  by  plants,  and  enough  to  supply 
their  wants  can  be  found  in  almost  any  soil.  But  it  often  proves 
a  great  aid  to  the  farmer  by  hastening  the  decay  of  vegetable 
matter  which  is  already  in  the  land,  but  in  a  condition  in  which 
it  is  unavailable  for  plant-food.  It  thus  furnishes  nitrogen, 
and  by  breaking  up  and  fining  the  coarser  particles  of  the  soil, 
liberates  the  mineral  elements  which  crops  require  Upon 
soils  which  contain  too  much  acid,  and  produce  sorrel  and 
other  weeds  better  than  they  do  corn  and  wheat,  lime  is  espe- 
cially useful,  as  it  corrects  the  acidity,  and  fits  the  land  for  the 
production  of  useful  plants.  The  idea  which  many  have 'that 
lime  exhausts  the  soil  is  not  supported  either  by  theory  or 
practice.  When  properly  applied,  lime  will  work  such  changes 
m  the  soil  as  will  make  the  fertilizing  elements  immediately 
available,  but  will  not  allow  their  escape  in  the  air.  The  crops 
will  be  larger,  and  large  crops  to  which  no  real  plant-food  has 
been  applied  ahvays  mean  exhaustion  to  the  soil.  But  in  such 
cases  the  exhaustion  is  caused  by  the  crops,  of  which  the 
farmer  has  the  full  benefit. 

Lime  should  always  be  sown  upon  the  surface — nev-er  plowed 
in.  It  sinks  in  the  soil,  and  should  be  only  slightly  covered  or 
not  covered  at  all.  We  strongly  favor  using  small  quantities  at 
frequent  intervals.  Ten  bushels  per  acre  on  ordinary  soils  is 
enough  to  begin  with.  If  the  effect  is  favorable,  the  same  or  a 
larger  application  can  be  made  in  two  or  three  years.  Upon 
soils  which  are  badly  worn,  and  contain  but  h'ttle  organic 
rnatter,  lime  should  be  used  quite  sparingly,  if  at  all ;  while  on 
land  containing  large  quantities  of  organic  material  it  can  be 
applied  more  freely.  Shell-lime  is  considered  the  best,  but  in 
many  sections  cannot  be  obtained,  except  at  great  cost  for  trans- 
portation. When  stone-lime  is  used,  the  purest  kinds  should  be 
obtained.  It  should  be  slacked  with  salt  water  before  being 
applied,  except  in  those  cases  in  which  it  is  used   merely  to 


186  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

decompose  organic  matter  in  the  soil.     For  this  purpose  it  may 
be  applied  without  slacking. 

Guano. — In  addition  to  the  supply  of  nitrogen  furnished  in 
various  forms  by  the  atmosphere,  and  the  decay  of  organic 
material  in  the  soil,  guano  furnishes  one  of  the  great  sources 
from  which  this  important  fertilizer  is  obtained.  For,  although 
some  brilliant  writers  have  claimed  that  there  is  no  necessity  for 
the  farmer  to  supply  nitrogen  to  the  land,  the  results  of  a  mul- 
titude of  experiments  seem  to  prove  beyond  question  that  the 
addition  of  this  material  will  largely  increase  the  yield  of  our 
principal  farm-crops.  On  some  soils  its  effects  are  better  than 
upon*  others ;  but  where  the  land  has  been  long  under  culti- 
vation, its  judicious  application  can  hardly  fail  to  be  beneficial. 
Land  which  is  greatly  deficient  in  mineral  elements  will 
not  be  perceptibly  benefited  by  the  addition  of  nitrogen 
alone,  but  nitrogen  in  connection  with  the  wanting  inorganic 
elements  will  usually  produce  better  and  more  permanent 
results  than  can  be  secured  by  the  use  of  only  the  mineral 
matters.  We  do  not  favor  the  using  of  guano  alone,  but 
consider  it  a  valuable  fertilizer  when  properly  applied.  The 
same  should  be  said  of  the  sulphate  of  ammonia,  which  fur- 
nishes a  great  deal  of  nitrogen  to  crops.  Near  the  sea-coast 
large  quantities  of  fish  are  used  for  fertilizing  purposes.  In 
some  places  the  oil  is  removed,  but  this  does  not  seriously 
injure  the  material  as  a  fertilizer.  The  refuse  is  broken  up  by 
machinery,  and  sent  out  in  bags  and  barrels  under  the  name  of 
"  fish  guano."  It  furnishes  large  quantities  of  nitrogen  in  one 
of  its  cheapest  forms,  and  also  considerable  phosphate  of  lime. 
It  should  be  mi.xed  with  twice  its  bulk  of  dry  earth,  scattered 
broadcast,  and  immediately  harrowed  in,  or  else  covered  by  a 
shallow  plowing.  In  no  case  should  it  be  used  in  the  hill. 
The  quantity  to  be  used  will  depend  upon  its  condition.  The 
less  water  it  contains  the  less  weight  will  be  needed  per  acre. 
We  have  used  the  **  half  dry  "  at  the  rate  of  about  ten  hundred 


FER  TIL  IZERS.  j  g  7 

pounds  per  acre  with  good  results.  For  us  it  is  cheaper  than 
Peruvian  guano,  but,  as  it  is  less  concentrated,  it  would  not  be 
as  cheap  for  farmers  living  far  inland,  and  in  some  places  the 
freight  would  be  too  expensive  to  justify  its  use. 

Nitrogen  is  also  obtained  from  many  of  the  waste  products  of 
the  farm.  It  is  present  in  leather,  but,  as  this  decomposes  very 
slowly,  a  long  time  is  required  to  make  its  fertilizing  qualities 
available.  Old  boots,  shoes  and  harnesses  may  be  buried 
under  fruit  trees  and  prove  of  some  value.  The  same  is  true  of 
woollen  rags.  When  an  animal  dies,  the  body  may  be  made  to 
furnish  both  nitrogen  and  phosphate  of  lime  for  the  use  of 
crops.  It  should  be  cut  in  pieces,  and  mixed  with  a  large 
quantity  of  dry  muck  or  loam.  But  this  should  7iot  be  done 
near  buildings,  and  should  never  be  attempted  in  the  case  of  an 
animal  dying  from  a  virulent  disease.  In  all  such  cases  the 
body  should  be  deeply  buried  at  a  distance  from  any  house  or 
barn,  and  then  be  forever  let  alone. 

The  Leaves  of  trees  can  be  made  to  supply  small  quantities 
of  plant-food.  Those  from  the  walnut,  oak  and  horse-chestnut 
trees  are  better  than  leaves  from  the  beech,  fir  or  pine.  Leaves 
furnish  small  quantities  of  phosphoric  acid,  potash  and  lime. 
They  should  be  gathered  when  damp  with  dew  or  rain  in  order 
to  facilitate  handling  them,  but  they  ought  to  be  dried  before 
being  stored  for  use  in  the  winter.  The  best  way  to  use  them 
seems  to  be  to  throw  them  under  the  cattle  for  bedding,  though 
some  prefer  to  put  them  into  the  compost  heap.  We  think 
some  writers  have  greatly  overestimated  the  value  of  leaves  as  a 
fertilizer.  They  have  been  misled  by  confounding  the  effect  of 
manure  with  that  of  covering  the  soil,  and  have  ascribed  to  the 
former  what  was  chiefly  due  to  the  latter.  Both  for  the  sake  of 
neatness,  and  also  on  account  of  their  real  value,  leaves  which 
fall  or  are  blown  around  the  buildings  should  be  gathered  and 
converted  into  manure,  but  we  do  not  think  it  will  pay  to  go 
long  distances  to  obtain  them. 


18g  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

We  have  thus  indicated  some  of  the  sources  from  which  the 
farmer  may  obtain  the  necessary  materials  for  promoting  plant 
growth.  In  the  list  we  have  included  several  of  what  are  known 
as  "  commercial  fertilizers."  The  latter  may  be  made  very  use- 
ful, or  may  cause  the  farmer  a  heav)-  loss.  Much  will  depend 
upon  his  selection  of  the  kinds,  and  his  skill  in  using  them.  If 
he  buys  nitrogen  when  phosphoric  acid  is  what  his  plants  need, 
he  will  not  be  successful ;  while  the  use  of  phosphoric  acid  when 
nitrogen  is  indicated  will  be  just  as  bad.  In  any  case  he 
should  make  the  most  of  his  own  resources,  and  use  all  the 
manure  from  his  yards  to  the  best  advantage.  A  farmer  who 
should  buy  hay  of  his  neighbor  and  never  cut  that  which  grew 
upon  his  own  land,  would  be  called  very  foolish  and  soon  be 
ruined.  Yet  this  p,ractice  would  closely  resemble  that  of  one 
who  should  buy  commercial  fertilizers,  while  neglecting  to 
secure  the  greatest  quantity  and  best  possible  quality  of  manure 
from  his  own  farm. 

When  certain  lines  of  farming  are  pursued,  it  is  not  always 
possible  to  obtain  all  the  manure  from  home  sources  which 
might  profitably  be  used.  Where  grain  is  sold  from  the  farm, 
large  quantities  of  phosphoric  acid  are  removed.  The  same  is 
true  where  young  cattle  are  grown  and  sold,  and  where  the 
milk  business  is  made  a  specialty.  In  these  and  similar  cases, 
the  ordinary  system  of  farming,  even  where  considerable  care 
is  taken  to  save  all  the  manure,  will  not  prevent  a  gradual 
exhaustion  of  the  soil.  Consequently,  from  some  outside 
sources  fertilizing  material  should  be  obtained.  Until  quite 
recently  the  doubt  which  most  farmers  felt  about  what  material 
to  use,  the  manner  of  its  application,  and  also  the  certainty  of 
the  high  price  of  fertilizers,  has  prevented  a  general  call  for  any- 
thing of  the  kind.  But  science  and  careful  experiment  have 
come  to  the  aid  of  the  farmer,  and  by  providing  what  are  called 
"Special  Fertilizers"  have  shown  him  what  to  use  and  how 
to  make  the  application.     To  the  farmer  who  has  not  a  suffi- 


FERTILIZERS.  189 

cient  quantity  of  manure  to  feed  all  his  crops  these  special 
fertilizers  are  an  immense  benefit.  They  are  made  upon  the 
principle  that  different  crops  take  the  elements  of  plant-food 
from  the  soil  in  different  proportions,  and  that  if  the  farmer  will 
supply  to  any  particular  crop  just  those  materials  which  it 
needs,  he  can  invariably  obtain  large  returns.  This  system  not 
only  supplies  just  what  the  plants  want,  but,  what  is  almost  as 
important,  furnishes  their  food  in  the  best  possible  condition. 

Here  is  where  special  fertilizers  have  a  great  advantage  over 
barn-yard  manures.  While  the  latter  contain  all  the  needed 
elements,  they  are  not  in  a  condition  in  which  they  can  at  once 
be  used  by  crops.  Before  they  can  be  made  available  various 
chemical  changes  must  be  passed  through.  The  phosphoric 
acid,  potash,  and  other  mineral  elements,  must  be  rendered 
available  by  means  of  the  carbonic  acid  which  is  generated  by 
fermentation.  Now  if  green  stable-manure  is  applied  to  the  corn 
crop  in  the  spring  and  the  weather  is  very  wet  and  cold,  fer- 
mentation is  checked,  and  the  elements  of  fertility  are  no  more 
available  than  they  would  be  if  they  were  in  another  field.  The 
corn  looks  yellow  and  sickly,  and  does  not  grow,  because,  though 
there  is  a  liberal  supply  of  manure  within  reach,  that  manure  is 
not  in  a  condition  to  be  used,  and  the  crop  has  nothing  upon 
which  to  feed  except  what  it  can  obtain  from  the  soil.  Thus 
when  the  plant  needs  manure  the  most  it  does  not  have  any. 
In  a  warm  season  this  does  not  occur,  as  fermentation  goes  on 
rapidly  enough  to  keep  a  supply  of  food  constantly  ready  for 
the  plants.  It  is  on  account  of  the  slowness  with  which  barn- 
yard-manure decomposes  that  its  effect  is  perceptible  in  the  soil 
so  long  after  its  application,  often  lasting  many  years.  Special 
fertilizers  are  not  designed  to  last  more  than  one  or  two  years, 
and  as  interest  on  the  money  invested  increases  with  great 
rapidity,  it  is  best  for  the  farmer  that  they  should  not  be  made 
so  as  to  have  a  permanent  effect.  As  Mr.  Waring  has  said  in 
his  "Elements  of  Agriculture"  farmers  are  apt  to  attach  "too 


1/90  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

much  importance  to  the  lasting  qualities  of  a  manure.  Generally 
they  are  lastijig  only  in  proportion  as  they  are  lazy."  If  money 
is  to  be  invested  in  a  fertilizer,  it  is  best  that  one  which  will  give 
a  quick  return  should  be  obtained.  This  is  the  general  rule. 
There  are  cases  in  which  it  pays  to  buy  material  which  will  be 
permanent  in  its  effects.  But  material  which  works  slowly 
should  be  obtained  for  a  low  price. 

The  objection  has  sometimes  been  raised  against  special 
fertilizers  that  the  quantity  applied  is  insufficient.  It  seems  to 
the  farmer  that  the  large  loads  of  barn-yard-man u re  which  he  is 
in  the  habit  of  using  must  contain  a  great  amount  of  plant-food, 
while  the  small  bags  of  special  fertilizers  can  certainly  contain 
but  little.  Even  if  all  the  material  of  these  special  fertilizers 
were  pure  plant-food,  he  thinks  there  would  be  so  little  of  it  that 
large  crops  could  not  be  produced.  Here  the  great  mistake  of 
considering  bulk  equivalent  to  quality  is  made.  It  is  based  on 
two  popular  misconceptions :  first  that  the  crop  takes  a  large 
quantity  of  material  from  the  soil,  and  second  that  barn-yard- 
manure  is  nearly  all  pure  fertilizer.  But  chemistry  shows  us 
that  while  a  medium  crop  of  corn  weighs  about  six  thousand 
pounds,  only  about  three  hundred  pounds  of  the  material  of 
which  it  is  composed  are  taken  from  the  soil.  This  includes  the 
ammonia — much  of  which  comes  indirectly  from  the  air.  Thus 
it  will  be  seen  that  the  air  and  water  supply  nearly  all  of  the 
\yeight  and  bulk  of  our  cultivated  crops.  If  any  reader  is  dis- 
posed to  doubt  this,  let  him  burn  ten  pounds  of  corn,  or  any 
other  crop,  and  carefully  weigh  the  ashes.  He  will  find  the 
quantity  very  small,  but  it  will  represent  all  the  material 
which  had  been  taken  directly  from  the  land.  With  many 
crops  the  weight  of  the  elements  taken  from  the  soil  is  much 
less  than  that  given  for  corn.  Then  the  barn-yard-manure 
is  overrated  by  not  distinguishing  between  what  is  valuable  and 
what  is  useless.  Dr.  Nichols  has  shown  that  in  three  thousand 
pounds    of  common   barn-yard-manure   there   are    twenty-four 


FER  TIL  IZERS.  191^ 

hundred  and  fifty-six  pounds  of  water  and  one  hundred  and 
thirty-eight  pounds  of  sand — articles  which  for  the  farmer  to 
apply  for  merely  fertilizing  purposes  are  worthless.  There  then 
remain  three  hundred  and  thirty-two  pounds  of  carbonaceous 
matter  which  has  the  same  value  as  muck,  and  "only  seventy- 
four  pounds  of  ac'tive  fertilizing  material  which  has  a  money 
value."  Prof.  Stockbridge  put  the  truth  indicated  in  these 
figures  in  a  very  clear  form  when  he  said  that  he  could  take  a 
basket  on  his  arm  and  carry  into  the  field  a  quantity  of  material 
which  would  not  weigh  more  than  twenty-six  pounds,  but  in 
which  should  be  more  plant-food  than  would  be  contained  in  an 
ox-cart  full  of  the  best  barn-yard-manure.  Except  upon  some 
soils  which  need  to  be  made  more  open  and  porous,  the  great 
bulk  of  barn-yard-manure  does  no  good.  Upon  all  other  soils 
this  extra  bulk  is  used  at  a  disadvantage,  for  it  involves  the 
carting  and  handling  of  a  great  mass  of  material  in  order  that 
a  small  quantity  of  really  fertilizing  matter  may  be  secured. 
The  farmer  who  allows  his  manure-heaps  to  lie  out  in  the  rain 
and  be  exposed  to  the  sunshine,  still  further  increases  this 
disadvantage.  For  he  will  be  obliged  to  handle  a  great  deal 
more  water,  and  the  manure  will  contain  a  much  smaller 
quantity  of  really  fertilizing  matter  than  would  be  the  case  if  it 
were  kept  from  undue  exposure  to  the  weather. 

Barn-yard-manure  should  be  saved  with  the  utmost  care,  and 
muck,  or  similar  material,  should  be  used  to  increase  the  quan- 
tity and  improve  the  quality ;  but  when  the  supply  is  exhausted, 
the  farmer  may  be  sure  that  he  can  obtain  fertilizers  equally 
good,  by  purchasing  those  which  are  compounded  by  respon- 
sible parties  for  the  production  of  special  crops.  We  much 
prefer  the  use  of  special  fertilizers  to  the  application  of  single 
elements.  If  properly  made,  the  special  manure  will  certainly 
(if  no  disease  or  accident,  to  which  all  crops  are  exposed, 
destroys  it)  produce  a  fair  yield,  but  if  the  farmer  tries  single 
elements,  he  will  be  liable  to  make  great  mistakes.     He  may 


J  92  FARMING   FOR   FRO  FIT. 

use  ammonia  or  phosphoric  acid  when  his  land  needs  potash,  or 
he  may  apply  potash  and  phosphoric  acid  when  his  land  needs 
ammonia,  and  so  on  through  all  the  many  changes  which  may 
be  made  with  these  three  elements.  If  he  gets  the  right  one, 
his  crops  will  be  good,  but  if  not,  his  expense  and  labor  will  be 
nearly  all  in  vain.  This  is  strikingly  illustrated  by  an  experi- 
ment of  the  celebrated  Mr.  Lawes,  of  Rothamsted,  England. 
Upon  land  which  without  manure  had  produced  sixteen  bushels 
of  wheat  per  acre  for  more  than  twenty  successive  years  he 
applied  phosphoric  acid,  potash,  lime,  and  other  substances, 
including  all  the  mineral  elements  which  a  large  crop  would 
require,  and  only  raised  the  yield  to  twenty-five  bushels  per 
acre.  But  by  adding  eighty  pounds  of  nitrogen  per  acre,  the 
yield  was  brought  up  to  thirty-six  bushels,  and  was  maintained 
at  that  point  for  years.  Upon  part  of  the  same  land  fourteen 
tons  of  good  barn-yard-manure  per  acre  were  used,  and  only 
brought  the  yield  to  the  same  figure  as  the  nitrogen.  This  quan- 
tity of  manure  contained  much  more  nitrogen  than  was  applied 
in  the  form  of  chemical  fertilizers,  but  it  produced  no  larger 
crops  because  a  large  part  of  it  was  unavailable  during  the  first 
season.  Its  permanent  effects  were  probably  much  greater  than 
those  of  the  chemicals.  Lest  this  experiment  should  mislead,  it 
should  be  said  that  the  soil  in  England  is  very  different  from 
our  own,  and  that  while  nitrogen  seems  to  be  demanded  there, 
potash  and  phosphoric  acid  seem  to  be  required  here  in  larger 
proportion. 

It  is  well  enough  for  the  farmer  to  experiment  to  some  extent 
with  single  elements,  with  two  combined,  and  with  a  combination 
of  different  materials,  but  we  think  he  will  more  surely  secure 
just  what  he  wants  by  buying,  when  he  is  obliged  to  buy  any- 
thing of  the  kind,  the  fertilizers  which  are  made  for  special 
crops.  They  will  cost  him  less,  keep  his  land  in  better  condition, 
and  give  him  larger  crops.  By  using  the  special  manures,  and 
occasionally  applying  a  liberal  coating  of  barn -yard-manure,  or  a 


FER  TIL  IZERS.  \  ^% 

complete  commercial  fertilizer,  the  land  can  be  made  to  pfoduce 
large  crops,  and  also  be  kept  in  a  high  state  of  fertility.  The 
special  fertilizers  have  been  tested  for  years  upon  all  kinds  of 
soils,  and  when  made  by  responsible  parties  have  proved  strictly 
reliable.  To  Prof.  Stockbridge,  of  the  Massachusetts  Agri- 
cultural College,  a  great  deal  of  credit  is  due  for  his  careful 
investigations  and  experiments  which  have  resulted  in  the  dis- 
covery of  the  fertilizers  which  bear  his  name.  We  believe  that 
wherever  the  land  has  been  exhausted  by  excessive  cropping, 
and  barn-yard-manure  cannot  be  had,  these  fertilizers  may  be 
made  the  direct  means  of  bringing  the  soil  back  to  its  original 
productiveness.  In  addition  to  the  Stockbridge  fertilizers,  and 
with  them  ranking  as  strictly  first-class,  may  be  named  the 
"  Forrester,"  originated  by  George  B.  Forrester,  and  the 
"  Mapes,"  which  are  made  from  formulae  prepared  by  Charles 
V.  Mapes.  The  "  Stockbridge"  are  manufactured  principally 
by  W.  H.  Bowker  &  Co.,  of  Boston,  the  "  Forrester  "  by 
H.  J.  Baker  &  Bro.,  of  New  York,  and  the  "  Mapes  "  by  tne 
Mapes  Formula  and  Peruvian  Guano  Co.,  of  New  York. 
The  latter  Company  also  manufacture  fertilizers  made  after  the 
formulse  of  Prof.  Ville,  the  renowned  French  agricultural 
chemist.  These  are,  at  this  writing,  the  principal  manufacturers 
of  fertilizers  for  special  crops.  They  are  all  worthy  of  confi- 
dence in  the  highest  degree.  Each  of  the  formulae  named 
above  make  use  of  the  same  materials,  but  in  different  propor- 
tions. Some  give  potash  a  higher  place  than  others,  while 
some  rely  in  a  greater  degree  upon  nitrogen  and  phosphoric  acid 
than  upon  potash. 

The  formulae  for  the  Stockbridge  fertilizer  are  carried  out  in 
pounds.  In  order  to  show  clearly  how  much,  or  rather  how 
little  plant-food  is  required,  when  it  is  all  in  a  form  in  which  it 
can  be  easily  taken  by  plants,  we  quote  the  formulae  for  a  few 
of  the  leading  crops. 


]94  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

INDIAN    CORN.— /"^r  an  Acre. 

Nitrogen 64  lbs. 

Actual  Potash 77    " 

Soluble  Phosphoric  Acid 31    " 

The  above  elements  are  conlnined  in  from  700  to  I,CXX)  pounds 
of  the  crude  materials,  and  are  designed  to  produce  fifty  bushels 
of  shelled  corn  more  than  the  natural  yield  of  the  land. 

WHEAT.— /b;-  an  Acre. 

Nitrogen    41  lbs. 

Actual  Potash   24    " 

Soluble  Phosphoric  Acid 20   " 

These  elements  are  obtained  in  from  450  to  600  pounds  of 
crude  materials,  and  are  designed  to  produce  twenty-five  bushels 
of  wheat  in  excess  of  the  natural  yield  of  the  land. 

OATS. — For  an  Acre. 

Nitrogen 23  lbs. 

Actual  Potash 20   " 

Soluble  Phosphoric  Acid    12    " 

Contained  in  from  300  to  400  pounds  of  crude  materials. 
Intended  to  produce  an  increase  of  twenty-five  bushels. 

RYE. — For  an  Acre. 

Nitrogen 25  lbs. 

Actual  Potash 24    " 

Soluble  Phosphoric  Acid 16   " 

Requiring  from  300  to  400  pounds  of  crude  materials,  and 
designed  to  yield  an  actual  increase  of  twenty  bushels. 

POTATOES.— /br  an  Acre. 

Nitrogen 21  lbs. 

Actual  Potash 34   " 

Soluble  Phosphoric  Acid II    " 

Obtained  in  from  400  to  500  pounds  of  crude  materials,  and 
designed  to  yield  an  increase  of  one  hundred  bushels. 

HAY. — For  an  Acre. 

Nitrogen 26  lbs. 

Actual  Potash 31    " 

Soluble  Phosphoric  Acid 8    " 

Requiring  from  250  to  350  lbs.  of  crude  materials,  and  designed 
to  produce  one  ton  of  hay  more  than  the  natural  yield  of  the 
land. 

The  reason  why  such  small  quantities  of  fertilizers  produce 
such  beneficial  effects  is  due  to  the  fact  that  they  present  exactly 
the  food  which  the  plants  require,  and  also  to  their  being  made 
extremely  fine;  a  condition  into  which  all  plant-food  must  come 
before  it  can  be  used. 


FERTILIZERS.  195 

For  Sugar-Cane  and  Cotton,  we  believe  no  special  fertilizers  are 
made  except  by  the  Mapes  Co.,  though  other  dealers  would  prob- 
ably furnish  them  if  there  were  a  reasonable  demand.  Sugar- 
Cane  requires,  according  to  the  Mapes  formula,  a  fertilizer  con- 
taining from  two  to  three  per  cent,  ammonia,  ten  to  twelve  per 
cent,  phosphoric  acid,  and  six  to  eight  per  cent,  of  potash.  This 
will  prove  valuable  for  either  the  Southern  cane  or  the  Sorgo, 
and  will  largely  increase  the  amount  of  saccharine  matter  in  the 
stalks.  For  Cotton,  Mapes'  Nitrogenized  Suferphosph.\te  is 
recommended.  This  contains  from  three  to  three  and  a  half 
per  cent,  of  ammonia  and  ten  to  fourteen  per  cent,  of  available 
phosphoric  acid.  A  "Complete  manure"  is  also  manufactured. 
That  sent  out  by  the  Mapes  Co.  contains  six  or  seven  per  cent, 
of  ammonia,  ten  or  twelve  per  cent,  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  three 
or  four  per  cent,  of  potash.  In  this  connection  Dr.  Nichols' 
formula  for  imitating  barn-yard-m.anure  should  be  given.  This 
requires  one  cord  of  seasoned  muck,  sixty-five  pounds  of  crude 
nitrate  of  soda,  two  bushels  of  wood-ashes,  one  peck  of  com- 
mon salt,  ten  pounds  of  fine  bone-meal,  two  quarts  of  plaster, 
and  ten  pounds  of  epsom  salts;  all  carefully  composted.  This 
is  said  to  act  rather  more  slowly  than  manure,  but  to  be  more 
lasting  and  to  insure  good  returns. 

Application  of  Fertilizers. — In  the  formulae  quoted,  and 
in  the  preceding  remarks,  we  have  endeavored  to  show  the  kindi 
and  quality  of  food  which  crops  require.  As  the  effect  of  fer- 
tilizers depends  in  a  great  degree  upon  the  manner  in  which  they 
are  used,  a  little  space  may  well  be  devoted  to  a  consideration 
of  the  best  methods  of  application.  To  some  extent  these  will 
vary  with  the  quality  and  kind  of  the  fertilizer  and  the  condition 
of  the  land.  The  general  tendency  of  manures  is  to  gradually 
sink  deeper  into  the  soil.  This  fact  would  indicate  that  surface 
application  is  the  most  desirable.  But  this  is  open  to  the  objec- 
tion that,  when  exposed  to  the  air,  some  of  the  an^monia  which 

manure  ought  to  contain  is  evaporated,  and  thus  the  quality  of 
13 


196  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

the  fertilizer  is  injured.  Twenty  years  ago  this  was  considered 
an  insuperable  objection,  and  almost  every  farmer  was  careful  to 
cover  the  manure  which  he  used  deeply  in  the  soil.  In  our 
earlier  farming  days  it  was  the  common  custom  to  plow  in  the 
manure  even  on  sod-land.  When  the  sod  was  heavy  and  deep 
plowing  was  practiced,  the  manure  made  but  little  difference 
with  the  crops  the  first  season,  and  a  large  part  of  its  fertilizing 
elements  got  washed  down  so  low  that  subsequent  crops  failed 
to  reach  them.  Experience  demonstrated  that  this  was  a  very 
unsatisfactory  way  of  using  manure,  while  the  results  of 
experiments  which  a  few  leading  farmers  had  carried  on  seemed 
to  point  to  surface  application  as  very  much  to  be  preferred. 
This  seems  to  be  the  most  reasonable  way  in  which  to  use 
manures.  In  the  early  stages  of  life,  plants  need  to  have  their 
food  very  near  them.  Their  roots  are  short  and  can  go  but  a 
little  distance  for  nourishment.  If  there  is  plenty  of  good 
food  in  a  readily  available  condition,  the  plants  will  grow  with 
great  rapidity  and  obtain  a  start  which  will  do  much  toward 
carrying  the  crop  to  a  successful  issue.  But  if  their  food  is  at 
the  bottom  of  the  furrows,  the  plants  will  grow  very  slowly  until 
the  roots  reach  that  depth.  Then  the  growth  will  become  more 
rapid,  but  it  may  be  too  late  to  .secure  the  best  yield  which 
might  have  been  obtained. 

John  Johnston  once  favored  plowing  in  manure,  but  ex- 
perience taught  him  that  it  was  not  the  best  way  in  which  it 
could  be  used.  After  using  it  only  as  a  top-dressing  for  twenty- 
six  years  he  said  that  he  considered  one  load  used  in  that  way 
"worth  far  more  than  two  plowed  under  on  our  stiff  land." 

That  it  makes  more  difference  upon  heavy  than  it  does  upon 
light  soils  probably  all  advocates  of  top-dressing  will  admit. 
But  the  great  principle  that  it,  is  best  to  put  plant-food  within 
reach  of  the  roots  of  plants  in  the  early  stages  of  their  growth  is 
always  to  be  kept  in  mind.  Surface  manuring  answers  this  re- 
quirement, and  as  the  roots  of  plants  increase  in  length  the  rains 


FERTILIZERS.  197 

wash  their  food  down  to  them.  But  if  plowed  in,  the  manure 
is  so  far  off  that  the  plants  can  make  no  use  of  it  for  a  long 
time,  and  very  much  of  it  will  be  carried  beyond  their  reach. 
The  theory  that  the  fertilizing  elements  which  are  deeply 
buried  will  be  brought  again  to  the  surface  by  capillary  attrac- 
tion does  not  seem  to  hold  good  in  practice.  There  are 
certain  circumstances  under  which  it  is  advisable  to  plow  in 
manure  lightly,  but  we  doubt  if  deep  covering  is  ever  an 
economical  method. 

Where  green  manure  is  used,  and  it  is  desired  that  fermenta- 
tion should  take  place  in  the  soil,  light  covering  is  beneficial, 
but  deep  plowing  would  greatly  retard,  if  not  entirely  defeat, 
the  purpose  for  which  it  was  tried.  This  is  true  of  green  crops 
which  are  plowed  under  for  fertilizers,  and  also  of  green  stable- 
manures.  Sod  should  not  be  plowed  very  deep,  because  such  a 
course  would  prevent  the  rapid  decay  of  the  roots  and  stubble 
which  ought  to  be  converted  into  plant-food.  Lime  sinks  very 
rapidly,  and  ought  always  to  be  used  upon  the  surface.  Plaster 
and  salt,  when  used  by  themselv^es,  each  have  their  most  bene- 
ficial effect  when  sowed  broadcast.  Ashes,  guano,  fish  refuse, 
special  fertilizers,  and  nearly  all  the  agricultural  chemicals, 
should  be  harrowed  in  before  the  seed  is  sowed.  With  guano, 
and  some  of  the  stronger  chemicals,  it  is  best  to  mix  at  least  an 
equal  bulk  of  dry  earth  before  the  sowing  is  attempted. 

The  waste  which  has  been  supposed  to  be  inseparable  from 
surface  applications  of  manure  has  been  greatly  overestimated. 
Alternate  sunshine  and  rain  will  nearly  spoil  manure  which  is 
exposed  in  the  barn-yard,  but  most  of  the  loss  goes  downward. 
Except  during  the  process  of  fermentation  there  is  not  a  great 
loss  by  means  of  exposure  to  the  air.  Consequently,  when 
manure  is  spread  upon  the  surface  of  the  land,  this  very  exposure 
enables  the  rain  to  carry  its  fertilizing  elements  directly  to 
the  roots  of  the  plants.  The  slight  loss  by  escape  of  ammonia 
in  the  air  is  far  more  than  balanced  by  the  increased  effect  of 


198  FARAfING   FOR    PROFIT. 

the  remainder.  Every  farmer  has  noticed  that  manure  dries 
quickly  after  being  spread.  Just  as  soon  as  it  is  well  dried, 
chemical  action  ceases,  and  there  is  no  further  loss.  The  dews 
and  rain  will  dissolve  and  carry  it  into  the  soil.  When  green 
stable-manure  is  spread  upon  grass  land,  a  moderate  coating  of 
plaster  should  be  sowed  upon  it  as  soon  as  the  spreading  is 
done.  This  will  both  hasten  decomposition  by  absorbing  mois- 
ture from  the  air,  and  also  prevent  the  escape  of  ammonia  before 
the  manure  is  dry.  We  do  not  often  use  green  manure  in  this 
way,  but  have  seen  splendid  results  from  it  upon  some  soils. 

The  quantity  which  should  be  used  will  depend  upon  the 
quality  of  the  manure,  the  condition  of  the  soil,  and  the  require^ 
ments  of  the  crop  which  is  to  be  grown.  The  securing  of  a 
large  crop  is  not  the  only  thing  which  the  farmer  should  keep 
in  mind,  but,  while  very  important,  must  be  subordinated  to 
profitable  cultivation.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  there  is  a 
limit  not  only  to  the  yield  of  farm  crops,  but  also  that  the 
limit  of  profitable  production  falls  considerably  inside  that  of 
the  possible  yield.  By  applying  a  vast  quantity  of  manure  we 
could  probably  grow  one  hundred  and  twenty-five  bushels  of 
shelled  corn  upon  an  acre  of  land,  but  it  is  much  better  for  us, 
not  only  as  far  as  the  present  corn  crop  is  concerned,  but  also 
when  considering  the  products  of  the  land  for  the  next  four  or 
five  years,  to  put  this  manure  upon  two  acres  and  obtain  from 
sixty  to  seventy-five  bushels  per  acre.  After  reaching  a  certain 
limit  every  additional  bushel  of  corn  is  grown  at  a  largely  in- 
creased expense.  Until  that  limit  is  reached  every  additional 
bushel  is  secured  for  a  low  price,  and  brings  a  large  percentage 
of  profit.  Thus  a  field  which  produces  only  thirty  bushels  per 
acre  may  be  brought  up  to  fifty  bushels  for  so  low  a  price  that 
the  cost  per  bushel  of  the  extra  twenty  bushels  will  fall  far 
below  the  cost  per  bushel  of  the  original  thirty.  But  after 
reaching  a  yield  of  fifty,  or  possibly  sixty,  bushels,  the  cost  per 
bushel  will  rapidly  increase.     The  same  principle  applies  to  all 


FERTILIZERS.  199 

farm  crops.  It  is  not,  as  a  general  rule,  policy  to  grow  either 
small,  or  excessively  large,  crops,  and  fertilizers  should  always 
be  used  with  this  fact  in  view.  In  the  formula  for  special 
fertilizers  which  we  have  quoted,  a  certain  quantity  was  stated 
as  being  required  to  produce  a  certain  yield.  •  Many  farmers 
have  applied  two  or  three  times  the  formulae,  and  secured 
largely  increased  crops.  But  there  is  a  limit  beyond  which  sun- 
shine, air,  and  water  cannot  go.  Room  is  also  necessary'  for  the 
development  of  plants,  and  the  cash  outlay  for  extra  fertilizers 
is  so  large  that  the  experience  of  both  farmers,  and  those  who 
have  merely  conducted  experiments,  goes  to  prove  that  it  is  not 
best  to  attempt  to  obtain  too  much  from  a  small  area  of  land. 
Besides,  an  excessive  use  of  manure  involves  an  actual  waste. 
Plants  can  use  only  a  certain  amount  of  food.  When  that  quan- 
tity is  furnished,  it  is  useless  to  ^wo.  them  more.  When  a  man 
has  all  the  food  he  can  eat,  he  is  just  as  well  supplied  as  he 
would  be  if  he  had  placed  before  him  food  enough  for  an  army. 
Precisely  the  same  may  be  said  concerning  a  plant.  Now  if 
twenty-five  loads  of  manure  per  acre  will  supply  all  the  food 
which  corn  can  use,  and  furnish  it  in  good  condition  for  the 
crop,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  the  application  of  thirty  loads  will 
involve  a  loss.  The  extra  five  loads  can  do  no  possible  good 
where  they  are,  but  would  have  manured  one-fifth  of  another 
acre  of  land  so  that  it  would  have  been  very  productive. 

But  while  it  is  possible  to  err  in  this  direction,  we  think  there 
are  ten  farmers  who  apply  too  little  manure  per  acre  where 
there  is  one  who  uses  too  much.  Every  farmer  knows  that  it  is 
worse  than  useless  for  him  to  keep  more  pigs  than  he.  can  feed 
properly.  He  can  see  that  it  is  better  for  him  to  have  a  dozen 
nice,  thrifty,  fat  pigs,  than  it  is  to  have  twenty  lean,  coarse  and 
starving  ones.  It  should  be  just  as  easy  to  see  that  it  does  not 
pay  to  try  to  grow  any  more  plants  than  there  is  manure  enough 
furnished  to  feed.  It  saves  time  and  labor,  and  is  better  for 
both  the   farmer   and  the  soil,  to  obtain   fifty  bushels  of  corn 


200  FARMING   FOR  PROFIT. 

from  one  acre  of  land,  than  it  is  to  go  over  two  acres  for  the 
same  quantity.  While  it  is  possible  to  lose  money  by  using  too 
much  manure,  it  is  also  possible  to  lose  not  only  money,  but 
time,  labor,  and  even  faith  in  farming,  by  applying  too  little. 
Both  extremes  should  be  carefully  avoided. 

The  Summer  Fallow. — Although  it  is  an  indirect  method  for 
accomplishing  the  result,  the  old  English  system  of  summer 
fallowing  should  be  mentioned  among  the  resources  for  increas- 
ing the  fertility  of  the  soil.  Some  writers  assert  that  the  mere 
resting  of  the  land  can  do  no  good,  but  the  results  of  the  process 
indicate  that  certain  advantages  can  be  obtained  from  its  use. 
The  theory  of  this  system  is,  that  the  soil  contains  large  quan- 
tities of  plant-food  in  a  condition  which  prevents  their  being 
at  once  available  for  the  use  of  crops.  When  a  crop  is  removed, 
the  land  has  been  drained  of  the  elements  which  were  ready 
for  its  food.  The  disintegrating  process  which  is  constantly 
going  on  will  unlock  and  make  available  more  food  before  time 
for  another  sowing  or  planting ;  but,  if  the  land  can  remain 
uncroppcd  during  the  next  summer,  the  quantity  of  food  which 
can  then  be  furnished  will  be  greatly  increased,  and,  conse- 
quently, much  larger  crops  can  be  secured.  Liebig  considered 
this  method  of  restoring  fertility  "  highly  important,"  and  said 
that  the  fact  of  its  beneficial  influence  had  "  been  fully  established 
by  the  experience  of  several  thousand  years."  In  this  countiy 
it  has  never  been  extensively  followed,  although  some  of  our 
best  farmers  have  been  aware  of  its  benefits.  John  Johnston 
has  practiced  it  upon  some  of  his  wheat  fields  with  great  success. 
But  most  of  our  farmers,  even  those  who  are  anxious  to  keep 
the  fertility  of  the  land  up  to  the  highest  point,  and  who  also 
desire  to  obtain  large  crops,  think  the  end  can  be  secured  wiih 
less  expense  by  following  a  suitable  rotation  of  crops.  In  this 
we  think  they  are  correct,  though  there  are  many  cases  in  which 
the  fallow  will  pay.  The  following  improvement  upon  the 
plan  of  merely  resting  the  land  has  been  suggested  by  Dr.  Har- 


FERTILIZERS.  201 

LAN.  As  the  success  of  the  fallow  is  largely  increased  by  occa- 
sionally plowing  the  land,  there  is  an  opportunity  to  use  green 
manures  at  a  merely  nominal  cost.  By  sowing  clover,  buck- 
wheat, or  some  other  crop,  when  the  land  is  plowed,  the  expense 
will  be  but  slightly  increased  and  all  the  advantages  of  green 
manuring  will  be  secured.  The  plowings  should  be  at  least  six 
weeks  apart  if  nothing  is  grown.  Upon  good  land  this  will 
give  plenty  of  time  to  secure  the  growth  of  quite  a  quantity  of 
material  for  fertilizing  purposes.  This  seems  to  be  a  better  plan 
than  that  of  leaving  the  land  entirely  idle. 

Covering  the  Soil. — This  is  one  of  the  most  effective  of  all 
the  indirect  methods  for  restoring  old  fields  or  maintaining  the 
fertility  of  those  whose  productive  power  has  not  been  impaired. 
It  should  not  be  used  alone,  but  in  connection  with  the  applica- 
tion of  some  material  containing  plant-food.  With  green  ma- 
nuring it  produces  highly  beneficial  effects.  Probably  every 
farmer  has  noticed  that  when  a  pile  of  old  boards  has  been 
removed,  the  soil  has  sent  up  a  large  growth  of  plants.  The 
land  upon  which  muck  has  been  piled  becomes  very  productive 
when  the  heaps  are  taken  away.  Probably  much  of  the  benefit 
caused  by  top-dressing  is  due  to  the  shading  of  the  land  which 
it  involves,  and  the  fact  that  covering  the  soil  causes  it  to  pro- 
duce large  crops  is  a  strong  argument  in  favor  of  surface  manur- 
ing. It  is  also  an  indication  that  the  spreading  of  straw  upon 
grain  fields  is  one  of  the  best  possible  uses  which  can  be  made 
of  this  material.  The  benefits  of  mulching  trees  have  long  been 
acknowledged.  Perhaps  the  coming  farmer  will  be  as  careful 
to  mulch  his  wheat  as  the  nurseryman  of  the  present  is  to  mulch 
his  little  trees.  In  some  experiments  in  England  the  use  of 
one  and  a  half  tons  of  straw  per  acre  spread  over  the  land 
increased  the  grass  crop  to  from  two  to  three  times  its  usual 
yield.  Yet  the  climate  of  that  country  is  much  more  moist  than 
our  own,  and  it  is  natural  to  suppose  that  the  same  use  of  straw 
would  give  our  farmers  still  better  returns.     We  know  of  no 


202  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

large  experiments  in  this  line,  but  small  ones  have  proved  that 
the  mere  covering  of  the  soil  will  largely  increase  the  crops 
which  it  can  produce. 

The  reason'  why  covering  the  land  is  beneficial  is  two-fold. 
When  straw  or  green  crops  are  used,  the  plant-food  which  these 
materials  contain  is  leached  out  and  washed  down  to  the  roots 
of  the  plants.  In  this  case  the  material  not  only  acts  as  a  cover- 
ing for  the  land,  but  also  furnishes  food  directly  to  the  plants. 
When  old  boards,  or  any  other  things  containing  none  of  the 
elements  which  plants  require,  are  used,  their  beneficial  effect  is 
probably  due  to  their  preventing  evaporation  and  thus  retaining 
the  moisture  and  the  ammonia  which  is  in  the  soil.  When  the 
land  is  left  bare  for  several  days,  as  the  mowing  lots  are  after 
the  hay  crop  is  removed,  during  the  hottest  part  of  the  year, 
evaporation  goes  on  with  great  rapidity,  and  it  is  probable  that 
large  quantities  of  ammonia  escape  with  the  vapor  which  is 
almost  constantly  rising  to  the  clouds. 

We  believe  the  subject  of  fertilizers  to  be  one  of  the  most 
important  of  all  those  with  which  the  practical  fanner  is  obliged 
to  deal.  Without  fertilizers  of  some  kind  the  farmer  can  do 
nothing.  If  he  has  but  little  manure,  he  will  be  almost  certain 
to  have  a  poor  farm,  and,  if  no  pains  are  taken  to  increase  the 
supply,  the  land  will  probably  keep  growing  poorer  and  finally 
become  almost,  if  not  wholly,  unproductive.  But  the  man  who 
labors  judiciously  to  increase  the  quantity  of  fertilizing  material 
for  his  farm  will  be  almost  sure  to  produce  good  crops  and  also 
improve  his  land.  He  certainly  lays  a  good  foundation,  and 
upon  this  he  can  build  a  splendid  success. 


TILLAGE.  203 


%:p^  T  has  long  been  acknowledged  by  the  leading  men  who 
°^  I       have  given  much  thought  to  agricultural  subjects  that 
^Q^     to  a  certain  and  considerable  extent  tillage  is  equivalent 
^      to  manure.     Some  have  gone  so  far  as  to  insist  that  if 
the  land  were  allowed  to  lie  idle  every  other  season,  and  were 
properly  tilled,  it  would  never  need  manure  and  would  never 
fail  to  produce  good  crops.     This  we  consider  an  extreme  and 
unwarranted    inference.     It    demands    altogether   too    much   of 
tillage — more   than  it  can  possibly  supply.     Even   if  the  plan 
suo-o-ested  would  do  all  that  is  claimed  for  it  by  its  advocates  we 
do  not  think   it  would  be  the  wisest  course   which   could  be 
pursued.     It  would  involve  the  use  of  twice  as  much  land  as 
could  be  cropped,  and  it  does  not  seem  best  for  a  farmer  to 
allow  half  of  his  land  to  remain  constantly  idle.     We  think  it  is 
very  much  better  to  keep  the  soil  constantly  producing  some 
valuable  crop,  and  supply  the  drain  which  such  production  must 
make  by  the  use  of  suitable  fertilizers.     When  hoed  crops  are 
grown,  these  fertilizers  should  be  supplemented  by  careful  tillage. 
For,  while  not  accepting  as  truth  all  that  has  been  claimed  for 
tillage,  we  recognize  its  great  benefits  and  believe  that  by  means 
of  its  use  the  crops  of  the  average  farmer  can  be  largely  and 
cheaply  increased.     We   have  already  alluded  to  the  fact  that 
the    soil   contains   the   mineral   elements  of  plant-food   in   rich 
abundance.     But  these  elements  are  almost  wholly  locked  up  in 
the  soil,  and  are  in  a  condition  in  which  plants  can  make  no  use 
of  them.     The   sunshine   and    storms,  together  with   chemical 
processes,  are  constantly,  but  very  slowly,  disintegrating  the  soil 
and  setting  these  elements  free.     If  the  action  of  these  forces 
were  rapid  enough,  there  would  be  no  necessity  for  man  to  supply 
mineral  food  for  his  plants.     The  soil  contains  a  vast,  almost 
unlimited  quantity,. while   the   crops  remove  but  a  very  little. 
But  when  left  to  themselves  these  processes  go  on  too  slowly  to 


204  FARMING   fOR   PROFIT. 

furnish  food  enough  for  crops.  In  some  way  the  farmer  must 
add  to,  or  make  available,  the  stores  of  the  soil.  The  former  he 
can  do  with  manure.  The  latter  can  be  accomplished  by  tillage. 
The  former  makes  a  positive  addition  to  the  plant-food  which 
the  soil  contains.  The  latter  merely  changes  materials  already 
in  the  land  from  an  unavailable  form  to  one  in  which  they  can 
be  readily  used.  It  is  not  best  to  wholly  rely  upon  either 
of  these  methods,  but  both  should  be  combined.  In  addition 
to  the  release  of  plant-food  which  is  secured  by  tillage  there  are 
various  good  results  caused  by  the  loosening  of  the  soil  which 
is  thereby  effected.  By  means  of  tillage  the  land  is  enabled  to 
retain  a  greater  degree  of  moisture  in  time  of  drought,  and  the 
air  is  permitted  tp  penetrate  the  soil  and  benefit  the  plants. 

Of  late  the  theory  has  been  advanced  that,  instead  of  being 
bcncficia!,  tillage  is  absolutely  injurious  to  the  soil.  This  is  very 
strongly  set  forth  by  Col.  Joh\  H.  MjAfee,  of  Mississippi,  in  a 
pamphlet,  entitled,  "  How  to  Till  the  Soil,"  which  has  recently 
been  published.  He  claims  that  plowing  the  land  exposes  it  to 
a  more  direct  action  of  the  sun  and  air,  and  that  thus  its  fertiliz- 
ing properties  are  "  made  to  escape."  He  affirms  that  plowing 
the  land  wears  it  out,  and  the  oftener  the  owner  plows  it  the 
more  he  exhausts  the  soil.  In  support  of  his  theor}'  he  points 
to  the  soils  which  have  been  long  cultivated  and  have  become 
exhausted,  and  says,  that  if  plowing  was  good  for  land,  these 
fields  would  be  very  rich  instead  of  almost  barren.  According 
to  his  theory  the  soil  contains  "just  so  much  fertility,"  and  fre- 
quent plowing  will  inevitably  destroy  it  and  leave  the  land 
barren.  He  lays  down  the  broad  proposition  that  thorough 
preparation  of  the  soil  before  planting  greatly  deteriorates  it, 
and  thereby  not  only  injures  the  land  but  diminishes  the  crop. 
Tt  seems  to  us  that  this  theory  is  altogether  one-sided,  and  is 
not  at  all  supported  by  facts.  That  tilling  the  soil  exposes  the 
land  to  the  action  of  the  sun  and  atmosphere  we  admit,  but  we 
do  not  believe  that  it  necessitates  the  escape  of  its  fertilizing 


TILLAGE.  205 

elements.     On  the  contrary,  it  is  because  tillage  exposes  the  soil 
to  the  action  of  the  air  that  we  advocate  it  so  strongly.     That  it 
does  not  involve  the  loss  of  fertilizing  elements  may  be  inferred 
from  the  fact  that  the   experience  of  many  years   has  proved 
beyond  all  question  that  top-dressing   is  the  most  economical 
method  of  applying   manures  to  grass.      If  manures  are  not 
injured  by  this  exposure,  the  soil  certainly  cannot  be  harmed 
thereby.     Besides,  the  elements  which  are  set  free  in  ordinary 
soils  by  tillage  are  principally  inorganic.     From  the  .very  nature 
of  the  case  it  is  impossible  that  the  sunlight  and  air  should  dis- 
sipate them.     The  only  organic   element  in  which  the  soil   is 
deficient,  and  which  can   leave  the  land   poorer   by  its  escape, 
is  nitrogen.     That  this  may  escape  from  newly  plowed  fields  in 
the  form  of  ammonia  is  possible.     But  this  escape  can  be  only 
in  a  very  slight  degree,  and  it  has  been  proved  by  the  researches 
of  chemists  and  the  experiments  of  farmers  that  newly  plowed 
fields  not  only  give  off  a  little,  but  that  they  also  absorb  a  great 
deal,  of  ammonia.     Thus  the  soil  is  actually  improved  by  cul- 
ture.    When  the  field  which  is  to  be  plowed  is  covered  with 
stubble,  or  weeds,  which  will  decay  in  the  soil,  the  amount  of 
organic  matter  which  it  contained  will  be  considerably  increased. 
If  the  claim  that  plowing  land  "  wxars  it "  were  correct,  the  fact 
would  not  be  of  great  consequence,  because,  as  we  have  shown, 
the  land  is  full  of  the  mineral  elements  of  plant-food  which  are 
made  ready  for  use  as  rapidly  as  the  disintegrating  process  is 
carried   on.      The  supply  is   inexhaustible,  and   no   fear  of  its 
failure  by  this  means  need  ever  be  entertained.     Neither  are  the 
mineral  elements  liable  to  be  washed  away  from  the  reach  of 
plants.     The  theory  that  the  soil  contains  just  so  much  fertility 
and  when  that  is  gone  the  land  is  wholly  and  forever  ruined  has 
already  been  shown  incorrect.     Our  soils  were,  doubtless,  once 
ground  out  of  solid  rock  by  the  action  of  immense  glaciers,  and 
they  are  therefore  full  of  mineral  elements.     As  each  crop  only 
removes  a  very  slight  quantity,  there  will  be  an  abundance  of 


20G  FARMING   I' OR   PROFIT. 

these  elements  even  if  the  land  is  kept  under  constant  cultiva- 
tion until  the  end  of  time.  The  more  it  is  worked  the  more 
plant-food  is  set  free.  There  will  be  soil  as  long  as  the  earth 
endures,  and  as  long  as  there  is  soil  there  will  be  plenty  of  the 
mineral  elements  of  plant-food. 

But  if  this  is  true,  how  is  the  great  fact,  that  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands of  acres  of  land  in  this  country — land  which  has  only  been 
under  cultivation  a  very  few  hundred  years — seem  to  be  com- 
pletely worn  out,  to  be  accounted  for  ?  The  fact  that  these  fields 
are  exhausted  is  the  one  grand  argument  of  the  opponents  of 
tillage,  and  is  the  one  visible  thing  to  which  they  refer  with  an 
appearance  of  being  certainly  correct.  But  in  this  they  have 
jumped  altogether  too  far  and  too  fast  in  drawing  their  conclu- 
sions. These  worn-out  fields  are  not  exhausted  in  the  sense  of 
containing  no  plant-food.  Instead  of  having  yielded  up  all  their 
fertilizing  material,  they  still  contain  enough  to  feed  yearly  crops 
for  untold  ages.  They  have  not  been  exhausted  by  plowing  or 
by  any  other  form  of  culture.  If  nothing  had  been  done  but 
cultivate  them,  they  would  still  retain  all  their  original  fertility. 
We  have  already  referred  to  some  worn-out  fields  which  can  be 
seen  from  our  window.  Looking  from  another  window  in  the 
same  room,  we  can  get  a  glimpse  of  a  large  tract  of  land  lying 
in  a  town  which  has  been  settled  more  than  two  hundred  years, 
and  land  which  has  been  yearly  cropped  during  this  long  period, 
but  which  is  now  one  of  the  most  fertile  tracts  to  be  found  East 
of  the  Mississippi.  Now,  if  cropping  and  culture  were  inevitably 
destructive,  this  land  would  be  worthless  instead  of  commanding. 
the  highest  price  of  any  land  in  all  this  region. 

The  reason  why  this  tract  of  land  is  so  different  from  the  other 
is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  a  different  system  of  culture  has 
been  pursued.  If  the  facts  could  be  obtained,  it  would  doubtless 
be  found  that  every  exhausted  field  which  has  not  been  ruined 
by  some  great  flood,  or  by  something  wholly  beyond  the  power 
of  man  to  prevent,  has  been  brought  into  its  present  condition 


TILLAGE.  207 

by  a  bad  system  of  culture  which  has  been  continued  for  many 
successive  years.  The  elements  of  fertility  have  not  been  dis- 
sipated by  sunshine,  or  scattered  by  tillage,  but  have  been 
removed  in  the  form  of  crops.  Year  after  year  crops  have  been 
grown  upon  the  same  land  without  manure.  These  crops  have 
sought  out  the  elements  of  plant-food,  appropriated  them,  and 
the  owner  has  carried  them  off.  He  has  done  this,  too,  without 
giving  the  soil  the  benefit  of  thorough  tillage.  Consequently, 
the  disintegrating  process  has  not  gone  on  rapidly  enough. 
It  has  been  too  slow  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  crops.  Proper 
culture  would  have  hastened  it  to  such  an  extent  that  fair  crops 
could  have  been  produced.  Now,  the  plants  have  taken  all  the 
food  they  can  get,  and  the  soil  must  rest  long  enough  to  allow 
more  of  the  elements  to  be  unlocked  from  their  present  com- 
binations, or  else  there  must  be  the  liberal  use  of  fertilizers.  If 
the  farmer  had  returned  the  mineral  elements  to  the  soil  in  the 
form  of  manure,  all  this  trouble  would  have  been  avoided.  But 
he  has  been  taking  from  the  soil  and  giving  nothing  back.  Vir- 
tually, he  has  year  by  year  been  selling  his  land.  Every  crop 
he  has  grown  has  carried  part  of  it  away.  The  farmers  who  have 
grown  crops  which  they  could  feed,  and  who  have  fed  them  and 
applied  the  manure  which  they  obtained  to  the  soil,  have  not 
worn  out  their  land.  Yet  their  land  has  been  tilled  as  long  as 
the  exhausted  fields.  These  facts  prove  that  it  is  not  the  tillage 
but  the  removal  of  crops  which  has  absorbed  the  elements  of 
fertility  and  impoverished  the  soil. 

While  we  do  not  in  any  case  favor  tillage  as  a  substitute  for 
manure,  we  do  most  emphatically  urge  its  employment  as  an 
auxiliary.  That  the  tillage  alone  may  be  made  thorough  enough 
to  secure  the  production  of  good  crops  every  other  year  we  have 
not  the  slightest  doubt.  On  many  soils,  which  are  easily  broken 
down,  tillage  may  be  made  to  produce  fair  crops  every  year. 
There  is  mineral  matter  enough  in  the  soil,  and  matter  of  the 
right  kind,  to  promote  the  growth  of  crops.     There  need  be  no 


208  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 

fears  of  failure  in  these  respects.  The  only  question  is,  Can  the 
tillage  be  made  thorough  enough  to  supply  an  abundance  of 
mineral  food  as  fast  as  the  crop  will  need  it?  We  take  it  for 
granted  that,  if  this  could  be  done,  the  organic  matter  necessary 
would  be  supplied  either  by  the  air  and  soil,  or  by  the  owner 
of  the  land.  But  suppose  the  question  to  be  answered  in  the 
affirmative.  We  still  think  it  far  better  to  use  manure  in  con- 
nection with  tillage,  than  it  is  to  depend  upon  either  one  alone. 
A  man  caii  milk  a  cow  with  one  hand,  but  he  can  do  it  to  much 
better  advantage  by  using  both  hands.  So  a  farmer  can  grow 
better  and  more  profitable  crops  by  means  of  tillage  in  connec- 
tion with  manure,  than  he  can  with  either  one  alone. 

In  the  employment  of  tillage,  as  well  as  in  the  use  of  any  and 
all  means  for  the  improvement  of  the  soil,  and  the  benefit  of  the 
crops,  skill  and  judgment  on  the  part  of  the  cultivator  are 
neces.sary  in  order  that  the  highest  success  may  be  secured. 
We  do  not  apprehend  any  injury  to  the  land  from  what  may  be 
styled  imperfect  and  injudicious  tillage,  but  there  may  be  a 
certain  degree  of  loss  to  the  owner  of  the  soil.  All  injudicious 
labor,  of  whatever  name  or  kind,  involves  a  loss.  To  this  rule 
tillage  is  no  exception.  But  this  fact  is  no  more  of  an  argument 
against  tillage  than  it  is  against  the  custom  of  cutting  grass.  If 
grass  is  cut  in  rainy  weather,  the  quality  of  the  hay  will  be 
badly  injured.  Here  the  loss  is  caused  by  direct  damage  to  the 
crop.  When  land  is  improperly  tilled  there  is  a  direct  waste, 
and  consequent  loss,  of  labor.  If  performed  too  late  it  may 
not  bring  the  food,  which  it  will  be  the  means  of  providing  for 
plants,  into  an  assimilable  condition  in  season  to  do  the  intended 
good.  A  farmer  may  be  tilling  his  land  when  he  ought  to  be 
cutting  his  hay  crop,  and  this  neglect  to  harvest  his  hay  at  the 
proper  time  may  involve  a  much  greater  loss  than  he  imagines. 
By  getting  over-ripe  his  hay  will  be  damaged  for  feeding,  its 
market  price  will  be  reduced,  and  the  loss  on  this  crop  will  far  ex- 
ceed the  gain  upon  the  one  which  is  tilled.  There  is  always  time 
enough  on  a  well^managed  farm  to  give  all  the  tillage  necessary, 


TILLAGE.  209 

and  the  farmer  should  study  not  only  the  best  methods,  but  also 
to  avail  himself  of  the  best  opportunities  for  doing  this  work. 

It  should  also  be  remembered  that  different  soils  require 
different  degrees  of  tillage.  A  loose,  open  gravel  requires  but 
little  working  compared  with  a  stiff  clay  soil.  If  fallowing  is 
practiced,  tillage  will  be  a  great  aid.  Still  it  is  not  usually  given. 
The  vast  majority  of  farmers  do  not  sufficiently  till  their  crops. 
It  would  be  altogether  too  much  of  a  strain  upon  faith  to  expect 
such  men  to  till  their  land  while  it  is  lying  idle.  If  they  will 
not  cultivate  the  soil  thoroughly  when  it  is  productive,  they 
certainly  will  not  do  much  to  it  while  it  is  resting.  Yet  some 
of  our  best  farmers  have  found  this  form  of  tillage  very  profit- 
able. Upon  some  of  his  fine  wheat  fields  John  Johnston  does 
a  great  deal  of  work  in  the  line  of  tillage  while  the  land  is 
fallow.  He  plows,  harrows,  and  rolls  these  fields  two  or  three 
times  during  the  season.  Joseph  Harris  declares  himself  un- 
able to  "  dispense  with  summer  fallowing  "  on  heavy  land,  and 
he  often  uses  the  plow  and  harrow  in  order  to  unlock  the 
treasures  which  his  soil  contains.  Now  if  it  pays  to  till  the 
land  while  it  is  resting,  it  must  be  a  matter  of  great  importance 
to  give  it  thorough  culture  while  it  is  producing  a  crop. 
Oxygen,  carbonic  acid  and  water  are  the  great  liberators  of 
plant-food  in  the  soil.  The  more  loose  and  open  the  land  is 
kept  the  more  readily  these  agents  can  penetrate  it,  and  the 
greater  the  efficiency  with  which  they  will  act.  Stirring  the  soil 
allows  their  entrance,  and  the  breaking  of  the  clods,  and  mixing 
of  the  various  portions  of  the  soil  which  is  accomplished  by  the 
use  of  the  cultivator,  will  also  prove  of  great  benefit  to  the  crop. 
LiEBiG,  noticing  the  great  benefits  of  culture,  remarked  that 
"  the  influence  of  the  mechanical  operations  of  agriculture  upon 
the  fertility  of  a  soil,  however  imperfectly  the  earthy  particles 
may  be  mixed  by  the  process,  is  remarkable,  and  often  borders 
upon  the  marvellous."  This  test  of  practical  effect  is  the  one 
to  which  every  theory  should  be  subjected. 


210  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

The  effect  of  the  system  upon  the  land  and  the  crops  should 
be  carefully  noted.  If  the  effect  is  good  for  a  reasonable  length 
of  time,  it  is  proper  to  conclude  that  the  system  is  correct,  even 
though  it  may  not  be  in  accordance  with  our  preconceived  views 
or  our  present  theories.  Examining  the  subject  of  tillage  in 
this  light  we  find  the  strongest  arguments  in  its  favor.  The  best 
farmers,  and  the  farmers  who  raise  the  best  crops,  practice 
thorough  culture.  The  fact  that  they  use  manure  freely  in  con- 
nection with  it  does  not  at  all  detract  from  the  merits  of  the 
system  of  thorough  tillage  which  we  have  advocated.  It  may 
be  the  case  that  certain  fertilizers  have  been  praised  for  what 
tillage  has  really  accomplished.  Manufacturers  of  fertilizers 
recommend,  as  they  should  do,  careful  cultivation.  Now  the 
fact  cannot  be  denied  that  by  means  of  cultivation  alone  some 
farmers  have  grown  large  crops.  It  is,  therefore,  reasonable  to 
suppose  that  certain  large  yields  of  grain,  which  have  been 
secured  with  the  use  of  remarkably  small  quantities  of  some 
commercial  fertilizer,  have  been  due  more  to  the  extra  culture 
which  the  plants  received  than  they  were  to  the  manure.  We 
are  now  referring  only  to  those  cases  in  which  the  reported  yield 
is  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  quantity  and  value  of  the  fertilizer 
applied.  When  the  land  is  highly  manured,  it  is  safe  to  expect 
large  crops  if  the  plants  are  well  cared  for.  With  little  manure 
and  thorough  tillage  large  yields  may  sometimes  be  secured,  but 
the  credit  is  due  far  more  to  the  culture  than  it  is  to  the  manure. 
The  highest  permanent  results  are  only  to  be  attained  by  the 
combined  use  of  fertilizers  and  cultivation. 

The  best  time  for  tilling  the  soil  and  the  best  methods  to  be 
employed  will  depend  largely  upon  the  particular  crop  produced, 
the  climate,  and  the  soil.  What  is  a  proper  course  to  pursue 
with  one  crop  may  be  injudicious  with  another,  and  what  would 
be  good  tillage  upon  some  soils  would  be  so  imperfect  as  to 
scarcely  deserve  the  name  if  applied  to  others.  But  there  are 
some  general  principles  which  should  be  constantly  kept  in  mind. 


TILLAGE.  211 

The  soil  must  be  thoroughly  fitted  to  receive  the  seed.     No 

amount  of  skilful  culture  afterwards  can  atone  for  neglect  to 

prepare  the  land  before  the  planting  is  done.     The  seeds  of  farm 

crops  are  comparatively  small  and  weak.     When  placed  in  a 

poorly  prepared  soil,  which  is  full  of  lumps  and  clods,  it  takes  a 

long  while  for  them  to  get  fairly  started.     Their  small,  weak 

rootlets  cannot  penetrate  the  clods,  and  it  is  with  difficulty  that 

they  find  either  room  or  food.    In  all  the  early  stages  of  growth 

the  plants  are  placed  at  a  great  disadvantage,  and  are  obliged  to' 

contend  with  difficulties  which  the  farmer  ought  not  to  have 

allowed  to  exist.     Subsequent  culture  may  break  these  clods 

and  give  the  plants  both  room  and  food,  but  it  will  certainly 

come  too  late  to  allow  them  to  do  as  well  as  they  would  if 

everything  had  been  favorable  from  the  beginning.     If  the  soil 

is  fine  when  the  seed  is  planted,  growth  will  be  prompt  and 

regular.     There  will  be  no  delay  from  want  of  food,  and  no 

time  will  be  lost  in  trying  to  find  room.     The  plants  which  start 

in  this  manner  will  be  strong  and  vigorous,  and  will  be  far  less 

likely  to  be  attacked  by  disease  than  those  which  start  slowly, 

and  have  a  hard  fight  in  order  to  obtain  a  hold  upon  life. 

It  is  greatly  for  the  convenience,  as  well  as  the  pecuniary 

interest,  of  the  farmer  to  have  his   crops  grow  as  rapidly  as 

possible ;  and  for  this  reason,  even  if  there  were  no  other,  good 

tillage  should  be  given.     If  his  com  comes  up  promptly  and 

grows  rapidly,  the  plants  will  soon  be  large  enough  to  cultivate. 

This  culture  will  cause  them  to  grow  still  faster,  and  in  an 

ordinary  season,  it  may  be  possible  to  get  the  third  hoeing  out 

of  the  way  before  the  haying  season  arrives.     This  is  quite  an 

object  for  the  farmer,  and  the  early  culture  will  prove  a  great 

benefit  to  the  crop.     But  if  the  corn  comes  up  slowly,  and  does 

not  grow  much  for  two  or  three  weeks  after  it  does  appear, 

weeds  witt  endeavor  to  take  possession  of  the  soil,  the  hoeing 

must  be  put  off  to  give  time  for  the  corn  to  grow,  and  before  it' 

has  been  fairly  attended  to  once  the  haying  needs  to  be  coni^- 
14 


212  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

menccd.  With  wheat,  oats,  and  similar  crops,  the  results  of  a 
slow  growth  during  their  early  stages  are  still  worse  than  they 
are  with  the  corn  crop. 

The  plants  being  weak,  are  destroyed  in  large  numbers  by 
climatic  changes  and  insects,  while  the  weeds,  which  are  more 
hardy  than  the  grain,  take  possession  of  altogether  too  much 
of  the  land.  Upon  most  farms  these  crops  are  not  hoed,  and 
when  they  fail  to  get  a  good  start,  the  weeds  attain  a  large  size, 
starve  the  grain,  injure  the  soil,  and  ripen  their  seed.  If  the 
grain  had  started  vigorously,  it  might  have  overcome  the  weeds, 
but  starting  late,  and  being  placed  at  a  great  disadvantage,  it 
must  take  the  second  place.  It  will  always  pay,  even  though  it 
may  involve  some  delay  about  planting  or  sowing,  to  get  the 
land  in  the  best  possible  condition  to  receive  the  seed.  It  is 
much  better  to  wait  a  few  days  until  the  soil  can  be  finely  pul- 
verized, than  it  is  to  hurry  in  the  seed  before  the  land  is  properly 
prepared.  The  plants  will  grow  enough  faster  to  more  than 
make  up  for  the  delay,  and,  being  much  more  vigorous,  will 
produce  larger  crops  than  can  be  obtained  if  the  land  is  not  in  a 
suitable  condition  when  the  seeding  is  done.  While  early 
planting  is  often  of  great  importance,  it  cannot  be  more  neces- 
sary than  a  thorough  preparation  of  the  land. 

In  order  to  secure  the  full  measure  of  benefit  which  tillage  is 
able  to  confer,  it  is  necessary  that  the  culture  of  the  plants 
should  be  adapted  to  their  particular  wants.  Both  corn 
and  potatoes  are  greatly  benefited  by  tillage,  but  it  must  be 
performed  in  a  very  different  manner  for  one  of  these  crops  than 
it  is  for  the  other.  It  is  possible  to  injure  plants  by  bad  tillage. 
We  have  seen  a  corn  crop  seriously  damaged  by  having  too 
much  dirt  thrown  upon  it  at  once.  But  such  facts  as  these  are 
no  reflection  upon  the  benefits  of  tillage  itself  Improper  food 
has  killed  many  a  fine  horse,  but  no  one  thinks  it  wrong  to 
feed  horses  because  some  have  been  destroyed  by  bad  feeding. 
And  if  a  farmer  has  cultivated  his  corn  in  an  improper  manner. 


TILLAGE.  213 

and  injured  it  by  so  doing,  he  should  not  lay  the  blame  upon 
the  tillage,  but  charge  .it  to  his  own  ignorance  or  carelessness. 

The  special  wants  of  each  particular  crop  should  not  only  be 
studied  and  supplied,  but  it  should  also  be  remembered  that,  at 
different  stages  of  their  growth,  some  plants  need  different  forms 
of   culture.       Experienced    cotton-growers    recommend    deep 
culture  when  the  crop  is  small,  and  shallow  culture  when  it 
has  become  large  enough  to  cover  the  ground.     Probably  the 
majority  of  corn-growers,  who  favor  deep  culture  during  any 
stage  of  the  existence  of  this  plant,  believe  it  is  best  to  cultivate 
shallow  after  the  roots  have  reached  far  out  between  the  rows. 
With  some  crops  the  dirt  should  be  turned  away  at  the  first 
hoeings,  and  brought  toward  the  plants  at  later  ones.     It  may 
be    accepted    as    a    sound 
proposition  that  suitable  cul- 
ture will  not  injure  any  of 
our  farm  crops.      If  crops 
have  been  injured  by  culti- 
vation, it  is   a    pretty  sure 
proof  that  the  method  em-   ^^^   io.-ancient  mcthod  of  tillage. 
ployed  was    defective.      In- 
stead of  giving  up  all  hope  from  tillage,  the  unsuccessful  farmer 
should  study  the  demands  of  his  crops  more  closely,  and  tr>^ 
to  adapt  his  methods  to  the  natural  tendencies  of  the  plants. 
If  the   right  methods  are  adopted,  tillage  will  give  any  and 
every  farmer  a  great  deal  of  efficient  aid. 

Another  great  essential  to  success  in  growing  large  crops  by 
the  aid  of  tillage  is  the  possession  and  use  of  suitable  imple- 
ments with  which  to  do  the  work.  In  the  lack  of  these 
implements  may  be  found  the  principal  reason  why  so  many 
farmers  do  not  succeed  in  making  what  they  call  tillage  highly 
successful.  They  have  no  implements  which  are  capable  of 
doing  the  required  work.  What  they  have  called  tillage  has 
not  been  worthy  of  the  designation.     The  farmers  of  to-day 


214 


FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 


think  with  pity  of  the  ancient  husbandman,  whose  only  plo.v 
was  a  crooked  stick,  and  rejoice  in  the  advances  which  have 
been  made  in  the  conrtruction  of  agricultural  tools  and 
machines.  In  this  the  average  farmer  does  well.  But  he 
should  remember  that  when  compared  with  the  possibilities  of 
cultivation,  of  which  some  of  the  expensive  machines  for  pul- 
verizing the  soil  have  given  us  indications,  his  own  methods  are 
still  very  rude,  and  there  is  a  vast  field  for  improvement  in  his 
own  immediate  neighborhood.     His  implements  are  vastly  better 


A    MODLRN    IMIROVEMENT. 


than  those  of  his  forefathers;  but  they  are  not  the  best  in  the 
world,  and,  what  is  much  more  to  the  case,  he  does  not  always 
make  the  best  possible  use  of  them. 

The  ver)'  best  implements  for  pulverizing  the  soil  are  driven 
by  steam  and ,  are  too  expensive  for  the  average  farmer  to  own, 
but  there  is  no  reason  why  he  cannot  have  good  ones  with 
which  he  can  work  out  a  high  degree  of  success.  If  he  will 
obtain  the  best  implements  within  his  reach,  and  use  them  faith- 
fully, he  will  secure  the  benefits  of  tillage  in  a  degree  whic^ 


THE   CHOICE    OF  CROPS.  *2l5 

^i^ill  give  him  both  pleasure  and  profit.  But  he  must  not,  for  a 
moment,  suppose  that  the  occasional  use  of  an  old  and  nearly 
worn-out  cultivator,  or  horse-hoe,  or  any  other  implement  which 
was  never  good  and  is  not  now  half  as  effective  as  it  was  when 
new,  is  tillage,  or  anything  closely  resembling  it.  In  order  to 
till  the  soil  in  the  way  it  should  be  tilled  it  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary to  have  good  implements  and  to  use  them  thoroughly. 
And  until  a  farmer  has  faithfully  tried  it  in  this  way  he  ought 
not  to  condemn  tillage  as  a  method  for  securing  good  crops. 
If  farmers  only  realized  the  importance  of  this  subject  and  would 
make  the  best  possible  use  of  the  implements  which  they  have, 
or  which  they  can  readily  obtain,  we  are  confident  that  they 
would  largely  increase  the  yield  of  their  crops  and  make  their 
■business  much  more  profitable  than  it  has  ever  been  in  the  past. 
The  accompanying  illustrations  show  the  difference  between 
ancient  and  modern  methods  of  tillage.  Figure  lo  represents 
the  plow  and  team  used  by  the  Egyptians  in  the  olden  time. 
Figure  1 1  exhibits  a  Western  team  attached  to  one  of  the  Furst 
&  Bradley  "  Garden  City  "  gang-plows. 


'here  are  few  things  of  a  purely  intellectual  nature 
which  do  so  much  toward  determining  whether  the  far- 
mer shall  succeed  or  fail  in  his  business,  or  which  are 
so  influential  in  fixing  the  degree  of  success  or  failure, 
'as  the  choice  of  the  crops  which  he  will  produce.  Though  suc- 
cess in  farming  depends  upon  a  great  many  different  things,  and 
•cannot  be  secured  by  the  most  careful  attention  to  any  one  of 
"two  of  the  items  if  the  others  are  neglected,  yet  there  are  certain 
foundation  principles  which  must  be  observed  or  failure  will  be 
certain  and  absolute.  Neglect  of  some  points  will  diminish  the 
profits  of  the  business,  while  if  others  are  disregarded  no  profits 
tan  be  secured.     The  choice  of  crops  is  one  of  the  essentials. 


216  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

A  mistake  here  is  radical  and  may  be  fatal  to  success.  No 
amount  of  diligence  in  business,  and  no  quantity  or  degree  of 
skilful  culture  can  atone  for  an  error  in  this  department  of  the 
work  of  the  farm.  The  choice  of  crops  is  to  the  farmer  what 
the  selection  of  goods  is  to  the  merchant.  Every  one  knows 
that  if  a  merchant  is  to  succeed  he  must  keep  a  stock  of  goods 
of  the  kind  and  quality  which  his  customers  want  If  he  lays 
in  a  stock  of  silk  when  his  customers  want  calico,  or  chocolate 
when  they  want  coffee,  he  will  not  be  able  to  sell  his  goods, 
those  who  have  been  his  patrons  will  go  to  other  stores  where 
their  wants  can  be  supplied,  and  the  merchant,  having  lost  his 
trade,  will  be  obliged  to  shut  up  his  store.  If  a  merchant  can- 
not, or  will  not,  supply  the  wants  of  his  customer?,  he  must 
expect  to  lose  their  trade.  If  a  man  wants  a  certain  class  of 
goods  he  will  not  long  remain  satisfied  to  take  a  different  kind 
simply  because  the  merchant  with  whom  he  has  traded  is  out 
of  what  he  needs  and  has  a  surplus  of  what  he  does  not  want 
Now  this  same  principle,  which  is  so  clear  in  its  application  to 
the  merchant,  is  of  equal  importance  to  the  farmer.  Both  mer- 
chant and  farmer  depend  for  their  living  upon  the  sale  of  articles. 
The  former  obtains  the  goods  which  he  sells,  by  purchase.  The 
latter  secures  his  as  the  result  of  labor  and  skill  in  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  soil.  The  one  must  buy  what  he  can  sell  or  he  will 
not  succeed.  The  other  must  produce  what  he  can  sell  or  he 
will  certainly  fail.  It  requires  some  skill  in  a  merchant  to  deter- 
mine just  what  goods,  and  what  particular  grades  his  customers 
will  want  The  farmer  needs  an  equal  degree  of  skill  to  enable 
him  to  supply  the  popular  demand  for  his  productions.  The 
market  for  the  farmer's  products  fluctuates  in  its  special  de- 
mands almost  as  much  as  that  for  the  products  of  the  manufac- 
turer's skill.  The  fact  that  a  certain  kind,  or  quality,  of  farm 
products  is  popular  just  now  is  not  the  slightest  indication  that 
the  popularity  will  be  permanent.  The  farmer  must  not  go  on 
year  after  year  growing  something  which  was  in  style  twenty 


THE    CHOICE    OF  CROPS.  217 

years  ago,  and  paying  no  regard  to  the  present  demands  of  cus- 
tomers, 

A  few  years  ago  the  local  dealers  in  pork,  in  this  vicinity, 
wanted  large  and  heavy  hogs.  Now  they  do  not  want  the 
weight  to  exceed  two  or  three  hundred  pounds.  The  producers 
who  have  changed  their  methods  of  feeding,  so  as  to  supply  the 
demand,  can  sell  readily  and  obtain  the  highest  market  rates. 
But  the  few  who  have  paid  no  attention  to  the  change  in  the 
wants  of  customers  often  have  hard  work  to  dispose  of  their 
products,  and  frequently  are  obliged  to  sell  for  less  than  the 
ruling  price,  because  their  hogs  are  heavier  than  the  buyers 
want.  When  we  commenced  growing  onions  for  the  market,  we 
produced  about  equal  quantities  of  the  red  and  yellow  varieties. 
We  had  been  told  that  the  red  ones  would  sell  the  best,  but  that 
the  yellow  ones  would  ripen  soonest.  But  we  soon  found  that 
our  customers  much  preferred  the  yellow  ones — that  we  could 
sell  these  without  difficulty,  while  very  few  wanted  the  red  ones. 
Consequently  we  gave  up  growing  red  onions  and  cultivate  the 
yellow  variety  exclusively.  Whether  the  yellow  ones  are  better 
than  the  red  ones  we  cannot  say.  It  is  a  question  for  our 
customers  to  decide.  We  care  nothing  about  it  either  way. 
The  kind  which  will  sell  is  the  kind  which  we  shall  grow,  and 
as  long  as  our  customers  demand  one  particular  kind  we  shall 
not  trouble  our  mind  with  the  question  whether  it  is  better  or 
worse  than  some  other  sort.  This  is  the  principle  which  must 
govern  the  farmer  who  is  to  be  successful.  He  may  believe 
that  the  Snowflake  potatoes  are  far  superior  to  the  Early  Rose, 
but  if  buyers  want  Early  Rose  and  do  not  want  the  Snowflake,  it 
is  useless  for  him  to  insist  upon  growing  the  best  ones  simply 
because  they  are  better  than  the  others.  The  consumers  are  the 
ones  to  judge  of  the  quality,  and  it  is  safe  for  the  farmer  to  rely 
upon  their  choice.  The  farmer  may  also  believe  that  it  is  a 
great  deal  better  for  people  to  eat  mutton  than  it  is  to  use  pork; 
but  if  the  people  who  do  the  buying  want  the  pork  and  will  not 


218  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

eat  the  mutton,  the  producer  should  waste  no  time  in  trying  to 
force  buyers  to  take  the  meat  which  they  do  not  want.  If 
buyers  pay  their  money,  it  is  but  just  and  right  that  tliey  should 
take  tlieir  choice. 

Like  all  other  principles  this  is  liable  to  abuse.  It  may  be 
carried  too  far.  We  strongly  recommend  it  so  far,  but  only  so 
far,  as  it  can  be  followed  in  perfect  honesty,  and  without  encour- 
aging an  evil  course  on  the  part  of  buyers.  When  moral 
principles  become  involved,  the  rigJit,  and  not  the  popular 
demand,  should  be  the  standard  of  choice.  We  would  never 
convert  cider  into  brandy  because  a  customer  preferred  the 
brandy  to  vinegar.  Neither  would  we  allow  our  grain  to  be 
converted  into  whiskey  because  a  buyer  preferred  the  whiskey  to 
iloiir  ior  meal.  But  within  certain  well-defined  and  easily  de- 
scribed limits  it  is  not  only  wise,  but  is  very  important  that  the 
farmer  should  grow  those  crops  which  will  supply  the  popular 
demand.  No  evil  habits  should  be  encouraged  and  no  vitiated 
ta.'stes  should  be  gratified.  But  in  all  questions  such  as  the 
particular  variety  of  potatoes,  or  onions,  or  apples,  the  choice  of 
pork,  or  beef,  or  mutton,  the  growth  of  corn,  or  wheat,  or  oats, 
the  wants  of  the  consumers  should  be  the  court  of  final  resort. 
As  far  as  himself  and  his  family  are  concerned  the  farmer  may 
profitably  grow  the  particular  crops  and  varieties  which  they 
consider  the  best,  but  for  market  these  preferences  should  be 
waived,  and  those  of  his  customers  be  allowed  to  govern  his 
choice. 

In  order  to  aid  him  in  making  a  proper  selection  of  crops  the 
:farmer  should  keep  himself  constantly  informed  concerning  the 
state  of  the  markets  in  which  he  deals.  He  should  note  not 
only  the  prices  which  are  paid,  but  also  the  tendencies  of  these 
markets.  It  sometimes  happens  that  a  demand  for  a  certain 
kind  of  vegetable,  or  fruit,  will  commence  on  a  very  small  scale 
.and  gradually  increase  to  large  proportions.  The  farmer  who 
sees  the  opportunity  at  the  beginning,  and  improves  it,  may  thus 


THE    CHOICE    OF  CROPS.  219 

add  a  very  profitable  item  to  his  business.  Still,  care  must  be 
taken  not  to  over-do  the  production  of  any  article  which  is  just 
becoming  popular.  There  will  be  a  limit  to  the  demand,  and  no 
one  can  tell  how  soon  it  will  be  reached.  The  men  who  start 
first  in  the  matter  will  secure  and  can  retain  customers,  but 
those  who  begin  when  the  market  is  full  will  have  great 
difficulty  in  disposing  of  their  products.  The  pop-corn  business 
in  some  of  our  large  cities  furnishes  a  fine  illustration  of  this 
principle.  The  production  of  fine  crab-apples  is  another  line  in 
which  the  early  and  skilful  producers  are  highly  successful. 
The  man  who  is  ready  to  supply  the  demand  for  such  articles 
as  soon  as  it  arises  does  well,  but  it  often  happens  that  those 
who  go  into  the  business  after  the  supply  equals  the  demand  are 
losers  thereby.  Any  business  of  this  kind  should  be  com- 
menced on  a  small  scale,  and  increased  only  as  the  state  of  the 
-  market  demands.  There  should  be  no  giving  up  of  standard 
crops  on  account  of  "  great  expectations  "  from  new  ones. 

A  merely  temporary  demand,  which  is  caused  by  some 
unusual  occurrence,  must  not  be  construed  as  an  indication  of  a 
permanent  change.  If  the  potato  crop  is  a  partial  failure,  and 
prices  reach  an  extreme  figure,  many  families  will  buy  turnips 
instead  of  potatoes.  This  will  cause  an  unusual  call  for  turnips, 
and  prices  can  be  obtained  which  will  make  them  a  profitable 
crop.  But  from  this  fact  it  will  not  be  safe  to  expect  high 
prices  for  turnips  to  rule  permanently.  Just  as  soon  as  potatoes 
are  plenty,  the  families  who  substituted  turnips  because  they 
were  cheaper  will  give  them  up,  and  go  to  using  potatoes. 
There  are  many  farm  products  which  Avill  always  sell  to  a 
limited  extent  which,  in  time  of  the  scarcity  of  some  promi- 
nent crop,  may  be  used  as  a  substitute  therefor,  and  thus  tem- 
porarily be  in  great  demand,  but  which,  from  the  very  nature  of 
the  case,  can  never  be  extensively  used  or  sold.  To  force  the 
production  of  such  crops  is  worse  than  useless.  It  will  involve 
a  loss  on  the  part  of  farmers  with   no  corresponding   gain    to 


220  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 

any  one  else.  The  wise  farmer  will  not  enter  upon  their  culti- 
vation on  a  large  scale  until  he  is  satisfied  that  there  will  be  a 
local  demand,  the  supply  of  which  he  can  in  some  measure 
control,  and  that  the  call  is  not  merely  temporary,  to  serve  some 
incidental  purpose,  but  will  be  steady  and  permanent.  It  is 
very  much  better  for  a  farmer  never  to  vary  his  round  of  crops 
in  the  least  than  it  is  to  be  constantly  changing  from  one  to 
another,  and  trying  every  new  plant  which  makes  its  appear- 
ance. 

We  have  alluded  to  the  fact  that  the  farmer  and  the  merchant 
are  both  interested  in  supplying  the  popular  demand  for  the 
various  articles  in  which  they  deal.  In  disposing  of  their  goods 
both  parties  stand  on  equal  terms.  But  in  obtaining  them  the 
farmer  finds  himself  at  a  great  disadvantage.  The  merchant  can 
go  into  the  wholesale  markets  and  buy  just  what  he  wants.  He 
can  obtain  one  class  of  goods  just  as  easily  as  another.  If  his 
customers  want  cotton-cloth,  he  can  get  it  without  trouble  or 
delay.  If  they  prefer  the  finest  silks,  he  can  get  them  just  as 
well.  But  with  the  farmer  the  case  is  different.  He  finds  him- 
self under  certain  limitations.  Instead  of  going  to  some  whole- 
sale market,  and  calling  for  anything  which  he  wants  with  the 
certainty  of  obtaining  it  at  once,  he  must  go  to  the  soil,  and 
determine  by  a  practical  trial  whether  the  required  crop  can  be 
produced.  Many  farms  have  been  badly  cultivated,  and  thus 
rendered  incapable  of  producing  certain  crops.  There  are 
many  sections  in  which  the  land  is  specially  adapted  to  the 
growth  of  some  plants,  and  entirely  unsuited  to  the  production  * 
of  others.  Therefore,  in  making  his  choice  of  crops,  the  wise 
farmer  will  not  only  take  into  consideration  the  wants  of  his 
customers,  and  the  tendencies  of  the  market,  but  also  the  char- 
acter of  his  land,  and  its  adaptation  to  the  growth  of  particular 
plants.  If  his  land  is  not  all  adapted  to  the  production  of 
wheat,  he  will  grow  some  other  crop  even  when  wheat  is  selling 
for  a  high  price,  and  there  is  a  great  demand.     The  farmer 


THE   CHOICE    OF  CROPS.  221 

whose  land  is  light  and  warm  should  chose  crops  which  arc 
adapted  to  that  kind  of  soil,  while  the  one  whose  land  is  heavy, 
and  inclined  to  be  wet,  should  grow  an  entirely  different  class 
of  plants,  or  else  thoroughly  drain  his  land,  and  cultivate  it  in 
ridges  so  as  to  almost  wholly  change  its  nature  and  condition. 
Aside  from  these  natural  characteristics  of  the  land,  there  will 
be  found  a  great  difference  in  the  quality  of  the  plant-food 
which  soils  contain,  and  thus  their  adaptation  to  special  crops 
will  be  greatly  modified.  If  a  soil  is  naturally,  or  by  a  bad 
system  of  cultivation  has  become,  deficient  in  potash,  it  will  not 
be  adapted  to  those  crops  which  require  a  large  proportion  of 
this  element.  If  it  has  become  deficient  in  silicic  acid,  it  will 
not  be  adapted  to  the  production  of  wheat  or  rye.  If  phos- 
phoric acid  is  deficient,  it  will  produce  none  of  the  grain  crops 
to  good  advantage.  The  same  principle  applies  to  a  deficiency 
of  all  the  other  elements.  The  crops  should  be  so  chosen  that 
they  shall  require  only  in  a  very  slight  degree  the  elements  in 
which  the  soil  is  deficient.  This,  for  farmers  whose  land  has 
long  been  cultivated,  is  a  severe  limitation,  and  if  there  were  no 
way  in  which  it  could  be  safely  modified,  would  permit  the 
growth  of  but  very  few  kinds  of  plants. 

Fortunately,  by  the  use  of  fertilizers,  it  is  possible  to  supply 
deficiencies  which  may  exist  in  the  land,  and  thus  prepare  it  to 
produce  crops  for  which  it  is  not  naturally  adapted.  Where 
only  barn-yard-manure  is  used,  the  special  adaptations  of  the 
land  will  stand  out  with  considerable  prominence.  This  manure, 
when  it  has  not  been  damaged,  is  a  complete  fertilizer,  and,  to 
some  extent,  supplies  all  the  elements  which  plants  need.  But 
if  a  soil  is  deficient  in  potash,  and  a  crop  is  grown  which  needs 
a  liberal  supply  of  this  element,  the  yield  will  be  measured  very 
closely  by  the  amount  of  potash  contained  in  the  manure.  If 
the  same  crop  is  grown  upon  equally  good  land  which  also  con- 
tains an  abundance  of  potash,  and  is  manured  the  same  as  the 
other  field,  the  yield  will  be  greatly  increased.     The  same  is 


222  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

true  in  regard  to  each  of  the  other  elements.  When  no  fertihzer 
is  used,  and  when  only  barn-yard-manure  is  applied,  the  yield 
•will  be  greatly  influenced  by  the'  degree  of  the  adaptation  of  the 
land  for  the  particular  crop  under  cultivation.  Consequently,  it 
is  a  matter  of  great  importance  for  the  farmer  who  relies  upon 
farm  manures  to  make  a  wise  selection  of  crops.  While  it  is 
necessary  that  he  should  choose  some  crops  which  he  can  either 
use  or  sell,  it  is  also  necessary  that  he  should  select  those  which 
he  can  grow.  No  matter  how  well  a  crop  will  sell,  if  a  fair 
yield  cannot  be  secured  there  should  be  no  further  efforts  to 
grow  it,  but  the  farmer  should  turn  his  attention  to  something 
which  he  can  produce.  Farmers  need  more  individuality.  As 
a  rule,  in  wheat-growing  towns  all  the  farmers  raise  wheat,  in 
corn-growing  sections  all  produce  corn,  and  whatever  other  crop 
may  be  the  leading  one  in  other  places  the  farmers  all  grow  it, 
and  do  not  stop  to  think  whether  it  would  pay  better  to  grow 
some  other  crop.  It  may  happen  in  a  wheat  country  that  there 
will  be  a  few  farms  which,  on  account  of  a  peculiar  formation  of 
the  soil,  or  by  reason  of  bad  management,  are  not  so  well 
adapted  to  wheat  as  they  are  to  some  other  product.  The 
owners  of  such  farms  ought  to  recognize  this  fact,  and  choose 
their  crops  with  reference  to  it.  Independent  thought,  aided  by 
careful  experiment,  would  be  a  great  help  to  a  multitude  of 
farmers  who  have  got  into  the  ruts. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  the  crops  which  the  land  is  best 
fitted  to  produce  are  not  the  ones  which  will  find  a  ready  market, 
or  which  the  farmer  prefers  to  grow.  In  such  cases  the  fertilizers 
for  special  crops  may  prove  of  great  value,  and  enable  the  farmer 
to  obtain  a  good  yield  of  the  crop  which  he  wants  to  produce. 
We  have  no  doubt  that  land  which  is  not  very  well  adapted  to 
onions  may  be  made  quite  productive  by  the  use  of  a  good 
fertilizer  made  for  this  special  crop.  In  all  cases  it  is  better  that 
the  land  should  be  naturally  favorable  to  the  crop  to  be  grown, 
but  it  often  pays  to  use  manure  which  supplies  just  what  the 


THE   CHOICE    OF  CROPS.  223 

plants  want,  and  thus,  practically,  fit  the  land  to  the  crop  instead 
of  choosing  the  crop  with  reference  to  the  capacity  of  the  land. 
A  farmer  may  be  so  situated  that  he  could  make  his  business 
very  profitable  if  he  could  grow  potatoes,  but  finds  that  his  land 
has  been  so  nearly  exhausted  that  it  will  not  produce  a  paying 
cropL.  He  may  not  be  able  to  obtain  large  quantities  of  manure, 
and  by  its  use  improve  the  soil,  or  he  may  not  wish  to  incur 
the  trouble  and  expense  which  such  a  course  would  involve. 
But  if  he  will  use  a  liberal  quantity  of  a  good  potato  fertilizer 
he,  can  secure  paying  crops,  and  not  make  his  land  poorer  by 
their  removal.  The  discovery  of  special  manures  removed  one 
of  the  greatest  restrictions  from  which  farmers  had  suffered. 
Until  they  came  into  use  there  was,  in  many  places,  but  little 
liberty  about  the  choice  of  crops.  Now,  with  skilful  manage- 
ment, crops  can  be  grown  where  they  Would  not  have  succeeded 
under  the  old  methods  of  culture. 

Another  point  to  be  considered  in  choosing  crops  is  the  cost 
of  production,  and  its  proportion  to  the  value  of  what  is  secured. 
A  neighbor  recently  said  that  the  potatoes  which  he  grew  last 
year  cost  him  a  dollar  a  bushel.  He  could  have  bought  nice 
potatoes  for  less  than  half  what  it  cost  him  to  grow  them. 
Many  a  crop  has  cost  the  grower  much  more  than  it  was  worth. 
It  is  one  thing  to  secure  a  good  yield,  and  quite  another  thing 
to  make  the  crop  pay.  And  this  fact  must  be  kept  in  mind 
when  an  effort  is  made  to  grow  certain  crops  on  land  not 
specially  adapted  to  their  production.  It  is  not  an  object  for 
the  farmer  to  grow  large  crops,  or  crops  which  will  sell  readily, 
if  the  cost  exceeds  their  value.  But  with  careful  management 
we  think  that  almost  any  crop  may  be  grown  upon  land  which 
is  not  decidedly  unfitted  for  it,  and  be  made  to  pay.  We  hiow 
that  by  the  use  of  suitable  fertilizers,  by  thorough  preparation 
of.  the  land,  and  careful  cultivation  of  the  growing  plants,  the 
natural  inadaptation  of  some  soils  to  certain  crops  can  be  over- 
conje,  and  imoneyvcan  (be.  raadeja  their  production.     An  accu- 


224  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

rate  account  should  be  kept  with  each  and  every  crop  which  the 
farmer  grows,  so  that  he  can  be  sure  which  crops  pay  him  the 
best  and  which  are  unprofitable.  The  cost  of  fertihzers,  expense 
of  culture,  harvesting,  and  marketing,  should  all  be  noted.  If  the 
crop  is  sold,  its  value  can  be  easily  ascertained,  and  a  balance 
can  be  struck  which  will  show  the  amount  of  the  profit  or 
loss.  If  the  crop  is  to  be  consumed  at  home,  its  value  should 
be  carefully  estimated,  taking  the  ruling  cash  price  as  a 
standard. 

The  principal  crops  which  are  grown  upon  a  farm  should  be 
those  which  can  be  used  at  home  if  there  is  no  demand  for  them 
in  market.  Many  farmers  have  been  brought  into  financial 
diflficulties  by  their  neglect  of  this  principle.  Men  who  have 
made  tobacco  their  standard  crop  have  often  been  obliged  to 
make  great  sacrifices  which  might  have  been  avoided  if,  instead 
of  devoting  all  their  energies  to  this,  to  them,  useless  plant,  they 
had  attempted  to  grow  it  only  upon  a  small  area  and  had 
obtained  hay  and  grain  from  the  remainder  of  their  land.  When 
tobacco  sold  well,  these  farmers  had  but  little  trouble.  They 
took  the  money  obtained  for  their  tobacco  and  bought  family 
supplies,  grain  for  their  teams,  and  hay  for  their  stock.  But 
when  there  was  no  sale  for  tobacco,  and  farmers  had  to  keep 
what  they  had  grown  until  it  was  two  or  three  years  old,  those 
who  had  no  other  crop  were  very  badly  off.  They  could  not 
make  the  tobacco  available.  It  would  neither  supply  the  wants 
of  their  families  nor  feed  their  cattle.  These  farmers  had  often 
said  that  it  did  not  pay  to  grow  corn,  but  they  found  that  a  few 
of  their  neighbors  who  had  held  to  the  old-fashioned  crops 
were  much  better  off  than  themselves.  It  is  always  safe  to  grow 
corn,  and  oats,  and  grass,  for  if  there  is  no  sale  for  them  the\- 
can  be  largely,  and  as  a  general  thing  profitably,  used  on  the 
farm.  When  wheat  is  plenty  it  will  sell  for  something,  and  for 
use  as  food  it  is  just  as  necessary  to  the  family  as  it  ever  was. 
A  crop  which  can  be  either  used  or  sold  is  always  far  preferable 


ROTATION  OF  CROPS.  '  226 

to  one  which  cannot  be  used  and  which  does  not  at  all  times 
find  a  ready  sale. 

If  these  principles  are  followed,  the  farmer  can  determine 
which  are  the  best  crops  for  him  to  produce.  The  knowledge 
thus  obtained  will  prove  of  great  benefit.  It  will  give  him  the 
advantage  of  working  in  the  light.  It  will  take  him  out  of  the 
realm  of  guess-work  and  teach  him  to  rely  upon  facts  and 
figures.  It  will  enable  him  to  select  his  crops  with  reference  to 
the  capacities  of  his  land,  or,  when  it  will  be  more  profitable  for 
him  to  do  so,  to  adapt  his  land  to  the  crops  which  he  wishes  to 
produce.  If  he  makes  a  wise  choice  of  crops,  he  thereby  takes 
a  step  in  the  straight  road  which  leads  to  success.  Having 
started  right,  he  can,  by  high  manuring  and  thorough  culture, 
obtain  large  yields  and  secure  a  large  percentage  of  profit.  The 
experience  of  past  generations  has  taught  that  the  choice  of 
crops  is  one  of  the  main  dividing  lines  between  success  and 
failure  on  the  farm,  and  that  wisdom  requires  the  farmer  to  give 
this  subject  his  earnest  attention. 


(^o/jfT  is  not  only  necessary  that  the  farmer  should  make  a 
wise  choice  of  the  crops  which  he  will  produce,  but  it 
is  also  important  that  he  should  follow  a  system  of  rota- 
tion. It  is  for  want  of  such  a  system  that  many  fields 
are  now  unproductive.  The  one  crop  method  has  been  pursued 
until  the  crops  have  failed  to  pay  the  cost  of  production.  A 
suitable  system  of  rotation  would  have  long  deferred  the  time 
of  exhaustion.  In  connection  with  the  use  of  fertilizers  it  would 
have  prevented  any  and  all  injury  to  the  soil.  Nature  follows  a 
course  of  rotation.  When  an  oak  forest  dies,  or  is  cut  off  by 
man,  other  varieties  of  trees  spring  up,  and  mstead  of  another 
oak  grove  the  owner  of  the  land  will  find  pine,  and  chestnut,  or 
some  other  trees  which  are  very  much  unlike  the  original  oak. 


226  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 

I'Vom  this  fact  we  may  draw  the  inference  that  an  occasional 
change  of  crops  is  demanded  by  the  soil.  Experiments  have 
proved  this  inference  correct.  It  was  once  thought  that  plants 
were  in  the  habit  of  throwing  off  their  waste  substances,  and 
that  these  poisoned  the  soil  for  all  plants  of  a  similar  nature,  but 
left  it  uninjured  for  those  of  a  different  class.  This  theory  has 
been  generally  abandoned,  and  there  Is  but  very  little  evidence 
by  which  it  can  be  sustained.  The  opinion  now  held  is  that 
different  crops  take  the  elements  of  plant-food  from  the  soil  in 
different  proportions,  and  that  this  fact  accounts  for  the  great 
benefits  resulting  from  a  change  of  crops. 

It  is  true  that  some  crops  require  more  of  some  elements  and 
less  of  others  than  certain  plants  which  are  differently  con- 
stituted, but  this  explanation  docs  not  seem  to  cover  all  the 
ground.  Each  of  our  leading  farm  crops  takes  nitrogen,  phos- 
phoric acid,  and  potash  from  the  soil.  None  of  them  can  be 
produced  without  a  supply  of  all  three  of  these  elements.  It 
has  been  proved  that  land  will  produce  wheat,  corn,  and  oats  in 
succession  much  better  than  it  will  three  successive  crops  of 
wheat.  But  the  difference  in  the  demands  for  plant-food  can 
hardly  account  for  all  the  difference  which  is  manifested  in  the 
crops.  It  has  something  to  do  with  it,  but  probably  is  not  the 
only  reason.  When  a  crop  which  makes  a  large  use  of  potash 
is  followed  by  one  which  requires  but  little  of  this  element  it  is 
easy  to  see  why  the  change  should  be  beneficial.  The  former 
crop  used  the  potash  as  fast  as  it  could  get  it,  and  if  planted  the 
next  year  would  need  a  larger  quantity  than  the  land  could 
supply.  But  with  the  other  crop  the  changes  going  on  in  the 
soil  will  set  free  as  much  potash  as  is  required.  For  this  crop 
there  is  plenty  of  potash,  and  a  surplus  may  be  left  in  the  soil 
for  future  crops.  But  this  principle  is  not  of  very  extensive 
application  to  our  leading  crops,  because  they  all  require  con- 
siderable quantities  of  each  of  the  elements  of  plant-food  in 
which  soils  are  likely  to  be  deficient. 


ROTATION  OF  CROPS.  227 

Probably  one  of  the  reasons  why  a  rotation  of  crops  is  so  use- 
ful may  be  found  in  the  fact  that  some  plants  are  much  more 
delicate  feeders  than  others.  The  wheat  plant  is  not  able  to 
take  as  large  a  proportion  of  the  plant-food  which  the  soil  con- 
tains as  rye  and  oats.  Consequently,  either  rye  or  oats  will 
follow  wheat  to  much  better  advantage,  as  far  as  the  yield  of 
the  crop  is  concerned,  than  two  successive  crcps  of  wheat  can 
be  grown.  Another  reason  why  a  change  often  proves  bene- 
ficial is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  some  crops  demand,  and 
receive,  a  great  deal  of  cultivation,  which  allows  the  air  to  pene- 
trate the  soil  and  hastens  the  liberation  of  plant-food,  while 
others  admit  of  little  or  no  culture  after  the  seed  is  sown.  Still 
another  reason  may  be  found  in  the  fact  that  while  some  crops, 
Kke  corn,  are  almost  wholly  removed  from  the  land  upon  which 
they  have  grown,  others,  like  oats,  are  partially  left,  in  the  form; 
of  stubble,  and  furnish  considerable  organic  matter  to  the  sfflilL 
This  does  something  to  prevent  the  great  waste  of  nitrogen, 
which  results  when  both  grain  and  stalks  are  wholly  removed.. 
A  directly  opposite  reason  may  sometimes  be  the  one  which, 
renders  a  rotation  of  crops  beneficial.  Upon  very  rich  clover 
fields  this  crop  sometimes  fails  to  do  well.  This  is  not  at  all. 
because  the  land  is  exhausted  of  the  elements  which  clover 
needs,  but  because  successive  crops  of  clover  have  left  such, 
large  quantities  of  vegetable  matter  in  the  soil  that  the  land  is. 
overloaded  with  this  material  in  all  stages  of  decomposition. 
To  a  certain  extent  it  is  of  great  value,  but  in  order  to  be  useful 
it  must  first  be  decomposed.  When  rich  lands  are  kept  long  in. 
clover  this  organic  matter  accumulates  faster  than  it  can  be  used,, 
and  fills  the  soil  with  fermenting  substances  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  make  it  sour  and  unproductive.  But  if  the  land  is  plowed, 
this  organic  matter  will  be  rapidly  decomposed  and  will  furnish 
valuable  food  for  plants.  That  which  on  account  of  its  great 
abundance  was  an  evil  in  the  land  devoted  to  clov^er  will  prove 

a  splendid  fertilizer  for  the  corn.  crop.     After  the  land  has  been^ 
15 


228  FARMING  FOR   FRO  FIT. 

plowed  a  few  times,  and  thus  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  air,  it 
can  again  be  made  to  produce  fine  crops  of  clover. 

These  we  consider  the  principal  reasons  why  a  rotation  of 
crops  is  so  useful  to  the  farmer.  Whether  they  cover  the  whole 
ground  or  not,  we  think  they  account  for  most  of  the  changes 
which  take  place  under  such  a  system.  And  the  fact 
remains  that  a  wise  rotation  proves  of  great  utility.  Whether 
the  methods  in  which  it  operates  can  be  explained  or  not,  the 
fact  that  it  is  a  help  to  the  farmer  is  too  evident  to  be  doubted, 
and  the  wise  farmer  will  accept  and  act  upon  it  without  requiring 
a  perfect  description  of  the  manner  of  its  working. 

In  choosing  the  crops  which  he  will  grow  in  the  successive 
seasons  occupied  by  the  rotation,  the  principles  stated  in  our 
consideration  of  the  subject  of  the  choice  of  crops  should  be 
applied.  Four  of  five  of  the  best  crops  should  be  selected,  and 
the  land  devoted  to  each  in  its  regular  order.  Grass  should  be 
one  of  the  leading  crops  in  every  system  of  rotation.  This  may 
be  followed  by  corn.  The  next  year  the  land  may  be  devoted 
to  potatoes,  or  carrots,  turnips,  or  sugar-beets.  The  next  season 
green  forage  crops,  principally  oats  and  corn,  may  be  grown, 
and  winter  rye  sowed  in  the  fall.  The  next  year  this  rye  may 
be  cut  while  green,  for  fodder,  and  other  forage  crops  be  grown 
upon  the  land  which  is  earliest  cleared.  In  the  fall  of  this 
•year  wheat  should  be  sown,  and  the  land  seeded  with  timothy 
and  clover.  The  next  season  the  grain  is  harvested  and  the 
grass  is  allowed  to  remain.  To  each  of  these  crops  a  liberal 
quantity  of  manure  is  to  be  applied,  and  the  year  after  the 
seeding  is  done  the  land  will  produce  two  heavy  crops  of  grass. 
This  is  the  rotation,  with  a  very  slight  modification,  which  is 
followed  by  Mr.  Waring,  at  Ogden  Farm.  We  pay  less 
attention,  to  roots  and  to  green  forage  crops.  In  the  Northern  and 
Middle  States  grass  followed  by  corn,  than  a  green  fodder  crop, 
then  wheat,  then  grass  again,  would  be  a  good  rotation.  We 
have  often  grown  corn  two  years  in  succession,  and,  when  the 


ROTATION  OF  CROPS.  229 

turf  is  very  heavy,  we  consider  it  a  good  method,  provided  a 
sufficient  quantity  of  manure  is  appHed.  Instead  of  the  corn, 
potatoes,  or  green  fodder,  may  be  grown  to  good  advantage 
upon  an  ordinary  sod.  Oats  or  rye  may  sometimes  take  the 
place  of  the  green  crops  during  the  second  year.  But  with  the 
exception  of  corn  (which  will  bear  successive  planting  on  the 
same  land  better  because  it  is  cultivated  and  hoed),  two  grain 
crops  which  are  allowed  to  ripen  their  seed  should  not  be 
grown  in  succession. 

There  are  locations  in  which  a  very  different  system  of  rotation 
will  be  necessary  to  make  farming  successful.  Each  farmer 
must  judge  for  himself.  Upon  the  principles  already  suggested, 
he  should  make  a  choice  of  crops  and  then  arrange  to  produce 
them  regularly,  but  upon  different  fields,  each  year.  The 
rotation  should  be  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  injury  to  the 
land,  but  the  farmer  should  not  allow  this  idea  to  lead  him  to 
grow  crops  which  will  not  pay.  There  are  crops  which  will 
pay,  and  with  which  a  rotation  can  be  formed.  Their  selection 
will  be  more  difficult  in  some  places  than  others,  but  is  not 
impossible  in  any  good  farming  country.  At  the  South,  owing 
to  the  difference  in  its  climate  and  soil,  different  crops  can  be 
produced  from  those  which  do  well  at  the  North.  It  is  also 
true  that  what  would  be  a  good  rotation  upon  soils  of  a  lime- 
stone formation  will  not  be  the  best  for  sand  or  clay.  For  the 
worn  soils  at  the  South,  Prof.  Pendleton  recommends  cotton 
for  two  years,  followed  by  corn  on  the  most  productive  portions 
and  wheat,  or  oats,  on  the  rolling  lands,  while  during  the  fourth 
year  the  land  should  lie  fallow.  He  claims  that  upon  land  not 
very  deficient  in  vegetable  matter  the  cotton  will  give  better 
returns  if  grown  two  years  in  succession  than  can  be  obtained 
if  another  crop  intervenes.  Where  the  land  has  not  been  badly 
worn  the  fallow  is  not  necessary,  but  it  is  strongly  favored  by 
the  best  practical  farmers  at  the  South  for  all  exhausted  soils. 
It  is,  probably,  more  necessary  there  than  at  the  North.     In  the 


o-Q  FARMING   FOR  PROFIT. 

latter  section  the  land  is  covered  for  some  time  during  the 
winter,  and  the  freezing  and  thawing  to  which  it  is  subjected 
proves  very  beneficial.  Then  it  is  not  exposed  to  such  intense 
and  long-continued  heat  in  summer  as  the  Southern  soils. 
Besides,  where  cotton  is  grown,  the  elements  of  fertility  are 
rapidly  removed  with  the  crops.  An  ordinary  crop  of  cotton, 
including  seed  and  stalks,  takes  from  the  soil  more  than  three 
times  as  much  of  each  of  the  leading  elements,  nitrogen,  phos- 
phoric acid,  and  potash,  as  an  average  crop  of  corn  grown  upon 
the  same  land.  As  these  lands  have  not  always  been  well  ma- 
nured, and  have  been  kept  closely  in  cotton,  it  is  easy  to  see 
why  they  have  become  exhausted.  We  think  that  by  the  use 
of  green  crops,  together  with  manures,  these  worn  soils  can  be 
so  restored  that  they  will  produce  a  suitable  rotation  of  crops 
without  requiring  a  year  of  absolute  rest. 

We  arc  confident  that  grass  should  be  made  one  of  the  promi- 
nent crops  in  all  systems  of  rotation.  Almost  all  soils  seem  to 
have  a  natural,  adaptation  to  this  crop,  it  is  a  product  which  can 
be  used  on  all  farms,  and  in  almost  all  sections  the  surplus  can 
be  sold  ;  it  is  not  an  exhausting  crop  in  itself,  and  it  gives  a  good 
start  to  the  crop  which  follows  it.  We  have  already  alluded  to 
t\ie  value  of  sod  as  a  fertilizer.  It  can  often  be  made  an  econom- 
ical manure,  and  may  be  used  quite  freely  in  a  system  of  rota- 
tion. In  many  cases  it  would  pay  to  follow  grass  with  corn, 
manuring  the  land  well  for  this  crop,  and  then  apply  a  special 
fertilizer  and  sow  wheat.  With  the  wheat  a  liberal  quantity  of 
grass  and  clover  seed  should  be  used.  The  next  season  the 
v.heat  should  be  harvested,  but  the  grass  should  be  allowed  to 
remain  and  cover  the  soil  during  the  winter.  The  following 
season  two  large  crops  of  grass  may  be  removed,  and  the  next 
\-ear  the  same  rotation  can  be  again  commenced.  With  high 
manuring  we  are  confident  that  this  plan  would  give  large  crops 
and  p?.y  at  least  twice  the  profit  which  the  ordinary  method  of 
culture  returns. 


ROTATION   OF   CROPS.  231 

Upon  farms  on  which  the  live-stock  interest  is  prominent, 
pasturage  may  profitably  form  part  of  a  system  of  rotation. 
There  are  many  farms  upon  which  this  is  now  practiced,  but  on 
the  great  majority  nothing  of  the  kind  is  attempted.  The  pas- 
ture, as  a  general  thing,  consists  of  the  poorest  land  of  the  farm. 
This  land  is  never  plowed  or  manured.  Some  farmers  improve 
upon  this  method  by  occasionally  applying  bone-dust  or  some 
other  fertilizer.  There  are  a  comparatively  few  others  who 
sometimes  fence  a  small  piece  of  land  from  their  pastures,  plow 
it,  and  by  manuring  and  seeding  get  it  into  a  much  better  quality 
of  grass  and  also  secure  a  much  larger  quantity  than  was  before 
obtained.  Then  there  are  a  very  few  farmers  whose  pasture 
lands  and  mowing  lots  are  interchangeable.  They  sometimes 
use  one  field  for  the  pasture  for  a  few  years  and  then  plow 
and  plant  it,  while  they  keep  their  cattle  in  what  has  been  one 
of  the  tillage  fields.  This,  where  it  can  be  pursued,  is  altogether 
the  best  course.  It  will  tend  to  keep  the  land  productive  with- 
out involving  very  heavy  expenses.  But  there  are  many  pas- 
tures with  which  such  a  course  is  not  practicable.  Before  they 
can  be  brought  under  profitable  cultivation  the  land  must  be 
drained,  cleared  of  stumps  or  stones,  bushes  must  be  cut,  and 
quite  a  large  amount  of  work  in  the  way  of  reclamation  must 
be  done.  In  many  cases  it  would  pay  well  to  do  this.  In 
others,  such  a  course  will  not  be  advisable  until  the  financial 
condition  of  the  owner  is  greatly  improved.  There  are  other 
cases  in  which  it  would  pay  well  to  add  to  the  pasture  a  few 
acres  of  what*  is  now  tillage  land,  which  can  be  occasionally 
fenced  out  and  reseeded.  There  will  be  plenty  of  tillage  land 
left — all  that  the  owner  can  profitably  manage — and  the  course 
proposed  will  greatly  increase  the  value  of  the  pasture. 

There  is  little  danger  that  the  advantages  of  a  system  of  rota- 
tion of  crops  will  be  overestimated  when  the  system  is  properly 
followed.  It  will  not  do  to  expect  everything  of  this,  or  of  any 
other  single  method  of  farm  management.     If  a  rotation  of  crops 


232  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

is  attempted  without  manure  tlie  results  will  not  be  as  good  as 
ouf^ht  to  be  secured.  Crops  cannot  be  grown  without  either 
bein«-  manured  or  else  injuring  the  land.  The  effort  to  grow 
them  without  supplying  plant-food  is  worse  than  useless.  What- 
ever measure  of  success  may  be  secured  is  obtained  at  the  cost 
of  direct  injury  to  the  land.  Rotation  with  manure  is  a  great 
help  to  the  farmer.  Without  manure  it  merely  puts  off  the  evil 
day  when  the  land  shall  be  ruined,  but  it  has  no  power  to  pre- 
vent the  coming  of  the  time  when  crops  will  fail  and  the  soil 
will  be  exhausted. 


(^  lltll  ^^LE  '^  '^  important  that  the  farmer  should  produce  as 
^1 1  i  l^^'gc  a  proportion  as  possible  of  the  articles  which 
c/,^^  are  always  needed  in  the  family,  and  which  must  be 
obtained  either  at  home  or  abroad,  it  will  also  be 
necessary  for  him  to  grow  some  crop,  or  manufacture  some 
article  which  can  readily  be  converted  into  cash.  For,  with  the 
most  skilful  management,  the  farmer  will  find  that  there  are 
many  expenses  which  must  be  met  with  money.  These  expenses 
cannot  be  avoided,  and  no  method  of  exchange  can  be  made 
to  meet  them.  The  less  the  skill  which  the  farmer  has,  the 
larger  will  be  the  amount  of  these  expenses.  It  should  be  one  of 
the  first  studies  of  the  farmer  to  avoid  the  payment  of  money 
just  as  far  as  possible,  and  still  be  honest  toward  all  with  whom 
he  deals.  This  effort  should  not  be  made  in  the  line  of  crowding 
down  the  prices  of  goods  which  he  must  buy,  or  of  withholding 
any  payment  which  has  been  or  may  be  promised,  or  by  requir- 
ing the  family  to  do  without  things  which  are  necessary  to  their 
comfort  and  happiness.  For  whatever  he  buys,  the  farmer 
should  be  willing  to  pay  a  fair  price.  He  wants  to  get  such  a 
price  for  his  own  products.  Consequently  he  should  be  willing 
to    allow   it    to   others   when    he   buys   of   them.      Whatever 


MONEY  CROPS.  233 

he  buys  he  should  pay  for,  and  he  should  be  willing  to  provide 
all  that  he  is  able  to  for  the  comfort  of  his  family.  The  secret 
of  success  in  accomplishing  these  purposes  is  not,  as  many  seem 
to  suppose,  comprised  in  the  one  idea  of  a  strict  economy.  It 
is  true  that  economy  must  be  practised.  There  must  be  no 
waste,  for  waste  is  always  ruinous.  But  economy  is  only  one 
of  the  incidentals.  Some  men  have  practised  this  virtue  to 
a  grinding  extent,  and  yet  not  got  along  well  in  the  world. 
Economy  is  necessary,  but  with  nothing  else  to  help  him  the 
firmer  is  as  badly  off  as  an  engine  without  fire  or  water. 
He  must  practice  economy,  produce  all  that  he  can  at  home, 
and,  as  far  as  possible,  exchange  his  surplus  articles  for  those 
which  he  is  obliged  to  buy.  Both  of  these  principles  will  be 
considered  in  their  appropriate  places.  By  closely  following 
them  the  farmer  will  be  enabled  to  keep  the  cash  expenses  of 
his  business  down  to  the  lowest  possible  point.  But  when  this 
has  been  faithfully  done,  he  will  find  that  there  are  many  calls  for 
money — calls  which  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  he  should 
promptly  meet.  Taxes  must  be  paid  in  money,  and  every  farmer 
must  pay  them.  The  cost  of  sustaining  Churches  and  Sunday- 
schools  should  be  cheerfully  met.  Doctors'  bills,  medicines, 
clothes,  books,  papers,  and  many  other  things  which  are  required, 
must  be  partially  or  wholly  paid  in  cash.  To  meet  these  inevit- 
able expenses,  the  farmer  should  grow  some  special  crop.  What 
this  shall  be  must  depend  largely  upon  the  soil,  but  in  a  still 
greater  degree  upon  the  demands  of  the  market  in  which  it  is  to 
be  sold.  Sometimes  in  addition  to  a  particular  crop  the  surplus 
of  other  crops  may  be  used  for  this  purpose,  or  some  manu- 
factured product,  like  butter  or  cheese,  may  be  employed.  Some 
farmers  grow  onions  for  a  money  crop.  Others  sell  hay. 
Others  make  a  specialty  of  butter.  The  Southern  farmer  sells 
cotton,  while  the  Western  farmer  produces  beef  Many  farmers 
sell  wool  and  make  money,  even  at  the  present  low  prices.  Some 
rely  upon  fruit,  but  this  is   a   somewhat    uncertain    crop.     In 


234  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

some  localities  it  fails  regularly  every  other  year.  Conse- 
quently it  is  not  a  good  crop  upon  which  to  rely. 

While  it  is  impossible  to  say  which  specific  crop  it  will  be 
best  for  any  farmer  to  grow,  without  knowing  the  demands  of 
his  markets,  and  the  condition  of  his  soil,  there  are  a  few 
principles  which  rnay  be  laid  down  which  it  will  be  safe  to 
follow. 

The  crop  should  be  one  to  which  the  land  is  reasonably  well 
adapted — something  which  can  be  grown  without  a  great 
outlay  for  fitting  the  soil  to  the  wants  of  the  crop. 

It  must  be  a  crop  the  culture  of  which  the  farmer  under- 
stands, or  can  readily  learn. 

If  possible,  a  crop  should  be  selected  which  can  be  produced 
in  connection  with  the  ordinary  farm  crops,  and  which  will  not 
require  an  outlay  for  extra  help. 

A  crop  should  be  selected  which  will  not  require  the 
purchase  of  expensive  machines,  or  the  erection  of  costly 
buildings  for  its  culture  and  curing.  The  exceptions  to  this 
rule  are  few,  and  to  be  found  in  the  cases  of  farmers  who  have 
capital  which  they  can  invest  in  this  way  without  embarrassing 
their  ordinary  farm  operations. 

The  crop  grown  for  this  purpose  should  be  one  which  is  very 
sure  to  succeed.  There  are  several  crops  which  are  so  well 
suited  to  the  soil  and  climate,  and  can  so  readily  adapt  them- 
selves to  any  variations  which  may  take  place,  that  when  they 
are  properly  managed  a  failure  is  almost  impossible.  Therefore 
there  is  no  excuse  for  the  farmer  who  relies  for  his  money  upon 
a  tender  and  uncertain  crop. 

Finally,  the  crop  selected  for  this  purpose  must  be  one  for 
which  there  is  a  ready  sale,  in  convenient  markets,  for  cash. 
There  are  standard  products  which  will  always  command 
money.  They  may  sell  low  sometimes,  but  they  will  sell  for 
something  approaching  their  real  value.  These  are  the  articles 
for  the  farmer  to  produce. 


FARM  AND  FODDER    CA  OPS.  235 

If  the  farmer  follows  these  principles,  secures  regular  cus- 
tomers and  deals  fairly  with  them,  and  produces  a  good  grade 
of  the  articles  which  he  wishes  to  sell,  he  can  invariably  succeed 
in  obtaining  money  enough  to  meet  all  of  his  current  expenses. 

FmBM  MM^  F0BBEB  ©R,aFSe 

•OR  the  sake  of  convenience  we  will  divide  these  crops 
into  four  classes,  and  consider  those  of  each  class  in 
their  •  alphabetical  order.  These  classes  are  crops  for 
sowing,  for  planting,  for  forage,  and  root  crops.  Though 
somewhat  imperfect,  it  is  believed  to  be  the  best  classification 
which  can  readily  be  made.  The  class  of  sowed  crops  is  quite 
large  and  embraces  some  of  the  finest  crops  in  the  world.  It 
includes  those  which  are  of  special  value  as  food  for  man.  The 
second  class  also  includes  many  extremely  useful  crops,  but 
several  of  the  number  are  useful  as  luxuries  rather  than  neces- 
sities to  man,  and  quite  a  number  are  principally  used  as  food 
for  animals  rather  than  for  the  human  race.  The  third  class  is 
cultivated  for  animals  exclusively,  while  the  fourth  is  used  as 
food  for  both  man  and  beast. 

Barley. — In  Europe  this  is  a  very  important  crop,  and  in 
some  parts  of  this  country  it  is  coming  into  common  use.  It  is 
a  nutritive  grain,  though  considerably  inferior  to  wheat.  In 
Europe  it  is  largely  used  for  bread.  Here  it  is  grown  for 
animals  and  also  for  the  manufacture  of  beer.  For  the  latter 
purpose  it  should  never  be  grown.  We  are  convinced  that  the 
world  would  be  much  better  off  if  none  were  produced  than  it 
is  under  the  abuse  to  which  the  grain  is  subjected  by  the  liquor- 
makers.  Though  subject  to  several  diseases,  tliis  is,  in  some 
respects,  a  very  hardy  plant,  and  readily  adapts  itself  to  all 
varieties  of  climate  and  to  various  grades  of  soil.  There  are 
two  leading  varieties  of  barley — the  two-rowed  and  the  six- 
rowed.     There  are  also  several  sub-varieties  which  are  the  result 


236  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

of  the  modifying  influences  of  soil,  climate,  and  different  styles 
of  cultivation.  It  is  an  annual  plant,  but  some  of  the  sub-varie- 
ties have  been  so  modified  that  they  are  treated  as  winter  grain 
If  sowed  in  the  spring,  the  seed  should  be  got  in  quite  early. 
More  than  most  grains  the  seed  of  barley  rapidly  deteriorates 
under  careless  cultivation.  Consequently,  it  is  necessary  to  use 
special  care  in  saving  seed  or  else  to  frequently  purchase  a  stock 
from  a  different  section  of  the  country.  A  medium  soil,  neither 
heavy  nor  light,  is  best  adapted  to  this  crop.  Wet  land  should 
be  thoroughly  dramed  before  devoting  it  to  barley.  It  may  be 
sowed  on  an  inverted  sod,  or  follow  a  hoed  crop,  but  should  not 
follow  wheat  or  rye,  and  two  crops  of  barley  should  not  be 
grown  in  succession  on  the  same  land.  Two  bushels  of  seed 
per  acre  for  poor  land  and  three  for  rich  soils  is  considered  the 
best  rate  of  seeding,  though  some  farmers  recommend  using 
only  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  and  a  half  bushels,  according 
to  the  strength  of  the  soil. 

The  harvesting  should  be  done  as  soon  as  the  grain  is  fully 
matured.  It  should  be  carefully  dried  in  order  to  prevent  heat- 
ing in  the  mow.  The  grain  may  be  profitably  used  for  fattening 
swine.  It  is  deficient  in  gluten,  but  contains  a  large  percentage 
of  starch.  The  straw  is  hard  and  of  small  value  for  stock  food. 
While  it  does  very  well  in  many  localities,  we  think  that  as  a 
grain  for  universal  cultivation  barley  falls  far  below  many  other 
varieties. 

Buckwheat. — This  plant  has  been  known  for  ages  and  cul- 
tivated in  a  large  part  of  the  civilized  world.  In  some  respects 
it  is  a  very  peculiar  grain.  While  nearly  all  the  plants  grown 
lor  food  require  a  thorough  preparation  of  the  soil  and  a  mellow 
seed  bed,  this  grain  seems  to  have  the  power  to  fasten  itself 
upon  the  hardest,  toughest  soils  and  reduce  their  surface  to  a 
fine  powder.  On  this  account  it  is  often  used  to  subdue  wild 
land.  The  sod  is  turned  as  well  as  possible  and  buckwheat  is 
sowed.     In  the  autumn,  when  the  grain  is  removed,  the  surface 


FARM  AND  FODDER   CROPS.  237 

of  the  land  will  be  found  very  mellow.  We  have  seen  a  tough, 
sedgy  field  thoroughly  subdued  by  one  crop  of  this  grain.  ,  Two 
crops  in  succession  would  probably  reduce  any  ordinary  sedge. 
The  plant  will  grow  on  very  poor  land,  and  is  often  used  as 
green  manure  on  soils  which  are  too  poor  to  give  a  strong 
growth  of  clover.  On  rich  land  clover  is  to  be  preferred,  but 
for  poor  soils  buckwheat  is  one  of  the  very  best  fertilizers 
known.  It  is  quite  valuable  for  manuring  land  for  rye.  For 
this  purpose  it  should  be  sown  about  the  middle  of  July.  It 
will  then  be  ready  to  turn  under  about  the  tenth  of  September. 
When  the  grain  is  to  be  saved,  the  sowing  should  be  performed 
in  June  in  the  Northern  States  and  July  or  August  in  the 
South. 

There  is  only  one  distinct  variety  in  general  cultivation. 
From  one-half  bushel  to  a  bushel  and  a  quarter  of  seed  may  be 
sown  per  acre.  Some  growers  who  make  a  specialty  of  the 
grain  use  only  one  peck  of  seed  per  acre.  It  is  usually  sown 
broadcast  and  harrowed  in.  It  ripens  very  unevenly.  The 
harvesting  should  be  done  when  the  seeds  from  the  first  flowers 
are  fully  ripe.  If  allowed  to  remain  without  cutting,  the  plant 
will  keep  blossoming  all  the  season,  but  the  earliest  seed  will 
shell  out  and  be  wasted.  It  should  be  cut  when  the  dew  is  on 
in  order  to  prevent  shelling.  Some  farmers  do  not  bind  this 
grain,  but  set  it  up  in  small  stooks,  giving  the  heads  a  little  twist 
to  keep  them  together.  As  soon  as  dry  it  should  be  drawn  to 
the  barn  and  threshed.  It  is  always  best  to  gather  this  crop 
before  a  frost.  If  well  cured,  the  straw  is  said  to  be  good 
fodder  for  sheep  and  cattle.  When  thrown  upon  the  land,  or  in 
the  yards,  it  decays  rapidly  and  is  valuable  for  manure.  The 
grain  makes  a  fair-looking  and  nutritious  flour,  which  is  in  great 
demand  for  making  cakes.  In  some  parts  of  Europe  it  is  mixed 
with  wheat  and  made  into  bread.  It  is  a  valuable  grain  for 
poultry,  and  when  mixed  with  corn  is  excellent  for  swine. 

Many  farmers   consider  this  a  very  exhausting  crop.     It  is 


238  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

almost  impossible  to  grow  corn  on  land  which  produced  buck- 
wheat the  preceding  year,  and  some  farmers  claim  that  grass 
land  is  injured  by  growing  an  occasional  crop  of  this  grain. 
We  have  seen  some  very  good  land  apparently  injured  by  a 
single  crop  of  buckwheat  The  analyses  of  the  crop  which  we 
have  been  able  to  obtain  do  not  indicate  anything  very  exhausting 
in  its  nature.  It  requires  considerable  potash,  but  not  an 
excessive  amount  of  either  nitrogen  or  phosphoric  acid.  Some 
growers  assert  that  buckwheat  "  poisons"  the  soil.  But  this  does 
not  seem  to  be  a  reasonable  conclusion.  Although  this  crop  is 
considered  so  damaging  to  the  land,  we  have  seen  it  growing  on 
miserably  poor  sandy  plains,  which  would  not  produce  corn  or 
wheat,  but  which  gave  a  fair  yield  of  buckwheat.  Not  only 
this,  but  on  these  poor  soils  buckwheat  can  be  grown  year  after 
year,  for  many  years  in  succession,  without  seriously  diminishing 
the  yield.  That  land  which  will  not  grow  one  crop  of  corn 
without  manure  will  produce  several  crops  of  buckwheat  seems 
very  strange,  but  there  is  abundant  evidence  that  this  is  the  case. 
After  tlie  soil  has  long  been  devoted  to  buckwheat  it  will  not 
readily  be  made  to  produce  other  crops. 

As  an  aid  in  reclaiming  waste  land,  for  growing  on  sandy 
plains,  and  as  an  occasional  crop  on  the  better  kinds  of  land, 
buckwheat  may  be  grown  in  small  quantities,  but  we  do  not 
believe  its  production  on  an  extensive  scale  would  be  profitable 
to  the  ordinary  farmer.  Whenever  it  is  grown,  the  land  should 
receive  an  application  of  well-rotted  compost,  chemical  fertilizers, 
or  wood-ashes.  It  should  not  be  grown  without  the  use  of 
something  in  the  line  of  plant-food. 

Flax. — This  plant  was  known,  and  in  quite  common  use,  in 
the  early  ages  of  the  world.  Until  cotton  largely  took  its  place 
it  was  one  of  the  standard  crops  with  the  American  farmer. 
He  used  to  grow  the  crop,  dress  out  the  fibre,  and  his  wife,  or 
some  woman  in  the  neighborhood,  would  weave  it  into  cloth. 
Under  the  old   system  the  cultivation  of  this  crop  involved  a 


FARM  AiVD   FODDER    CROPS.  239 

great  deal  of  very  unpleasant  labor.  Within  the  past  twenty 
years  machines  have  been  introduced  which  now  perform  some 
of  the  hardest  of  the  work. 

The  plant  succeeds  well  throughout  the  country,  but  needs  a 
good  soil  in  order  to  yield  large  crops.  Fresh  manure  should 
not  be  directly  applied,  but  the  land  may  be  made  rich  during 
the  year  preceding  the  growth  of  the  flax.  Salt  and  ashes  are 
both  good  fertilizers  to  apply  when  the  seed  is  sown,  and  plaster 
may  be  sprinkled  over  the  plants  when  they  have  nearly  attained 
their  growth.  The  land  should  be  deeply  plowed,  and  if 
inclined  to  be  wet,  thorough  drainage  should  be  secured.  The 
harrowing  should  be  very  thorough  so  as  to  leave  the  surface 
soil  quite  fine  and  level.  This  should  be  done  early  in  the 
season,  and  the  land  allowed  to  lay  a  week  or  two  in  order  lo 
give  the  weed  seeds  which  are  in  the  soil  an  opportunity  to 
germinate.  At  the  end  of  this  period  another  thorough  har- 
rowing should  be  given.  This  will  destroy  the  weeds  and  lit 
the  land  for  the  reception  of  the  seed.  When  the  soil  is 
reasonably  dry  and  warm,  as  it  will  be  by  this  time  if  the 
operations  were  commenced  when  they  should  have  been,  the 
seed  may  be  sown  and  covered  with  a  brush-harrow.  Some 
farmers  use  a  light-hand  implement  of  this  description,  and  do 
not  allow  a  team  on  the  field  after  the  seed  has  been  sown. 
The  quantity  of  seed  to  be  used  will  depend  upon  the  purpose 
for  which  the  crop  is  grown.  If  wanted  for  the  seed,  from  half  a 
bushel  to  a  bushel  per  acre  may  be  sown ;  but  if  for  the  fibre,  at 
least  a  bushel  and  a  half  of  seed  should  be  used.  When  but  little 
seed  is  used,  the  plants  send  out  large  branches,  which  will  pro- 
duce many  seed-bolls,  but  the  fibre  will  not  be  first  rate.  Thick 
sowing  secures  a  large  number  of  plants,  which  grow  straight 
and  tall  and  furnish  a  large  quantity  of  the  best  quality  of  fibre, 
with  but  comparatively  little  seed.  When  the  plants  are  a  few 
inches  high,  the  weeds  which  have  appeared  must  be  carefully 
pulled  by  hand.  The  men  or  boys  who  do  the  weeding  should 
go  barefoot  in  order  to  prevent  injury  to  the  crop. 


240  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

The  old  method  of  harvesting  flax  was  to  pull  it  by  hand. 
This  was  a  ver>'  laborious  operation,  and  required  a  great  deal 
of  time  for  its  performance.  At  present  reapers  are  frequently- 
used.  Machines  for  pulling  flax  have  also  been  devised.  When 
the  growth  of  the  crop  is  uniform,  they  work  pretty  well.  Many 
farmers  use  the  common  grain  cradle,  some  prefer  a  scythe, 
while  a  few  still  adhere  to  the  old  method  and  gather  the  crop 
by  hand.  If  cutting  is  attempted,  it  should  be  done  as  close  to- 
the  ground  as  possible.  If  the  flax  is  pulled,  the  dirt  should  be 
shaken  from  the  roots.  The  time  for  gathering  this  crop  is 
when  the  bolls  have  turned  brown,  the  lower  leaves  died,  and 
the  stems  changed  to  a  light  yellow  color.  If  pulled  or  cradled, 
the  flax  may  either  be  bound  at  once  or  dried  in  the  sun.  If 
bound  before  being  dried,  it  must  stand  some  weeks  in  stooks 
before  it  can  be  safely  put  into  a  large  stack.  If  cut  with  a 
scythe,  the  flax  may  be  treated  the  same  as  hay.  The  curing 
should  be  thoroughly  done  before  the  crop  is  stored.  The  seed 
may  be  shelled  by  drawing  the  heads  of  the  flax  through  a  comb 
of  sharp  iron  teeth  set  quite  close  together,  by  whipping  them 
over  a  large  stone,  by  threshing  with  flails,  or  by  running 
through  a  machine.  The  second  method  is  the  best  where  only 
a  small  quantity  is  grown,  while  a  good  machine  will  be  needed 
if  the  crop  is  very  large. 

Various  methods  of  preparing  the  fibre  are  in  use.  The  end 
to  be  gained  is  the  separation  of  the  bark  from  the  woody  stem. 
This  is  accomplished  by  a  rotting  process  which  dissolves  the 
mucilaginous  substance  which  holds  them  together  and  thus 
admits  of  their  easy  separation.  The  flax  is  either  spread  upon 
the  grass,  or  in  the  form  of  bundles  is  put  under  standing  water 
until,  by  means  of  various  mechanical  operations,  the  fibre  can 
be  separated  from  the  stem.  These  things  were  once  done 
on  the  farm,  but  now  after  the  seed  is  removed  the  larger  part 
of  the  straw  is  sold  to  parties  engaged  in  manufacturing.  In 
this  country  flax  is  mainly  grown  for  the  seed,  and  but  little 


FARM  AND  FODDER   CROPS.  241 

attention  is  paid  to  securing  a  good  article  of  fibre.  From  the 
seed  linseed  oil  is  obtained,  and  the  justly  celebrated  oil  cake 
which  is  so  highly  valued  for  feeding  purposes.  This  cake  con- 
sists of  the  seeds  after  the  oil  has  been  expressed.  Large  quan- 
tities are  sent  to  England,  where  it  commands  a  high  price.  It 
is  especially  valuable  for  feeding  to  lambs  and  calv^es. 

Flax  is  an  exhausting  crop,  and  should  not  be  grown  upon 
the  same  field  more  than  once  in  five  or  six  years.  In  the 
vicinity  of  factories,  at  which  the  straw  can  be  sold  and  the  seed 
utilized,  it  may  be  made  a  profitable  crop  to  be  grown  on  a  small 
area  and  in  a  judicious  system  of  rotation,  but  present  indica- 
tions are  not  favorable  to  its  extensive  cultivation. 

Hemp. — Although  not  one  of  the  most  valuable  plants,  hemp 
has  been  cultivated  to  quite  an  extent  at  the  West.  Properly 
managed  it  pays  a  fair  profit,  but  it  has  never  been  v^ry  popular 

ft 

and  the  quantity  grown  in  this  country  has  never  equalled  the 
demand.  It  is  somewhat  exhausting  to  the  soil,  and  this, 
together  with  the  fact  that  the  labor  of  cutting  and  gathering  it 
is  severe,  will  prevent  its  taking  a  high  place  among  our  crops. 
It  can  be  grown  to  better  advantage  in  some  of  the  foreign  lands 
where  labor  is  very  cheap  and  where  some  of  our  better  crops 
do  not  thrive. 

The  method  of  growing  hemp  is  very  simple.  The  land 
should  be  carefully  fitted.  A  deep,  mellow,  and  fertile  soil 
gives  the  best  results.  Care  must  be  taken  to  secure  fresh  seed. 
The  sowing  may  be  done  from  the  middle  of  April  to  the  mid- 
dle of  June,  though  it  is  usually  better  to  get  in  the  seed  as  soon 
as  convenient  after  the  land  gets  warm  and  dry  in  the  spring. 
From  one  bushel  to  one  bushel  and  a  half  of  seed  per  acre  is 
usually  scattered  broadcast  over  the  field.  It  is  very  much 
better  to  drill  in  from  three  pecks  to  one  bushel  of  seed  per 
acre.  If  the  ground  is  moist,  the  seed  should  be  lightly  covered. 
If  dry,  the  seed  should  be  soaked  before  the  sowing  is  done 
or  else  it  should  be  put  in  deeper  than  seeds  are  usually  cov- 


242  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 

ered.  In  all  cases  the  land  should  be  well  rolled  after  the  sow- 
ing has  been  done. 

Hemp  is  a  ver>'  strong  growing  plant  and  will  readily  take 
care  of  itself.  Little  or  no  cultivation  is  required.  Unless  the 
land  is  ver>'  weedy,  and  much  of  the  seed  fails  to  grow,  the  hemp 
will  smother  the  weeds. 

In  from  three  to  four  months  after  sowing  the  crop  will  be 
ready  to  be  cut.  This  stage  will  be  indicated  by  the  turning 
yellow  of  the  blossoms  and  the  falling  of  many  of  the  leaves. 
The  common  practice  used  to  be  to  pull  the  plants  by  hand,  but 
cutting  is  now  the  usual  method.  In  either  way  the  work  Cif 
gathering  the  crop  is  ver)'  hard  and  slow.  If  ihe  hemp  is  not 
above  seven  feet  in  height  it  can  be  cut  at  the  rate  of  an  acre  a 
day,  per  man,  with  wide,  heavy  scythes,  but  if  it  is  very  tall  a 
Jiemp  hook,  or  brush  scythe,  must  be  used.  With  one  of  these 
implements  a  man  can  only  cut  about  half  an  acre  of  hemp  per 
day.  It  should  be  considerably  dried  and  then  bound  and 
stacked.  When  the  weather  becomes  cool  it  may  be  spread  on 
the  grass  to  rot,  or  the  rotting  may  be  done  in  vats,  or  pontls, 
in  which  the  stalks  can  be  kept  constantly  under  water.  When 
sufficiently  rotted,  the  fibres  will  separate  from  the  stalk  along 
its  centre  but  remain  attached  at  the  ends.  It  is  then  taken  to 
the  brake,  with  which  the  separation  is  completed.  These  brakes 
were  formerly  made  by  the  farmer,  or  some  local  carpenter,  but 
a  good  machine  for  breaking  hemp  and  flax,  and  separating  the 
seed  from  the  latter,  is  now  for  sale  by  dealers  in  agricultural 
implements. 

In  Engla^:d,  hemp  which  is  designed  for  seed  is  grown  the 
same  as  v.hcn  produced  for  the  fibre.  The  male  stalks  are 
gathered  first,  while  the  female  plants  are  allowed  to  remain 
until  the  seeds  are  ripe.  But  in  this  country  the  seed  is  grown 
in  a  field  by  itself  The  planting  is  in  hills,  which  should  be 
three  and  a  half  feet  apart  each  way.  Sufficient  cultivation 
should  be  given  to  keep  down  the  weeds.     Only  three  stalks  in 


FARM  AND    FODDER    CROPS.  243 

a  hill  should  be  allowed  to  grow.  When  sufficiently  developed 
to  make  plain  the  difference  between  the  male  and  female  plants, 
the  former,  which  may  be  known  by  their  preparation  to 
blossom,  must  nearly  all  be  cut  out.  The  rule  is  to  leave 
one  blossoming  plant  in  every  other  hill  of  every  other  row. 
These  will  fertilize  the  female  plants,  and  secure  the  production 
of  perfect  seed.  After  the  pollen  has  fallen  from  the  male 
stalks,  they  should  be  removed  in  order  to  leave  more  room  and 
food  for  the  productive  plants. 

The  seed  is  of  some  value  for  feeding  to  stock,  but  should  be 
cooked  before  being  used.  The  fibre  is  valuable  for  manufac- 
turing purposes,  and  the  waste  is  sometimes  used  for  making 
paper.  When  only  the  fibre  is  produced,  this  crop  is  not  very 
exhausting  to  the  soil  ;  but  when  the  seed  is  ripened,  it  takes 
the  elements  of  plant-food  in  large  quantities,  and  proves  very 
damaging  to  the  land. 

Jute. — Although  large  quantities  of  jute  are  used  in  this 
country,  India  has  been,  and  still  is,  the  main  source  of  supply. 
Many  experiments  which  have  been  conducted,  at  the  sug- 
gestion of  the  Agricultural  Department  at  Washington,  in 
the  South,  have  proved  beyond  all  question  that  this  can  be 
made  a  valuable  addition  to  our  cultivated  crops,  and  that  if  its 
culture  were  once  established,  millions  of  dollars  per  year  would 
be  kept  at  home  which  are  now  sent  abroad  for  this  product. 
The  soil  and  climate  of  the  extreme  Southern  States  are  well 
adapted  to  the  production  of  this  crop.  But  comparatively 
little  labor  is  required,  and  to  quite  an  extent  it  would  pay 
better  than  cotton  or  cane. 

The  seed  may  be  sown   in  April  and  the  plants  cut  in  July, 

or  sown  in  June  and  cut  in  September,     The  plant  grows  from 

ten  to  fifteen   feet  in  height,  and  a  yield  of  thirty-five  hundred 

pounds  of  fibre  per  acre   can  readily  be  obtained.     The  seed 

may  be  scattered   broadcast   at   the   rate   of  twenty   or   thirty 

pounds    per  acre,  or  drilled   in   at   the  rate  of  ten  or  fifteert 
16 


244  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

pounds.  The  plant  is  a  strong  grower,  and  will  pretty  much 
take  care  of  itself.  For  the  production  of  fibre  the  plants  must 
be  cut  when  in  the  flower.  Plants  for  seeds  should  be  grown 
in  a  separate  field.  They  should  have  good  land  and  careful 
cultivation.  The  seeds  are  ripe  in  about  a  month  after  the 
flowers  are  developed. 

The  stalks  of  the  main  crop  are  subjected  to  a  rotting  process 
similar  to  that  which  is  practiced  with  flax  and  hemp.  When 
well  rotted,  the  fibre  is  separated  from  the  stalk.  The  fibre  can 
be  used  for  all  the  low-priced  manufactures  which  flax  and 
hemp  have  hitherto  supplied.  Large  quantities  of  paper  have 
been  made  from  jute,  and  it  can  be  used  for  many  other  pur- 
poses. There  can  be  no  doubt  that  in  the  South  this  plant  will 
pay  better  than  cither  of  its  rivals.  Instead  of  sending  millions 
of  dollars  out  of  the  country  to  purchase  a  supply  of  this 
material,  an  abundance  of  it  should  be  grown  at  home,  and 
worked  up  in  our  own  manufactories.  Grown  in  connection 
with  other  crops,  jute  promises  large  and  sure  rewards  to  the 
Southern  farmer. 

Oats. — The  oat  plant  is  a  native  of  cold  countries,  but  readily 
adapts  itself  to  temperate  localities.  It  can  be  grown  where  the 
summers  are  long  and  hot ;  but  in  these  locations  it  does  not 
flourish.  There  are  several  varieties,  and  a  large  number  of  sub- 
varieties.  The  latter  exhibit  merely  those  changes  which  are 
naturally  due  to  a  difference  in  the  surroundings  of  the  plants. 
New  kinds  are  frequently  introduced,  loudly  praised,  widely 
advertised,  and  sold  at  extremely  high  prices  to  farmers  in  all 
parts  of  the  country.  Some  of  these  sorts  prove  quite  valuable. 
Others  are  not  adapted  to  general  cultivation.  Under  the 
general  system  of  culture  practiced  here,  the  oat  rapidly  degen- 
erates. This  is  especially  true  at  the  South.  Oats  imported 
from  Norway,  Scotland,  or  even  from  Canada,  are  quite  heav>^ 
Some  of  these  oats  will  weigh  forty  pounds  per  bushel.  But  if 
sown  in  the  Middle  or  Southern  States  their  product  is  not  as 


FARM  AND  FODDER    CROPS.  245 

heavy,  and  they  soon  degenerate  to  the  common  local  standard. 
The  same  change  occurs,  but  not  quite  as  rapidly,  in  the 
Northern  States.  We  are  confident  that  by  careful  culture, 
and  a  proper  selection  of  seed,  this  deterioration  can  be  pre- 
vented. If  the  farmer  will  grow  his  oats  for  seed  on  good  land, 
and  give  them  good  culture,  he  can  keep  them  up  to  their 
original  standard  of  excellence.  He  may  even  improve  their 
quality,  and  increase  their  productive  capacity. 

The  question,  Which  is  the  best  variety  for  general  use  ?  is  not 
settled.  Many  farmers  consider  the  white  oat  superior  to  the 
black,  while  others  are  sure  that  the  black  kinds  are  the  best. 
We  have  grown  both  the  white  and  the  black  oats — several 
kinds  of  the  former  and  one  of  the  latter — and  we  like  the 
white  ones  much  the  best.  Our  black  oats  were  strong  growers, 
and  gave  a  good  yield,  but  they  did  not  sell  as  well,  did  not 
look  as  well,  and  we  found  no  point  in  which  they  were  at  all 
superior.  Of  the  white  oats,  the  best  kind  which  we  have 
grown  which  laid  claim  to  a  name  of  its  own  is  the  Surprise. 
We  had  an  unnamed  variety,  which  was  brought  from  a  hill- 
town,  in  Massachusetts,  which  we  kept  for  some  years,  and 
which,  all  things  considered,  was  fully  equal  to  any  which  we 
have  ever  grown. 

Though  it  may  sometimes  be  well  to  "  change  the  seed,"  we 
do  not  think  it  either  necessary  or  wise  to  make  such  changes 
often.  When  such  a  course  is  decided  upon,  the  new  seed 
should  be  obtained  from  some  mountainous  region.  The 
Southern  growers  will  do  better  to  get  seed-oats  from  the 
mountains  in  their  own  vicinity  than  they  can  by  sending 
North.  The  Northern  oats  will  soon  become  acclimated. 
They  will  probably  yield  well,  but  we  think  that  Southern 
grown  grain  will  prove  to  be  better  adapted  to  the  Southern 
States.  By  getting  a  good  variety  from  the  mountains,  and  care- 
fully growing  a  small  field  specially  for  the  production  of  seed, 
the  Southern  farmer  can  grow  his  own  seed-oats  and  keep  the 
highest  quality  of  the  variety  unimpaired. 


246  FARMING   FOR    PROFIT. 

Oats  will  thrive  on  almost  any  kind  of  soil  which  is  not  very 
wet.  Standing  water  is  death  to  the  plant,  and  it  will  not  do 
well  if  the  land  is  constantly  soaked.  On  good  land  a  much 
larger  yield  can  be  obtained  than  can  be  secured  from  a  pooi 
soil,  but  something  of  a  crop  can  be  obtained  from  land  which 
is  very  far  from  being  fertile.  This  crop  is  sometimes  grown 
on  an  inverted  sod,  but  this  practice  is  not  considered  the  best. 
Oats  follow  corn  or  potatoes  very  well.  No  green  barn-yard- 
manure  should  be  applied  to  the  land,  but  it  is  a  great  mistake 
to  suppose  that  all  fertilizers  are  injurious  to  the  crop.  Well- 
rotted  compost  may  be  harrowed  in,  and  it  will  pay  well  to  use 
it  for  this  purpose.  Special  fertilizers  for  the  oat  crop  may 
often  be  made  very  profitable.  They  are  especially  valuable 
on  land  which  has  long  been  cropped.  On  many  soils  two  or 
three  bushels  of  salt  per  acre  may  be  advantageously  used. 
When  oats  are  grown  on  sod,  this  application  of  salt  should 
never  be  omitted.  On  land  upon  which  grain  is  likely  to  lodge 
it  will  also  prove  useful. 

The  oat  crop  has  obtained  the  reputation  of  being  very 
exhausting  to  the  soil.  This  is  a  bad  name  which  is  wholly 
undeserved.  An  analysis  of  the  plant  shows  that  it  requires 
quite  a  quantity  of  nitrogen,  but  does  not  take  as  much  phos- 
phoric acid  and  potash  from  the  soil  as  several  of  our  other 
crops.  The  amount  of  nitrogen  is  not  excessive,  and  the  actual 
exhaustion  of  the  soil  is  less  than  it  is  in  the  production  of 
either  wheat  or  corn.  The  idea  that  oats  rapidly  exhaust  the 
soil  probably  comes  from  the  fact  that  seeding  with  oats  often 
proves  a  failure,  and  that  grass  following  oats  does  not  give  as 
large  crops  as  when  it  follows  corn.  But  an  ample  reason  for 
these  things  can  be  found  without  resorting  to  the  theory  that 
the  oats  have  impoverished  the  soil.  We  have  little  trouble 
in  seeding  with  oats,  though  rye  is  a  better  crop  for  the  pur- 
pose. The  difficulty  of  seeding  with  oats  results  from  the  fact 
that  the  oat  is  a  strong  growing  plant,  and  it  shades,  and  some- 


FARM  AND  FODDER   CROPS. 


247 


times  smothers,  the  weak  grass  plants.  The  cause  of  the  land 
being  in  poor  condition  after  the  crop  is  removed  is  generally 
due  to  the  fact  that  it  has  received  no  fertilizers.  If  corn  were 
planted,  instead  of  oats,  without  manure,  the  land  would  be 
made  poorer.  In  this  case  the  trouble  is  not  with  the  oats,  but 
with  the  method  of  cultivation.  If  the  land  is  manured  for 
oats  as  well  as  it  is  for  corn,  grass  will  follow  the  former  crop 
fully  as  well  as  it  will  the  latter. 

The  land  for  oats  should  be  plowed  to  a  medium  depth,  and 
the  surface  soil  made  very  fine.     The   sowing  should  be  done 
early  in  the  season— just  as  soon  as  the  land  is  tolerably  dry 
and  warm  in  spring.       Oats  which    are    sown    late  are  almost 
invariably    light    and    poor. 
We    would    prefer    to    sow 
when  the  land  is  rather  cold 
than  to  wait  until  late  in  the 
season    for    it     to     become 
warm.     At  the  South  many 
oats   are    sown    in   the   fall. 
At   the    North    the   severe 
cold  of  winter  destroys  the 
plants.        A    hardy    variety, 
called  winter  oats,  is  now  grown  in  the  mountains  of  Tennessee. 
A  good  crop  was  also  grown  in  South  Framingham,  Massa- 
chusetts, by  E.  F.  Bowditch,  Esq.,  in  1878.     Whether  their 
culture  will  be  g^erally  successful  as  far  North  as  this,  a  more 
extensive  trial  must  determine.      After  the  land  is  thoroughly 
prepared,  the  seed  may  be  sown  broadcast  at  the  rate  of  from 
one  to  four  bushels  per  acre.     We  have  seeded  as  lightly  as  one 
bushel,  but  generally  use  three.     The  seed  should  be  covered 
with  a  light  harrow,  and  the  land,  unless  it  is  wet  and  inclined 
to  bake,  should  be  well  rolled.      For  sowing  oats,  and  other 
kinds  of  grain  which  are  scattered  broadcast,  a  machine  will  do 
much  better  work  than  can  be  performed  by  hand,  and  also  do 


FIG.     12. 


». 


248 


FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 


it  very  rapidly.  Fig.  12  represents  a  hand-machine  which  will 
sow  from  four  to  six  acres,  and  Fig.  13  a  horsc-machinc  sowing 
from  twelve  to  fifteen  acres  per  hour.  Both  machines  are  made 
and  sold  by  Benson,  Maule  &  Co.,  of  Philadelphia. 

Oats  should  be  harvested  when  the  lower  part  of  the  stalk  has 
turned  yellow  and  the  kernel  has  fairly  passed  out  of  the  milk. 
If  cut  at  this  stage  the  grain  will  be  plump,  and  the  straw  will 
be  good  for  fodder.  If  allowed  to  stand  longer,  the  quality  of 
the  straw  will  be  impaired,  and  the  grain  will  be  very  likely  to 


^^"-f-' 


FIG.    13. 

shell  in  the  field.  Great  losses  are  often  sustained  by  allowing 
this  crop  to  become  too  ripe  before  it  is  cut.  When  grown  on 
a  small  scale  the  oats  may  be  cradled,  allowed  to  dry  a  day  or 
two,  and  then  bound  in  small  bundles,  which  should  either  be 
set  up  in  small  stooks  in  the  field,  or  stored  in  a  well-ventilated 
loft  in  the  barn.  It  is  very  important  that  the  oats  should  be 
quite  dry  before  they  are  packed  away.  Otherwise  they  will 
heat  badly  and  the  grain  will  be  discolored.  It  is  also  highly 
necessary  that  they  should  be  got  in  without  much  exposure  to 
rains  and  heavy  dews.     The  grain  is  easily  discolored  by  rain, 


FARM  AND   FODDER    CROPS.  249 

and  the  price  which  it  will  command  in  market  is  thereby  con- 
siderably reduced.  If  rain  falls  upon  the  swath,  they  should  be 
turned  over  and  carefully  dried  before  being  bound.  When  the 
weather  is  cloudy  it  is  sometimes  best  to  put  up  the  grain  in 
small  stooks,  and  allow  it  to  stand  a  week  or  two.  The  butts 
should  be  exposed  to  the  sun  a  few  hours  before  the  bundles  are 
packed  away  in  mows.  It  is  always  best  to  cut  this  crop  in 
good  weather,  dry  it  well  before  binding,  and  when  it  is  bound 
haul  it  at  once  to  the  barn  or  stack.  When  a  reaper  is  used, 
as  it  should  be  where  large  fields  of  oats  are  to  be  cut,  the 
binding  may  be  done  at  once  and  the  bundles  put  up  in  small 
stooks  to  dry. 

The  oat  is  liable  to  but  few  diseases.  The  straw  makes 
excellent  fodder,  and  the  grain  is  one  of  the  best  for  feeding  to 
working  animals.  When  properly  prepared,  it  forms  one  of  the 
most  healthful  and  nutritious  kinds  of  food  for  man.  When  the 
crop  is  designed  for  fodder  it  should  be  cut  early  and  cured  like 
hay.  In  this  form  it  makes  a  splendid  food  for  cows  which  are 
giving  milk;  It  is  also  valuable  for  feeding  to  other  stock, 
especially  to  sheep.  Either  for  grain  or  fodder  the  oat  is  a 
valuable  plant  and  is  well  worthy  of  the  best  cultivation. 

Peas. — In  England,  Canada,  and  some  parts  of  this  country 
considerable  attention  is  paid  to  growing  peas  as  a  field  crop. 
Here  they  have  not  become  a  prominent  crop,  though  many 
growers  speak  very  highly  of  their  value.  They  are  used  for 
feeding  to  hogs,  sheep,  and  hens.  They  will  grow  in  almost 
any  soil,  but  yield  much  larger  crops  on  rich  land  than  they  do 
elsewhere.  No  green  manure  should  be  used,  but  a  coating  of 
well-rotted  compost  may  be  plowed  in,  or  worked  in  with  a 
cultivator.  The  land  should  be  plowed  to  a  moderate  depth, 
and  the  surface  soil  well  pulverized.  The  seed  is  usually  sown 
broadcast  at  the  rate  of  from  two  to  three  bushels  per  acre.  It 
should  be  covered  with  a  small  plow  or  a  cultivator.  A  harrow 
does  not  cover  deeply  enough.     After  the  seed  is  covered  the 


250  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

land  should  be  rolled.  This  must  not  be  neglected,  as  the  labor 
of  gathering  will  be  much  increased  if  the  surface  of  the  land  is 
rough.  Some  farmers  sow  peas  with  oats  in  order  that  the  latter 
may  furnish  a  support  and  keep  the  vines  from  the  ground. 
But  as  the  two  do  not  ripen  together,  and  as  the  oats  are  not 
strong  enough  to  fully  answer  the  purpose  for  which  they  are 
sown,  many  growers  prefer  to  sow  the  peas  alone. 

Peas  are  often  grown  in  the  corn  fields.  Here  they  are  drilled 
in  between  the  rows  of  corn.  This  practice  obtains  more  at  the 
South  than  it  does  elsewhere.  The  best  farmers  prefer  the 
month  of  May  for  sowing  peas  in  corn  fields,  but  some  growers 
wait  until  June.  At  the  NoRXit  the  planting  should  be  done  as 
early  as  the  first  of  June.  If  wanted  for  feeding  green,  the  first 
planting  may  be  in  April,  and  later  ones  at  intervals  of  three 
weeks.  This  will  give  a  succession  through  the  fell.  The 
varieties  most  in  use  at  the  North  are  the  marrowfat,  a  large 
and  rather  late  pea  which  needs  a  strong  soil,  and  the  small 
yellow  pea,  which  is  a  favorite  in  Canada  and  will  thrive  on 
light  land.  At  the  South  the  large  cow  pea  is  extensively 
grown  for  stock. 

The  "  Pindar,"  a  leguminous  plant  resembling  both  the  pea 
and  the  bean,  is  also  a  favorite  in  this  section.  The  vines  are 
good  for  fodder,  and  the  seeds,  which  to  the  amount  of  from 
twenty-five  to  fifty  bushels  per  acre  ripen  beneath  the  surface  of 
the  land,  are  excellent  for  fattening  animals.  When  ripe  the 
pods  are  loosened  with  a  fork  and  then  pulled  with  the  vines, 
turned  out  with  a  light  plow,  or  else  the  hogs  are  let  into  the 
field  to  harvest  the  crop  as  they  want  it  for  food.  This  crop  is 
often  grown  for  market.  The  method  of  its  cultivation  for  this 
purpose  will  be  considered  in  the  proper  place. 

The  ordinary  peas  may  be  fed  from  the  time  when  they  are 
half  grown  until  they  are  fully  ripe.  If  cut  and  cured  while 
green,  they  make  good  hay  for  cows  and  sheep.  Some  grow- 
ers turn  their  stock  into  the  fields,  but  this  is  a  wasteful  prac- 


FARM  AND   FODDER   CROPS.  '251 

tice.  If  the  peas  are  wanted,  they  should  remain  until  nearly 
ripe.  Then  they  should  be  cut  with  a  scythe,  cured  like  hay, 
and  carried  to  the  barn  and  threshed.  For  feeding  to  hogs 
seven  bushels  of  peas  are  said  to  be  equal  to  ten  of  corn.  They 
may  be  soaked  in  milk  or  water  until  they  are  soft  and  fed 
alone,  or  may  be  ground  into  meal  and  mixed  with  milk  and 
other  food.  The  whole  peas  are  often  fed  dry,  but  the  practice 
is  not  a  good  one.  We  have  used  them  to  some  extent,  and 
think  it  better  to  grind  peas  and  corn  together  than  it  is 
to  use  the  peas  alone.  The  crop  is  not  very  exhausting,  and 
when  sowed  late  it  is  of  great  value  for  giving  the  soil  a  good 
covering  during  the  hot  weather. 

Rice. — The  cultivation  of  rice  in  this  country  is  necessarily 
confined  within  quite  narrow  limits.  The  plant  requires  for  its 
perfection  a  moist  soil  which  can  be  readily  inundated,  and  a 
hot  climate.  It  can  be  grown  to  some  extent  on  uplands,  but 
cannot  there  be  made  a  very  profitable  crop.  In  the  swamps 
of  South  Carolina  and  Mississippi  it  is  very  productive,  and  is 
one  of  the  best  paying  crops.  There  is  this  drawback,  however: 
the  locations  in  which  rice  flourishes  are  very  unhealthy.  The 
labor  required  for  the  production  of  a  crop  is  slight.  When 
grown  on  upland  it  should  be  planted  in  shallow  drills  two  and 
a  half  or  three  feet  apart.  The  land  should  be  kept  free  from 
weeds  by  the  use  of  the  cultivator  and  hand-hoe.  But  all  varie- 
ties of  rice  succeed  much  better  in  lowlands  than  they  do  in  a 
comparatively  dry  soil. 

The  rice  field  should  be  so  arranged  that  it  can  be  inun- 
dated at  will.  About  two  bushels  of  the  grain  per  acre  is  sowed 
broadcast  upon  a  thoroughly  prepared  surface,  and  covered 
lightly  with  a  smoothing  harrow,  or  a  similar  implement.  This 
is  to  be  done  in  March.  After  sowing,  a  little  water  is  let  on. 
This  remains  two  or  three  days.  The  grain  then  begins  to 
swell  and  the  water  is  withdrawn.  When  the  plant  is  three  or 
four  inches  high,  water  is  let  on  until  all  but  the  top  leaves  are 


252  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

covered.  This  remains  until  about  two  weeks  before  harvest- 
time,  when  the  water  is  drawn  off  in  order  that  the  stalks  may 
harden,  and  that  the  process  of  gathering  the  crop  may  be  facil- 
itated. This  is  the  simplest  method  of  culture  w-hich  can  be 
made  successful.  Some  growers  do  a  great  deal  more  work. 
They  draw  off  the  water,  and  weed  and  hoe  the  plants  three  or 
four  times  during  the  season.  If  the  land  is  full  of  strong  grow- 
ing aquatic  plants,  this  course  may  be  necessary.  Otherwise  it 
can  hardly  be  made  to  pay. 

Rye. — This  crop  is  extensively  grown  in  the  Eastern  and 
Middle  States,  and  is  frequently  produced  on  those  wheat 
fields  of  the  West,  which,  from  severe  cropping  with  wheat 
alone,  have  become  partially  exhausted.  It  is  a  hardy  plant,  and 
succeeds  in  a  large  variety  of  soils,  and  in  different  climates. 
Wet  land  is  not  adapted  to  its  production,  and  should  be 
drained  before  this  crop  is  tried.  Rye  will  grow  on  ver}'  poor 
land,  but  fertile  soils  will  produce  much  larger  crops.  It  is  not 
very  exhausting,  but  when  it  is  grown  upon  the  same  land  year 
after  year,  and  no  manure  is  applied,  the  soil  at  length  becomes 
extremely  poor.  It  does  not  require  a  large  proportion  of  the 
principal  elements  which  the  other  grain  crops  use.  Conse- 
quently exhaustion  goes  on  slowly.  Some  farmers  have 
claimed  that  for  an  indefinite  time  rye  can  be  grown  year  after 
year  without  manure,  and  without  either  diminishing  the  yield 
of  the  crop,  or  impairing  the  fertility  of  the  soil.  The  only 
thing  needed  to  prevent  exhaustion  is  the  turning  under  of 
the  stubble  as  soon  as  a  crop  is  removed.  That  this  opinion  is 
erroneous  must  be  evident  to  tfie  man  who  will  give  the  subject 
attention.  The  course  proposed,  and  it  is  followed  by  many 
farmers,  involves  the  removal  each  year  of  all  the  grain,  and 
almost  all  of  the  straw,  which  the  land  can  produce,  without 
the  slightest  return  of  any  substance  with  which  to  repair  this 
inevitable  waste.  The  disintegration  of  the  soil,  which  in 
nearly  exhausted  fields  is  going  on  very  slowly,  is  the  only 


FARM  AND  FODDER    CROPS.  253 

source  from  which  the  mineral  elements  which  the  crop 
requires  can  be  obtained.  If  we  estimate  the  crop  at  only  ten 
bushels  per  acre,  there  will  be  a  removal  of  five  hundred  and 
sixty  pounds  of  grain,  and  about  ten  hundred  pounds  of  straw 
for  which  no  equivalent  whatever  is  rendered.  Under  such 
treatment  the  land  must  inevitably  grow  poorer  year  by  year. 
Even  this  small  crop  would  take  from  the  land  each  season  about 
fifteen  pounds  of  ammonia,  seven  pounds  of  phosphoric  acid, 
and  eleven  pounds  of  potash.  It  also  withdraws  several  other 
elements  which  are  not  easily  exhausted,  but  in  which,  under  a 
bad  system  of  culture,  the  soil  may  become  deficient.  Such  a 
course  can  have  only  one  end,  and  that  is  barrenness.  We  have 
cultivated  exhausted  rye  fields,  and  found  them  terribly  poor. 
Rye  will  continue  to  grow  on  land  too  poor  to  produce  any 
other  crop  than  itself  and  buckwheat.  But  when  the  end  is 
reached,  when  the  soil  is  so  thoroughly  exhausted  that  it  will 
grow  rye  no  longer,  it  is,  for  all  present  purposes,  utterly  ruined. 
A  long  rest,  or  the  use  of  large  quantities  of  fertilizing  matter, 
can,  in  time,  restore  it  to  fertility.  But  a  great  deal  of  time 
must  be  given,  or  a  heavy  expense  must  be  incurred.  Rye 
seems  to  be  able  to  take  the  last  available  element  of  plant-food 
from  the  soil.  Consequently,  though  it  may  pay  well  for  a  few 
seasons,  it  is  a  ruinous  crop  to  be  grown  on  poor  land  without 
manure. 

Though  rye  will  grow  on  a  very  large  variety  of  soils,  it  gives 
the  best  quality  of  grain  when  sown  on  a  rather  dry  and  sandy 
plain.  Much  larger  quantities  can  be  grown  upon  a  rich  loam. 
The  straw  is  very  strong,  and  will  bear  a  heavily  filled  head 
without  lodging.  The  land  may  be  manured  with  well-rotted 
compost,  ashes,  or  chemical  fertilizers.  Green  manures  prove 
highly  beneficial  to  this  crop.  The  land  should  be  well  plowed 
to  a  moderate  depth,  and  harrowed  before  the  seed  is  sown.  If 
the  winter  rye  is  to  be  grown,  the  sowing  should  be  done 
between   the   middle   of  August   and  the   first   of  November, 


254  FAR\fING   FOR   PROFIT. 

except  on  very  poor  land,  where  it  may  be  attended  to  as  early 
as  the  first  of  August.  For  good  land  we  prefer  the  middle  of 
September.  We  have  known  the  seed  to  be  put  in  so  extremely 
late  that  it  did  not  grow  until  the  next  spring.  It  then  came  up 
well  and  produced  a  good  crop.  But  this  late  sowing  is  not 
advisable.  When  the  plants  make  only  a  very  slight  growth 
before  winter,  there  is  considerable  danger  that  they  will  be 
destroyed  by  the  cold  weather,  and  the  heaving  of  the  ground. 
The  spring  rye,  which  is  a  modification  of  winter  rye  which 
has  been  caused  by  very  late  sowing  in  the  fall  for  many  suc- 
cessive years,  should  be  sowed  when  the  ground  is  in  a 
suitable  condition  to  receive  the  seed.  In  some  localities  where 
spring  rye  was  once  largely  grown,  it  has  almost  entirely 
disappeared,  and  winter  rye  has  taken  its  place.  We  much 
prefer  the  winter  grain. 

In  the  East,  rye  frequently  follows  corn  and  receives  no  fer- 
tilizer. The  seed  is  sometimes  sown  before  the  corn  is  ripe, 
and  is  covered  with  a  cultivator  and  hoes.  In  this  way  the 
corn  receives  a  late  hoeing,  and  the  rye  obtains  an  early  start. 
A  much  more  common  method  is  to  cut  a  few  rows  of  corn, 
plow  a  narrow  strip  of  land,  sow  it  to  rye,  and  then  stack  upon 
the  plowed  land  the  corn  which  has  been  cut.  These  strips  are 
plowed  at  convenient  intervals.  Then  the  remainder  of  the 
corn  is  cut  and  stacked  upon  these  strips,  and  the  rest  of  the 
land  is  plowed  and  sowed.  Some  farmers  take  an  opposite 
course.  They  cut  their  corn  and  set  it  up,  making  as  few  rows 
of  stacks  as  possible,  and  then  plow  and  sow  all  the  land  except 
what  the  rows  of  stacks  occupy.  When  the  corn  is  cured,  the 
stacks  arc  drawn  to  the  barn,  and  the  land  upon  which  they 
stood  is  plowed  and  sowed.  As  the  corn  must  be  carried  quite 
a  distance  in  order  that  it  may  make  but  a  few  rows  and  occupy 
as  little  land  as  possible,  this  course  involves  some  extra  work. 
The  rye  will  not  ripen  on  these  strips  at  the  same  time  that  it 
does  on  the  remainder  of  the  land,  and  the  harvesting  must  be 


FARM  AND  FODDER    CROPS.  255 

performed  at  different  times,  or  else  considerable  of  the  grain 
will  be  wasted.  Many  farmers  consider  the  advantages  gained 
by  early  sowing  much  greater  than  the  inconvenience  which 
either  of  these  methods  involves.  Our  own  course  has  been  to 
remove  the  corn  as  soon  as  possible,  sometimes  stacking  it  in 
another  field,  and  then  sow  the  rye. 

The  quantity  of  seed  required  depends  somewhat  upon  the 
character  of  the  land  and  the  time  of  sowing.  On  light  land, 
if  put  in  very  early,  three  pecks  per  acre  may  be  sufficient.  On 
good  land  sowed  in  moderate  season,  a  bushel  will  be  better. 
If  the  sowing  is  very  late  and  the  land  has  not  been  put  in 
first-rate  order,  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  bushels  may  be 
needed.  But  it  is  much  better  to  fit  the  land  well  and  sow  a 
reasonable  quantity  of  seed  early  in  the  season,  than  it  is  to 
wait  until  almost  winter  and  then  try  to  atone  for  the  delay  by 
using  an  excessive  amount.  If  drilled  in,  only  a  bushel  per 
acre  will  be  needed  on  ordinary  land.  If  grown  for  fodder, 
very  thick  sowing  will  be  the  best.  Three  bushels  of  seed  per 
acre  should  be  used  for  this  purpose. 

The  principal  disease  to  which  rye  is  subject  is  the  ergot — a 
fungoid  growth — which  causes  the  heads  of  the  grain  to  turn 
black,  and  send  out  long  spurs  which  are  quite  poisonous.  In 
Europe  several  epidemics  have  been  traced  to  the  use  of  rye 
affected  by  ergot,  and  in  this  country  many  cases  of  sickness, 
both  of  m'en  and  animals,  have  doubtless  been  caused  in  the 
same  way.  The  mills  in  which  rye  is  ground  are  now  so  much 
improved  that  most  of  this  poison  is  separated  from  the  grain, 
and  kept  out  of  the  flour ;  but  still  there  is  risk  in  using  grain 
which  has  been  thus  affected.  In  any  quantity  it  is  a  violent 
poison  to  domestic  animals.  No  cure  for  this  disease  is  knov/n. 
Prevention  must  be  tried.  Only  the  finest  kernels  should  be 
used  for  seed.  If  possible,  the  seed  should  be  obtained  from  a 
field  in  which  the  disease  did  not  appear.  Before  sowing,  the 
seed  should  be  put  into  strong,  hot  brine,  thoroughly  stirred, 


256  FARAflNG   FOR   PROFIT. 

then  spread,  on  a  floor  and  dusted  with  lime.  The  hght 
kernels,  which  rise  to  the  surface  when  the  grain  is  put  into  the 
brine,  should  be  skimmed  off  and  thrown  away.  With  this  care 
in  selecting  and  preparing  the  seed  there  should  be  but  little 
trouble  in  obtaining  a  healthy  crop.  The  color  of  the  grain 
and  its  quality  for  making  flour  will  be  greatly  modified  by  the 
soil  upon  which  it  is  grown.  Dry,  sandy  plains  furnish  the 
nicest-looking  rye.  The  grain  is  very  white,  and  the  flour 
made  from  it  looks  nearly  as  well  as  that  from  wheat.  It  is  by 
some  called  the  white  rye,  in  distinction  from  the  black  rye, 
which  is  grown  upon  heavier  soils.  But  if  seed  is  obtained 
from  these  plains  and  grown  upon  the  meadows,  quite  a  pro- 
portion of  the  product  will  be  the  ordinary  black  rye.  The 
second  year  the  change  will  be  more  strongly  marked,  and 
in  a  few  seasons  all  trace  of  the  white  rye  will  be  lost.  It  is 
possible  that  the  use  of  chemical  fertilizers  in  place  of  barn-yard- 
man u  re  would  retard  this  change. 

The  cutting  may  be  done  with  a  reaper,  or  the  rye  can  be 
cradled  by  hand.  When  the  color  of  the  straw  changes  and 
the  kernel  passes  out  of  the  milk,  it  is  time  to  cut  this  grain. 
If  free  from  weeds,  it  can  be  left  a  day  or  two  to  dry,  and  then 
bound  and  put  into  the  stack  or  the  barn.  But  if  weedy,  or 
the  weather  is  bad,  the  rye  may  be  bound  and  set  up  in 
stooks  of  ten  or  twelve  bundles  each.     Some  farmers  leave  it 

« 

out  until  they  are  ready  to  thresh  it,  but  it  is  much  better  to  be 
placed  under  cover  as  soon  as  it  is  dry. 

Rye  straw  is  very  useful  for  bedding  animals,  and  usually 
sells  higher  than  other  kinds  of  straw.  It  is  very  tough,  and 
usually  grows  quite  long.  Many  farmers  use  it  for  binding 
corn.  For  this  purpose  it  is  much  better  if  cut  before  it  is  ripe. 
It  will  be  very  strong,  but  it  will  not  hurt  the  hands  like  the 
straw  of  well-ripened  grain.  In  some  localities  rye  straw  is  in 
demand  at  paper  mills.  It  is  valuable  for  manure,  but  will  often 
sell  for  more  than  it  is  worth  for  this  purpose.     As  a  soilmg 


FARM  AND   FODDER    CROPS.  257 

crop  and  for  late  pasturing  for  sheep,  green  rye  is  a  valuable 
crop.  Rye  is  one  of  the  best  of  all  the  grain  crops  with  which 
to  get  in  grass-seed.  The  seed  should  be  sown  after  the  rye 
has  been  covered  v/ith  a  harrow,  and  then  either  bushed  in  or 
covered  with  a  heavy  roller.  On  light  land  both  the  bushing 
and  rolling  would  be  beneficial. 

Whe.\t. — This  is  one  of  the  leading  crops  not  only  of  this 
country  but  of  the  whole  civilized  world.  From  the  earliest 
ao-es  wheat  has  been  grown  as  food  for  man.  It  is  emphati- 
cally a  grain  for  the  intelligent  races.  Rice  supports  a  large 
part  of  the  vast  population  of  India  and  Chin.'^,  and  corn,  oats, 
rye  and  other  grains,  furnish  food  for  multitudes  of  the  human 
race,  but  the  fact  that  wheat  forms  one  of  the  principal  articles 
of  diet  of  the  most  powerful  and  the  most  thoroughly  civilized 
nations  of  the  earth  cannot  be  denied.  It  has  been,  and  it  will  be, 
a  leading  article  of  the  food  of  the  most  intelligent  races  of  men. 

Wheat  can  be  grown  in  a  large  variety  of  soils,  and  has  the 
power  of  adapting  itself  to  either  cold  or  warm  climates.  But  it 
finds  its  most  congenial  home  in  the  temperate  zones,  and  in  a 
rather  heavy  and  fertile  soil.  There  are  many  different  varieties. 
Some  of  these  kinds  are  more  hardy  than  others,  and  from  the 
list  of  cultivated  sorts  some  can  be  found  which  are  well 
adapted  to  any  section  of  the  United  States.  The  kinds 
which  give  the  best  results  at  the  South  arc  not  hardy  enough 
for  the  North  and  the  Northwest,  but  there  are  plenty  of 
good  varieties  which  will  do  well  in  these  sections.  By  means 
of  a  gi-adual  change  in  the  time  of  sowing,  wheat  has  been 
obtained  which  need  not  be  sown  until  spring. 

In  localities  where  it  succeeds,  winter  wheat  is  usually  con- 
sidered the  best.  It  makes  a  stronger  growth  of  straw  and 
gives  a  larger  yield  of  grain.  When  treated  in  the  ordinary 
manner  it  also  makes  nicer  flour  than  the  spring  varieties. 
But  by  the  patent  "  new  process  "  of  grinding,  the  finest  quality 
and  highest-priced  flour  is  obtained  from  spring  wheat     Many 


258  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 

of  the  winter  varieties  are  not  hardy  enough  for  the  extreme 
North.  In  unfavorable  seasons  they  "winter-kill"  badly.  This 
is  sometimes  owing  to  imperfect  preparation  of  the  land,  but 
much  of  it  is  due  to  the  tenderness  of  the  plant.  Where  the 
winters  are  long  and  severe  there  will  be  considerable  risk  in 
sowing  wheat  in  the  fall.  For  such  localities  the  spring  varieties 
are  safer  and  better  for  the  farmer  to  produce. 

Of  both  winter  and  spri^ig  wheat  there  are  many  different 
varieties.  Among  those  which  have  been  very  popular  may  be 
named  the  Diehl  and  White  Mediterranean  (white),  the  Golden 
Straw  (amber),  and  the  Mediterranean  Red,  a  red  variety.  For 
spring  wheat  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Rio  Grande  have  proved 
quite  valuable.  Among  the  later  and  probably  very  much 
better  kinds  may  be  named  the  Clawson  (white)  and  the  Fultz 
(red)  for  winter,  and  the  Champlain  and  the  Defiance  for  spring 
varieties.  Although  it  is  doubtful  if  any  variety  will  ever  be 
found  which  will  do  equally  well  in  all  sections,  it  is  probable  that 
some  one  of  the  four  kinds  last  named  can  be  made  profitable 
in  any  part  of  the  country.  The  Defiance  is  very  hardy  and 
will  succeed  at  the  extreme  North.  We  think  the  Clawson 
and  Fultz  will  both  succeed  at  the  South. 

Although  it  is  a  very  important  item,  the  securing  of  a  good 
variety  is  only  one  among  several  things  to  Avhich  the  successful 
wheat-grower  must  give  his  attention.  I\Iore  than  with  almost 
any  other  crop  the  preparation  of  the  land  is  one  of  the 
determining  influences  which  govern  the  yield  of  grain.  When 
it  gets  well  started  wheat  grows  rapidly,  but  it  is  not  a  very 
vigorous  plant,  and  cannot  fight  its  way  as  well  as  many  of  our 
cultivated  grains.  In  order  to  make  success  reasonably  certain 
it  is  necessary  that  the  land  should  be  very  carefully  fitted  to 
receive  the  seed.  If  the  soil  is  very  rich,  it  is  all  the  better.  If 
the  land  has  been  partially  exhausted,  an  abundance  of  plant- 
food  must  be  supplied.  This  food  must  be  in  a  condition  for 
immediate    use.      Coarse   manures   will   do   little   good.      The 


FARM  AND  FODDER   CROPS.  259 

•vheat  plant  is  a  delicate  feeder,  and  its  food  must  be  carefully 
■prepared.  A  large  crop  of  clover  which  has  received  a  good 
coating  of  lime  and  plaster  may  be  plowed  in  a  few  weeks 
before  the  wheat  is  sown,  and  made  to  yield  a  large  amount  of 
good  food  for  the  crop.  We  do  not  approve  of  sowing  upon  a 
clover  sod  until  it  has  got  well  settled  and  also  had  a  little  time 
in  which  to  decay.  Wheat  may  follow  corn  if  the  land  was 
made  very  rich  for  the  latter  crop,  and  it  is  removed  as  soon  as 
ripe.  In  this  case,  however,  some  chemical  fertilizer  for  wheat 
should  be  used.  In  any  and  every  case  the  land  should  be 
made  rich,  and  the  plant-food  which  it  contains  must  be  near  the 
surface.  For  this  crop  we  have  a  great  deal  of  faith  in  special 
fertilizers,  and  also  in  the  complete  manures  which  are  sent  out 
jby  the  manufacturers  of  the  special  grades.  This  because  the 
ordinary  farm-yard-manure  does  not  usually  get  fine  enough  to 
give  its  best  results  to  the  crop  to  which  it  is  directly  applied. 
Much  of  it  remains  in  the  soil  to  benefit  succeeding  crops.  Its 
efifects  are  often  visible  four  or  five  years.  When  this  alone  is 
used,  the  wheat  crop  is  not  sufificiently  nourished.  There  may  be 
food  enough  in  the  soil,  but  it  is  not  immediately  useful,  and  the 
wheat  crop  is  partially  starved.  But  chemical  manures  furnish 
an  abundance  of  food  in  a  fine  condition  and  all  ready  for  use. 
They  cost  something,  it  is  true,  but  they  often  save  the  crop. 
Take  a  corn  field  which  was  not  highly  manured  and  sow  wheat 
without  any  fertilizer.  Thousands  of  acres  are  sowed  in  this 
way  every  year.  The  result  is  that  in  moderately  favorable 
seasons  the  crop  yields  from  ten  to  fifteen,  possibly  twenty, 
bushels  per  acre.  Now  take  this  same  land  and  at  the  time  of 
sowing  apply  four  hundred  to  six  hundred  pounds  of  a  special 
wheat  fertilizer,  or  the  same  quantity  of  a  complete  fertilizer, 
costing  from  eight  to  fifteen  dollars,  and  the  yield  will  be  in- 
creased from  twenty  to  thirty  bushels  per  acre.  This  may  seem 
almost  incredible,  but  it  has  been  proved  true  by  the  experience 

of  a  large  number  of  our  best  farmers.     In  the  first  instance  the 
17 


260 


FARMING   FOR   FRO  FIT. 


crop  had  but  very  little  food  and  the  yield  was  light  In  the 
latter  the  crop  had  the  same  quantitj'  of  food  as  the  other  plan 
provided,  and,  in  the  form  of  commercial  manures,  surplus 
food  enough,  in  an  immediately  available  condition,  to  bring 
up  the  yield  to  a  high  figure.  The  application  of  ten  dollars 
worth  of  available  fertilizers  often  returns  twenty  or  thirty 
dollars  worth  of  grain. 

It  is  very  important  that  the  surface  soil  should  be  made 
extremely  fine.  Wheat  should  be  grown,  when  possible,  upon 
land  which  has  been  deeply  cultivated  and  underdrained,  but 
for  the  wheat  the  ploughing  should  be  shallow.  The  work 
should  be  well  done,  the  harrowing  should  be  very  thorough, 
and  plenty  of  plant-food  ought  to  be  furnished  near  tJic  suTface. 


FIG.  14. 


FIG.  15. 


Then  the  seed  may  be  sowed  at  the  rate  of  two  bushels  per  acre, 
if  broadcast,  and  of  from  one  and  a  fourth  to  one  and  a  half,  if 
drilled.  Figs.  14  and  15  were  designed  to  show  the  relative 
appearance  of  broadcast  and  drilled  wheat.  Fig.  16  represents 
the  Hoosier  Grain-Drill,  a  first-class  machine,  manufactured  L/ 
the  Hoosier  Drill  Company,  Richmond,  Ind. 

Too  much  stress  can  hardly  be  laid  upon  a  thorough  prepara- 
tion of  the  soil.  Under  the  common  system  of  management  all 
that  can  be  done  towards  making  the  crop  is  finished  when  the 
sowing  is  performed.  But  implements  for  the  cultivation  of 
wheat  have  been  invented,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  they  will 
soon  come  into  general  use.  By  their  use  the  average  yield 
per  acre  of  wheat  planted  in  drills  can  be  largely  increased 


FARM  AND   FODDER    CROPS. 


2G1 


The  best  time  for  sowing  wheat  depends  upon  various  circum- 
stances. When  winter  wheat  is  grown,  we  think  from  the  first 
to  the  last  of  September  at  the  North,  and  from  the  middle  of 
October  to  the  middle  of  November  at  the  South,  will  give  the 


best  results.  With  spring  wheat  it  is  important  to  get  in  the 
seed  as  early  as  the  state  of  the  weather  and  the  condition  of 
the  land  will  admit.  The  time  for  sowing  winter  wheat  is  some- 
times modified  by  the  appearance  of  the  Hessian  fly — late  sow- 


262  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

ing  being  adopted  in  order  to  avoid  the  ravages  of  this  small 
but  destructive  enemy. 

The  diseases  of  wheat  are  more  serious  than  those  to  which 
rye  is  subject.  The  most  destructive  are  smut  and  rust.  The 
former  is  a  fungoid  disease,  propagated  by  spores,  and  utterly 
ruins  all  the  wheat  plants  which  it  attacks.  The  microscopic 
plants  absorb  all  the  nutritive  juices  of  the  stalks  to  which  they 
are  attached,  and  while  preventing  the  full  development  of  the 
grains,  convert  them  into  a  highly  poisonous  substance.  As  it 
first  attacks  the  weaker  grains,  it  is  important  to  use  only  the 
largest  and  nicest  kernels  for  seed.  If  possible,  seed  should  be 
obtained  from  an  unaffected  field.  Before  sowing,  soak  the  seed 
in  very  strong  hot  brine,  stir  it  several  times,  letting  it  settle 
between,  and  skim  off  all  the  light  and  imperfect  kernels  which 
rise  to  the  top.  Then  roll  the  seed  in  slaked  lime  and  sow 
at  once.  The  rust  which  attacks  the  wheat  plant  is  also  a 
microscopic  fungus  and  often  works  an  immense  amount  of  evil. 
Winter  wheat  is  more  likely  to  suffer  from  the  attacks  of  this 
disease  than  spring  grain,  and  some  varieties  are  more  readily 
affected  than  others.  This  disease  is  also  more  likely  to  attack 
weak  plants  than  those  which  are  strong,  and  may  be  partially 
prevented  by  using  the  best  seed  from  fields  which  have  not 
been  attacked.  The  seed  should  be  put  into  brine  as  directed 
for  smut,  then  rolled  in  slaked  lime  and  sowed  at  once.  Pkof. 
Pendleton  recommends  the  use  of  a  solution  of  bluestone  (one- 
fourth  of  a  pound  to  a  bushel  of  wheat)  for  both  rust  and  smut. 
The  brine  may  be  used  first,  if  desired,  and  the  wheat  allowed 
to  remain  in  the  bluestone  solution  several  hours. 

The  insect  enemies  of  the  wheat  plant  are  very  formidable. 
They  are  members  of  the  different  classes  of  flies,  weevils,  cater- 
pillars, bugs  and  worms.  The  most  destructive  are  the  chinch- 
bug,  and  the  Hessian  fly.  The  former  resembles  the  bed-bug 
in  appearance,  and  attacks  both  wheat  and  corn.  It  begins  to 
work  on  these  crops  about  the  middle  of  June.     The  Hessian 


FARM  AND   FODDER    CROPS.  '       263 

fly  lays  its  eggs  on  the  leaves  of  the  wheat  plants  near  the  stalk, 
and  provides  for  two  or  three  broods  each  year.  The  first 
brood  appears  in  April  and  May,  the  second  in  July  and 
August,  and  sometimes  a  third  appears  in  October.  In  from 
four  to  ten  days  after  the  eggs  are  deposited  upon  the  leaves 
the  maggots  appear,  and  work  down  the  leaf  between  the  sheath 
and  the  stem  to  a  joint.  Here  they  attach  themselves  to  the 
stalk,  and  live  upon  the  juices  of  the  plant.  Sometimes  several 
of  these  maggots  attack  the  same  joint,  and  weaken  it  so  that 
the  plant  breaks  down  at  this  place.  The  maggot  increases  in 
size,  passes  into  the  pupa  state,  and  comes  out  a  fly  about  the 
first  of  _  August.  Such  a  drain  upon  the  plant  proves  very 
injurious,  and  it  often  happens  that  crops  are  utterly  ruined 
thereby.  The  various  remedies  are  late  sowing,  pasturing  the 
wheat,  mowing,  rolling,  and  burning  the  stubble.  If  the  sowing 
is  deferred  until  the  fly  has  laid  its  eggs,  the  wheat  escapes  the 
first  brood;  but  wheat  put  in  very  late  seldom  gets  a  good 
start,  and  is  quite  likely  to  winter-kill.  If  sheep  enough  are 
turned  into  the  field  to  eat  down  the  grain  in  one  or  two  days, 
most  bf  the  eggs  will  be  destroyed.  Mowing  the  tops  and 
feeding  them  to  stock  does  much  to  keep  the  eggs  from 
hatching.  Rolling  crushes  many  of  the  eggs.  Burninfy  the 
stubble  in  the  summer,  as  soon  as  the  grain  is  cut,  is  a  still 
more  efficient  remedy.  But  all  of  these  methods  have  their 
disadvantages,  and  none  of  them  furnish  absolute  protection. 
The  grower  should  make  the  land  very  rich,  and  give  the  grain 
every  possible  advantage  in  order  that  it  may  make  a  vigorous 
growth,  and  be  able  not  only  to  support  the  insects  which  prey 
upon  it,  but  also  to  become  fully  developed,  and  yield  a  good 
crop  in  spite  of  their  depredations.  Prof.  Cook,  of  the  Michi- 
gan Agricultural  College,  in  a  lecture  upon  this  subject,  said 
that  the  flies  will  lay  their  eggs  upon  the  first  suitable  plants 
which  they  can  find  after  they  are  ready  to  lay.  If  they  can 
find  none  which  they  think  will  answer  the  purpose,  they  will 


2(j4  lAKMING    FOR  PROFIT. 

wait  a  while.  He  rccomnioads  the  sowing  of  "  a  narrow  strip  of 
wheat  about  each  field  in  August  or  early  in  September,  and  to 
put  off,  as  long  as  the  season  permits,  sowing  the  wheat  that  is 
to  be  raised.  Most  of  the  eggs  will  then  be  laid  upon  this  early 
wheat,  which  should  be  plowed  under  deeply  as  soon  as  the 
later  wheat  is  planted.  This  outer  strip  may  then  be  sowed 
again."  This  seems  the  best  plan  which  has  yet  been  proposed 
for  raving  the  wheat,  and  destroying  the  fly  at  the  same  time. 
In  case  the  insects  appear  in  the  spring,  resort  must  be  had  to 
pasturing  with  sheep,  or  mowing  and  removing  the  tops. 
These  precautions,  in  connection  with  careful  selection  of  seed, 
the  choice  of  the  strong  growing  varieties  which  stool  .largely, 
and  high  manuring,  will  usually  enable  the  farmer  to  grow  a 

^  good  crop  of  wheat  in  spite 
of  its  insect  enemies. 

Until    quite    recently,   no 
effort  has  been  made  in  this 
country    to    cultivate    wheat 
during     the    period    of    its 
FIG.I7.-TRAVIS'  WHEAT-HOE  AND  SEEDER,  growth.       But    a    few    ycars 

ago  Mr.  A.  B.  Travis,  of  Brandon,  Michigan,  invented  a 
machine  for  doing  this  work,  which  seems  destined  to  prove 
quite  useful  where  the  seod  is  put  in  with  drills.  In  Fig.  17, 
we  present  an  illustration  of  this  implement  combined  as  a 
seeder  and  hoe.  The  teeth  and  arms  of  the  hoe  are  attached  to 
the  head  by  means  of  clips,  and  can  easily  be  attached  to  any 
make  of  drill,  and  adjusted  to  any  width  of  row.  It  is  claimed 
that  the  use  of  this  machine  will  prevent  lodging  of  the  grain, 
and  will  largely  increase  the  quantity  of  the  crop.  Many 
practical  farmers  have  tested  this  hoe,  and  been  highly  pleased 
with  its  work.  It  has  also  received  diplomas  at  various  State 
Fairs,  and  at  the  Centennial  E.\position. 

The    different   varieties    of  wheat   will    mix    very   readily  if 
planted  near  each  other,  and  the  mixture  almost  always  proves 


FARM  AND   FODDER    CROPS.  265 

injurious  to  the  character  of  the  grain.  If  two  kinds  are  grown, 
they  should  be  in  different  and  distant  fields.  The  variety 
which  seems  the  best  adapted  to  the  climate,  soil,  and  culti-" 
vation  which  can  be  given,  should  be  selected,  and  not  only  be 
kept  strictly  pure,  but  an  effort  should  be  made  to  improve  it 
The  wheat  for  seed  should  be  grown  in  a  plot  set  aside  for  the 
purpose,  and  should  have  the  best  care  and  most  skilful  culture 
which  the  owner  can  bestow.  From  the  yield  of  this  plot,  the 
largest  and  nicest  grains  should  be  selected  for  the  seed  of  the 
next  season's  crop.  It  is  some  work  to  do  this,  but  it  will  pay 
well  to  give  it  attention.  A  difference  of  several  bushels  per 
acre  in  the  yield  is  often  made  by  a  difference  in  the  seed. 
With  the  best  land,  the  best  fertilizers,  and  the  greatest  care,  a 
large  crop  of  wheat  cannot  be  grown  from  inferior  seed.  But 
give  these  things,  and  good  seed  in  addition,  and  large  and 
profitable  crops  will  be  regularly  secured. 

Harvesting  must  be  done  when  the  straw  near  the  ground  has 
turned  yellow  and  the  interior  of  the  kernels  has  passed  from 
the  milk  into  the  dough  state.  If  cut  before  this  time  the  straw 
will  be  more  valuable  for  fodder,  but  the  grain  will  shrink  and 
give  small  measure  and  light  weight.  If  it  stands  later,  the  straw 
will  become  hard  and  the  grain  will  shell  easily  and  be  wasted 
in  the  field.  If  only  a  few  acres  are  grown,  the  wheat  can  be  cut 
by  hand,  but  large  fields  should  be  cut  with  a  reaper;  Figure 
1 8  represents  W.  A.  Wood's  Sweep-Rake  Reaper.  Figure  19 
shows  his  splendid  Self-Binding  Harvester. 

It  is  better  to  hire  a  reaper,  if  one  is  not  owned,  than  to 
attempt  the  cutting  of  a  large  field  by  hand.  For  the  hand 
v/ork  will  inevitably  be  slow,  and,  while  it  is  going  on,  much  of 
the  grain  will  get  over-ripe  and  quite  a  loss  will  thus  be  sus- 
tained. When  cut,  the  grain  should  be  bound  and  either 
stacked  or,  if  only  a  little  is  grown,  drawn  to  the  barn.  Some 
farmers  prefer  to  put  it  in  small  stooks.  If  the  grain  is  full  of 
green  weeds,  or  is  not  well  ripened,  this  is  the  best  way.     Other- 


FAJiM  AND  FODDER   CROPS.  267 

wise  it  may  be  stored  in  larger  quantities.  Of  late  the  practice 
of  threshing  from  the  shock  and  hauling  the  grain  to  market  has 
come  into  favor  with  a  large  class  of  farmers.  In  some  seasons 
this  appears  to  be  the  best  method,  but,  after  ripening  in  a  very 
warm  and  rainy  time,  the  grain  should  be  stacked  and  go 
through  what  is  ordinarily  called  the  "  sweat."  When  wheat  is 
stacked,  the  straw  and  grain  will  soon  become  damp  and  con- 
siderable heat  will  be  evolved.  During  this  stage  the  grain  can- 
not well  be  threshed,  as  it  sticks  very  closely  to  the  straw.  After 
a  few  days  the  "  sweat "  is  over  and  both  grain  and  straw  become 
dry.  It  will  then  be  found  that  the  color  of  the  kernel  has 
undergone  a  change,  and  that  it  is  larger  in  size  than  it  was  when 
the  grain  was  stacked.  The  berry  has  absorbed  nutritive  matter 
from  the  stalk  and  will  make  better  flour,  and  probably  a  larger 
quantity,  than  it  would  if  it  had  not  been  stacked.  And  by 
brightening  the  color  of  the  grain  the  sweating  will  add  from 
three  to  ten  cents  a  bushel  to  the  selling  price. 

Whether  to  sell  the  grain  at  once  or  hold  for  higher  prices  is 
a  question  which,  like  the  same  one  concerning  other  crops,  the 
farmer  must  decide  for  himself.  No  speculation  should  be 
attempted  and  no  risk  should  be  run  in  hope  of  a  better  market. 
Still,  wheat  is  a  standard  crop,  and,  with  the  exception  of  tem- 
porary gluts,  will  always  be  in  demand.  If  the  owner  can  hold 
it  without  too  great  inconvenience  it  will  not  be  best  to  sell 
extremely  low  unless  there  .is  good  reason  to  believe  that  the 
depression  in  price  will  be  permanent.  But  when  a  fair  price  is 
offered  for  the  crop  it  is  usually  better  to  sell  it  than  to  carry  it 
along. 

The  Planted  Crops  embrace  a  larger  number  than  the  pre- 
ceding class.  Several  of  them  are  of  immense  value  to  the 
growers  and  hold  a  high  rank  among  our  national  productions. 

First,  in  the  alphabetical  arrangement,  we  will  consider  Beans 
as  a  farm  crop.  Though  not  very  extensively  grown  for  export, 
large  quantities  of  beans  are  used  by  our  own  people.     They 


268 


FARMING  I- OR   I'KOFIT. 


form  a  very  nourisliing  article  of  diet,  and  are  among  the  cheapest 
kinds  of  food  which  the  farmer  can  produce.  At  the  same  time 
they  are  very  easily  grown,  and  can  be  furnished  at  a  profit  for  a 


price  which  makes  them  one  of  the  best  kinds  of  food  for  the 
consumer  to  obtain.  They  are  the  best  known  substitute  for 
animal  food.  The  kinds  of  field  beans  in  general  cultivation  are 
the  small  white,  the  kidney,  and  the  marrow.     The  former  is 


FARM  AND   FODDER    CROPS.  269 

very  small,  ripens  early,  yields  well,  and  can  be  kept  a  long 
time.  The  kidney  bean  is  larger  and  better,  but  is  not  as  early 
and  does  not  yield  as  well.  The  marrow  is  a  large,  round,  and 
very  fine-looking  bean,  of  as  good  quality  as  any,  commands  a 
high  price  in  market,  yields  pretty  well,  but  requires  considerable 
time  in  which  to  mature. 

This  crop  grows  the  best  on  a  light,  warm,  or  sandy  soil,  but 
it  can  be  successfully  cultivated  on  land  containing  a  large 
quantity  of  organic  matter.  On  heavy  soils  it  is  inclined  to  run 
to  vines.  The  same  is  true,  if  barn-yard-manure  is  used.  We 
have  applied  superphosphate  of  lime  to  this  crop  with  excellent 
results.  Prof.  Stockbridge  recommends  the  use  of  fifty-three 
pounds  of  nitrogen,  thirty-three  pounds  of  actual  potash,  and 
twenty  pounds  of  soluble  phosphoric  acid  per  acre,  and  expects 
a  return  of  twenty  bushels  of  beans  more  than  the  natural  yield 
of  the  land. 

When  planted  alone,  beans  may  be  either  in  hills  or  drills.  It 
is  an  open  question  which  is  the  best.  We  have  tried  both  and 
can  grow  a  good  crop  in  either  way.  Hills  may  be  one  and  a 
half  to  two  feet  apart,  and  eight  plants  may  be  left  in  a  hill. 
Rows  should  be  three  feet  apart.  Drills  should  be  the  same 
distance  apart,  and  the  plants  must  not  be  too  thick.  Nearly  all 
the  cultivation  should  be  given  with  a  cultivator  or  horse-hoe. 
This  crop  should  never  be  cultivated  when  wet  with  either  dew 
or  rain.  If  the  vines  make  an  excessive  growth,  the  ends  may 
be  cut  with  sheep-shears,  or  a  sharp  corn-knife.  We  have  cut 
the  vines  twice  in  one  season.  This  hastens  the  maturity  of  the 
crop.  Beans  should  not  be  planted  until  all  danger  of  frost  has 
passed  in  the  spring,  and  should  be  harvested  before  the  slightest 
frost  appears  in  autumm.  Better  harvest  the  crop  before  it  is 
ripe,  than  to  allow  it  to  be  frosted.  The  plants  are  usually 
pulled  by  hand.  All  the  dirt  should  be  shaken  from  the  roots. 
If  the  weather  is  fine,  the  vines  should  be  spread  on  the  ground 
and  allowed  to  dry  for  two  or  three  days.     During  this  time 


270  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 

ihey  may  be  turned  over,  if  necessary.  If  they  were  nearly 
ripe,  they  will  soon  be  ready  to  go  to  the  barn.  If  quite  green, 
or  the  weather  is  foul,  they  must  be  put  up  in  small  stacks  in  the 
field.  These  stacks  may  be  made  as  follows :  Set  two  stakes, 
each  five  feet  long,  in  the  ground  about  two  and  a  half  feet  apart 
Between  these  stakes  lay  a  block  of  wood,  a  large  stone,  or  a 
pumpkin,  and  upon  it  lay  the  beans,  with  the  roots  in  the  centre. 
When  the  stakes  are  three-quarters  full,  they  should  be  tied  with 
a  cord  or  wire,  to  prevent  spreading  apart.  Then  they  may  be 
filled  to  the  top  with  vines.  If  beans  are  well  put  up  in  this  form, 
they  will  dry  rapidly.  In  two  weeks  thp  vines  may  be  spread 
out  to  the  sun  a  few  hours,  and  then  drawn  to  the  barn. 

As  beans  heat  very  easily,  and  heating  proves  a  great  injury, 
it  is  important  that  they  should  be  very  dry  when  packed  away. 
It  is  a  good  plan  to  spread  them  thinly  on  a  scaffold,  or  over 
the  great  beams.  Or,  if  well  dried  before  they  come  to  the 
barn,  they  may  be  threshed  at  once.  This  should  be  done  with 
wooden  flails.  The  beans  should  then  be  run  through  a  fannincr- 
mill  and  spread  thinly  in  a  dr)-  and  moderately  cool  place.  If 
they  have  been  carefully  grown  and  harvested,  they  will  be  very 
free  from  imperfect  specimens.  Still,  a  few  discolored  beans 
will  be  found  in  almost  every  lot.  These  should  be  picked  out. 
The  work  can  be  done  some  rainy  day,  or  as  odd  jobs,  when  it 
will  not  prove  a  great  expense.  It  will  pay  well,  for  a  pint  of 
discolored  beans  in  a  bushel  of  nice  ones  will  make  the  whole 
lot  look  badly,  and  reduce  the  selling  price  at  least  twenty  pe) 
cent.  If  the  curing  will  be  carefully  done,  beans  may  be  pulled 
when  quite  green.  They  will  be  small,  but  very  white,  and  the 
vines  will  make  good  fodder  for  sheep.  If  there  is  no  danger 
of  frost,  the  crop  should  be  allowed  to  ripen,  but  it  should  never 
be  sacrificed  to  a  frost  because  it  is  not  fully  grown. 

This  is  very  often  grown  as  a  "stolen  crop."  We  do  not 
recommend  the  practice,  but  we  sometimes  plant  beans  between 
the  hills  of  corn.     One  of  our  neighbors  planted  six  quarts  of 


FAUM  AND  FODDER    CROPS.  271 

beans  in  this  way  last  spring,  and  has  harvested  about  three  and 
a  half  bushels.  The  planting  cost  nothing,  as  it  was  done  with 
a  machine  when  the  corn  was  covered.  A  large  part  of  the  cul- 
tivation was  done  by  horse-power.  The  harvesting  required  but 
little  time,  and  the  actual  cost  of  the  beans  was  very  light. 

In  a  few  of  the  central  States  the  castor  bean  is  cultivated  to 
a  limited  extent.  This  is  a  tropical  plant,  and  does  not  succeed 
well  at  the  North.  It  should  be  grown  in  rich  soils  and  receive 
similar  cultivation  to  the  corn  crop.  The  plants  grow  five  or  six 
feet  high,  and  yield  twenty-five  or  thirty  bushels  of  beans  per 
acre.  This  crop  can  only  be  made  to  pay  where  both  climate 
and  soil  are  favorable,  and  where  there  is  a  mill  in  the  vicinity 
at  which  the  beans  can  be  used.  We  have  seen  the  plants 
growing  as  curiosities  in  Massachusetts  and  Michigan,  and  for 
this  use  they  answered  very  well.  For  profit  they  must  be 
grown  farther  South. 

Broom  Corn. — This  is  a  variety  of  the  Sorghum,  but  having 
been  grown  for  a  long  period  with  direct  reference  to  the  length 
and  fineness  of  the  seed-bearing  stems,  and  without  regard  to 
the  sweetness  of  the  juice,  its  appearance  is  very  different  from 
that  of  the  Northern  sugar  cane.  The  cultuVe  of  this  crop 
was  formerly  confined  almost  wholly  to  New  England,  but  has 
now  become  very  extensive  at  the  West.  In  some  localities 
this  is  a  valuable  crop.  Where  the  seed  ripens  well  and  a  good 
quality  of  brush  can  be  obtained,  the  two  products  are  quite 
profitable.  At  the  extreme  North  the  season  is  too  short  to 
admit  of  the  ripening  of  the  seed.  Many  Western  growers, 
who  make  a  specialty  of  the  finest  brush,  do  not  allow  the  seed 
to  get  ripe.  As  there  is  always  a  demand  for  the  brush,  as  no 
substitute  has  been  found  therefor,  and  as  it  can  be  grown 
without  great  expense,  it  is  a  very  safe  crop  for  the  farmer  to 
produce. 

This  crop  is  not  confined  to  any  particular  kind  of  soil,  and 
has   considerable    power  of   adaptation   to   different    climates. 


272  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

Any  land  which  is  reasonably  warm  and  dry  can  be  made  to 
yield  a  fair  crop.  We  have  seen  it  growing  on  a  gravel  knoll, 
and  also  in  a  reclaimed  swamp.  It  succeeds  in  the  sandy  loams 
of  the  river  bottoms  of  the  older-settled  States,  and  the  fertile 
prairies  of  the  West. 

Unless  the  land  is  quite  rich,  fertilizers  must  be  used.  Any 
good  manure,  which  is  fine  and  well  rotted,  will  answer. 
Plaster  often  proves  a  great  help.  Guano  is  much  better. 
Ashes  give  good  returns.  The  manure  may  be  applied  broad- 
cast if  something  is  used  in  the  hills  to  give  the  plants  a  strong 
and  early  start.  The  preparation  of  the  land  should  be  similar 
to  that  which  good  farmers  make  for  their  corn.  The  rows 
maybe  from  three  to  four  feet  apart.  If  a  large  variety  is  grown, 
on  a  rich  soil,  four  feet  is  near  enough.  The  seed  may  be 
scattered  along  in  drills,  or  planted  in  hills  three  feet  apart.  As 
the  seed  is  very  small  and  weak,  a  large  quantity  is  usually  put 
in  a  hill.  Many  farmers  put  in  enough  to  make  from  seventy- 
five  to  a  hundred  plants.  If  good  seed  is  obtained,  as  it  always 
should  be,  twenty  seeds  in  a  liill  are  enough.  The  planting 
should  be  done  when  the  soil  is  ^ry  and  warm,  and  all  danger 
of  frost  has  passed.  The  seed  should  be  put  in  as  soon  as  the 
land  is  prepared,  in  order  that  the  moisture  of  the  newly 
cultivated  soil  may  hasten  its  germination.  At  the  West,  corn- 
planting  machines  and  wheat-drills  are  used  for  getting  in  this 
seed,  but  in  New  En"gl.\nd  the  work  is  generally  dene  by  hand. 
Two  quarts  of  good  seed  is  sufficient  for  an  acre.  If  much  of 
the  seed  is  imperfect,  a  larger  quantity  should  be  used.  As  the 
young  plants  are  very  weak,  we  consider  excessive  seeding  not 
only  useless  and  wasteful,  but  decidedly  injurious.  The  first 
hoeing  should  be  given  when  the  plants  are  small,  as  stirring  the 
soil  will  tend  to  promote  their  growth,  and  hoeing  will  also 
Iceep  down  the  weeds,  which  are  deadly  enemies  to  this  crop 
while  in  its  early  stages.  For  use  in  cultivating  this  crop  v.e 
consider    Prout's    Hoeing    Machine   (Fig.   20),   made    by   the 


FARM  AND   FODDER    CROPS. 


273 


Belcher  &  Taylor  Agricultural  Tool  Co.,  Chicopee  Falls, 
Massachusetts,  decidedly  the  best  of  anything  ^\'hich  we  have 
seen  or  of  which  we  have  been  informed.  At  the  first  or  second 
hoeing  the  thinning,  which  is  the  worst  part  of  the  work  of 
growing  this  crop,  should  be  done.  From  four  to  six  stalks 
should  be  left  in  a  hill.  If  in  drills,  the  stalks  should  be  left 
three  or  four  inches  apart.  The  Dwarf  variety  will  bear  rather 
closer  planting  than  the  Early  Mohawk,  and  this  can  be  grown 
closer  than  the  Missouri  Evergreen,  which  frequently  reaches  a 
height  of  fifteen  feet.  The  crop  should  be  kept  clean  during 
the  whole  season,  and  will  be  benefited  by  an  occasional  stiiring 
of  the  soil. 


The  time  for  harvesting  will  depend  upon  the  use  to  be 
made  of  the  product.  If  the  brush  only  is  wanted,  the  cutting 
should  be  done  as  soon  as  the  blossoms  begin  to  fall.  This 
will  secure  brush  of  a  green  color.  If  allowed  to  stand  a  few 
days  longer,  the  brush  will  have  a  reddish  cast,  and  will  lose 
somewhat  in  weight.  As  the  green  brush  sells  much  higher 
than  the  red,  it  is  an  object  to  secure  the  crop  when  it  will  retain 
this  color.  The  Dwarf  corn  is  harvested  by  pulling  the  brush 
out  of  the  sheath  by  which  it  is  surrounded.  This  must  be 
dor\z  with  a  sharp  jerk,  and  is  said  to  be  a  very  disagreeable 
operation.  The  taller  kinds  are  "tabled."  This  operation 
"consists  in  breaking  down  the  stalks  of  two  rows  towards  one 


274  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

another,  diagonally,  so  that  the  stalks  of  one  row  will  cross 
those  of  the  cfther,  and  thus  form  a  sort  of  platform  or  table 
with  the  tops  projectinrj  about  a  foot  on  each  side."  This  is 
necessary  with  the  tall  varieties,  as  it  would  be  impossible  to  cut 
the  brush  without  first  bringing  it  nearer  the  ground  than  it 
grew.  The  stalks  are  broken  over  at  a  height  of  about  two  and 
a  half  feet  from  the  ground.  Each  two  rows  are  tabled  in  the 
manner  above  described,  thus  leaving  a  space  in  which  the 
cutters  can  work  between  the  tables. 

The  brush  can  be  cut  with  a  common  shoe-knife,  and  should 
be  laid  in  small  bunches  upon  the  tables.  No  leaves  should  be 
left  on  and  only  eight  inches  of  the  stalk.  If  exposed  to  the 
sun,  the  brush  will  have  a  tinge  of  red,  even  though  it  may  be 
quite  green  when  cut.  Consequently  the  curing  should  be  done 
under  cover.  Exposure  also  injures  the  quality  of  the  brush  and 
makes  it  more  liable  to  break  when  used.  If  only  a  small 
quantity  is  produced,  it  can  be  cured  in  a  loft  over  a  shed  or  on  a 
scaffold  in  the  barn.  If  a  large  area  is  grown,  a  drying  house 
must  be  built,  or  some  existing  structure  fitted  up  for  the 
purpose.  The  roof  should  be  tight,  but  many  of  the  boards 
used  for  covering  the  sides  should  be  hung  on  hinges,  so  that 
they  can  be  opened  whenever  a  free  circulation  of  air  is  desired. 
The  interior  of  this  building  should  be  fitted  with  a  large 
number  of  racks  upon  which  the  brush  can  be  spread  to  dry. 
The  floors  of  these  racks  should  be  made  of  narrow  strips  of 
boards,  with  spaces  between,  in  order  to  admit  the  air  freely. 
The  brush  should  be  spread  very  thinly.  There  should  be  a 
space  of  six  or  eight  inches  between  these  floors.  The  ven- 
tilating doors  should  be  kept  open  in  fine  weather,  but  should 
always  be  closed  in  a  storm. 

When  large  quantities  of  green  brush  are  produced,  the  seed 
must  be  removed  before  the  crop  is  stored  in  the  drying  house. 
This  can  be  done  with  a  threshing  machine  by  holding  the 
heads  to  the  cylinder,  but  not  allowing  the  brush  to  be  drawn 


FARM  AXD   FODDER    CROPS.  275 

through,  or  by  a  machine  made  for  this  purpose.  The  seed 
being  undeveloped  is  of  but  vjry  Httle  value  for  anything  except 
manure.  If  only  a  little  brush  is  grown,  the  seed  can  be  taken 
off  by  drawing  the  heads  through  a  "scraper"  made  of  three 
pieces  of  flexible  iron,  about  a  foot  and  a  half  in  length,  set  in  a 
frame  of  convenient  height,  spreading  a  few  inches  at  the  top, 
and  coming  nearly  together  at  the  bottom.  This  we  have 
found  very  disagreeable  work.  As  there  is  something  poi- 
sonous about  the  dust  and  seed,  it  is  extremely  bad  work  for 
the  eyes,  and  any  one  having  any  tendency  to  inflammation,  or 
any  soreness  of  the  eyes,  should  avoid  it  altogether. 

If  the  grower  does  not  care  for  very  fine  brush,  but  wishes  to 
obtain  a  crop  of  seed,  he  should  not  cut  the  tops  until  the  seed 
is  fully  developed.  Unless  it  is  very  ripe,  which  in  the 
Northern  States  it  is  not  likely  to  be,  the  brush  should  dry  a*, 
while  before  the  seed  is  removed.  Some  growers  do  not  sepa- 
rate it  until  winter.  The  quality  of  the  brush  upon  which 
seed  has  ripened  will  not  be  first-rate,  and  its  appearance  will  be 
decidedly  inferior,  but  a  good  crop  of  seed  is  worth  consider- 
able for  feeding  to  hogs,  cattle  and  sheep.  It  should  always  be 
mixed  with  some  of  the  common  grains  before  it  is  ground.. 
When  mixed  with  corn,  it  is  said  to  be  as  nutritious  as  an. 
equal  quantity  of  oats.  As  it  is  liable  to  heat,  it  should  be 
thoroughly  dried  before  being  put  in  bins.  After  the  scraping 
is  done,  the  brush  can  be  bound  into  convenient  sized  bundles 
and  stored  in  a  shed,  or  barn,  until  wanted  for  use,  or  to  carry 
to  market. 

The   quality  and  profit  of  this  crop  depend  very  much  upon 

the  character  of  the  seed.     The  veiy  best  quality  of  thoroughly 

ripened  seed  should  be  obtained  for  planting.     In  growing  seed 

for  planting,  the  highest  culture  should  be  given.     It  should  be 

started  early  in  order  that  it   may  get  thoroughly  ripe,  and  it 

should  not  be  grown  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Chinese  sugar  cane, 

Doura  corn,  or  near  any  other  variety  of  the   genuine  broom. 
18 


276  FARMING   FOR    PROFIT. 

corn.  As  this  plant  mixes  very  easily  with  several  somewhat 
similar  productions,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  for  the  securing 
of  pure  seed  that  the  plants  grown  for  this  purpose  should  be 
strictly  kept  by  themselves. 

Coffee. — This  is  a  product  of  warm  climates,  and  in  this 
countr)'  can  be  grown  successfully  only  at  the  extreme  South. 
It  is  said  to  flourish  in  the  peninsula  of  Florid.\.  Probably  it 
would  succeed  in  Southern  Tex.vs  and  C.\liforni.\.  Farmers 
in  these  sections  may  do  well  to  experiment  with  this  crop. 
The  plants  should  be  allowed  to  attain  a  height  of  only  five  or 
six  feet.  By  cutting  down  to  this  level  the  production  of  fruit 
will  be  increased,  and  it  can  be  easily  gathered.  Plants  should 
stand  in  rows  five  feet  apart  each  way,  and  the  land  should  be 
kept  free  from  grass  and  weeds.  At  three  years  of  age,  they 
should  produce  fruit;  at  five,  come  into  full  bearing;  and  for 
twenty  years  thereafter,  yield  two  and  a  half  pounds  of  coffee 
per  plant. 

Cotton. — This  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  all  of  our  culti- 
vated  plants.  It  was  known  in  the  early  ages  of  the  world,  and 
was  used  to  some  extent  by  the  ancients.  As  far  back  as  the 
commencement  of  the  Christian  era  cotton  was  one  of  the 
articles  of  commerce. 

The  cotton  plant  is  a  native  of  warm  climates,  and  will  succeed 
in  no  others.  Indi.\  was  formerly  the  principal  source  of  supply, 
but  during  the  past  century  the  Southern  States  have  taken 
the  first  rank  in  its  production.  Early  in  the  history  of  our 
country  the  plant  was  found  growing  wild  in  the  Mississippi 
Vallev.  Its  seed  was  planted  by  the  early  settlers,  and  it  was 
long  cultivated  as  a  garden  plant.  In  1748  the  first  export  of 
cotton  from  this  country'  of  which  we  have  either  "  record  or 
tradition "  was  made  from  Charleston,  South  Carolin.\. 
It  was  a  small  beginning — only  seven  bags  being  sent  out,  but 
the  business  rapidly  grew  in  importance  until  cotton  became  the 
leading   crop   for   export,    and    brought   a   hundred   and   fifty 


FARM  AND   FODDER   CROPS.  27*7 

millions  of  dollars  per  year  into  the  Southern  States.  It  is  said 
that  in  the  early  years  of  its  production,  a  planter  once  obtained 
fifteen  small  bales  of  cotton  from  five  acres  of  land,  and  declared 
that  he  had  done  with  cotton,  for  he  had  already  grown 
"  enough  to  make  stockings  for  all  the  people  of  America." 
But  his  fear  of  an  over-supply  proved  groundless,  and  in  i860 
the  United  States  consumed  more  than  one  hundred  and 
thirty-six  millions  of  dollars  worth  of  cotton  goods.  It  has  gen- 
erally been  supposed  that  the  amount  of  cotton  produced  in  this 
country  has  greatly  diminished  since  1859,  but  recent  statistics 
prove  that,  with  the  exception  of  a  single  year,  three  crops 
grown  since  1869  were  larger  than  any  three  which  had  been 
produced  before.  The  culture  has  been  carried  on  in  a  different 
manner.  The  crop  is  grown  on  smaller  areas,  and  by  a  larger 
number  of  planters.  But  the  better  culture,  the  use  of 
manures,  the  practice  of  rotating  cotton  with  other  crops,  and 
the  greater  care  in  selecting  the  seed,  have  caused  the  produc- 
tion of  larger  crops  than  the  planters  themselves  supposed 
could  be  obtained.  This  is  a  very  gratifying  result.  It  shows 
the  importance  of  thorough  culture,  and  proves  that  cotton  can 
be  made  not  only  one  of  the  leading  but  also  one  of  the  most 
profitable  crops  which  can  be  grown  at  the  South. 

Although  cotton  requires  a  warm  climate  for  its  perfection,  it 
is  possible  to  grow  it  considerably  farther  North  than  has  yet 
been  attempted  on  a  large  scale.  In  favorable  seasons,  and 
when  very  carefully  cultivated  in  sheltered  locations,  this  crop 
has  been  fairly  successful  as  far  North  as  Missouri  at  the 
West  and  Delaware  at  the  East.  But  when  grown  in  these 
extreme  points  it  is  very  liable  to  failure,  and  its  cultivation  will 
not  generally  prove  successful.  The  cost  of  growing  at  the 
South  will  certainly  be  much  less  than  it  will  farther  North, 
while  in  its  natural  home  there  is,  with  anything  approaching 
good  cultivation,  no  danger  of  failure.  We  do  not  think  its  cul- 
ture is  to  be  recommended  farther  North  than  North  Caro- 


278  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

LiNA  and  Tennessee.  Even  if  it  could,  by  dint  of  the  most 
careful  culture,  be  made  to  grow  fairly  a  little  beyond  this  line, 
there  are  other  crops  which  are  suited  to  the  soil  and  climate 
which  it  will  pay  the  farmer  a  great  deal  better  to  produce. 
Here,  as  well  as  in  all  other  things,  the  man  who  tries  to  oppose 
nature  works  at  a  great  disadvantage.  If  the  farmer  selects 
crops  which  are  adapted  to  his  surroundings,  nature  will  help 
him  produce  them ;  but  if  he  takes  those  which  belong 
elsewhere,  he  will  not  only  have  all  the  difficulties  with  which 
the  farmer  who  grows  them  in  their  own  home  has  to  contend 
but  also  the  extra  labor  of  overcoming  the  natural  influences 
which  are  opposed  to  their  development.  Prof.  Pendleton 
thinks  that  North  of  the  thirty-fourth  degree  of  latitude  the 
seasons  are  too  short  to  give  uniform  success  witli  the  cotton- 
plant,  while  South  of  the  thirty-first  degree  the  seasons  are  so 
wet  and  insects  so  abundant  that  the  cost  of  culture  will  be 
largely  increased,  while  its  results  must  be  quite  uncertain. 

In  the  tropics  cotton  is  a  perennial  plant,  and,  in  some  places, 
it  becomes  a  small  tree.  But  in  this  country-  it  is  killed  by  the 
frost  each  winter,  and  long  periods  of  cultivation  have  fixed  a 
tendency  to  produce  seeds  and  staple  rather  than  wood.  Here 
it  grows  only  as  an  herb,  but  b}'  good  culture  it  can  be  made  to 
produce  a  large  number  of  bolls  and  yield  a  large  quantity  of 
staple.  There  are  various  varieties  and  sub-varieties  of  the 
cotton  plant.  But  the  changes  caused  by  difference  in  climate 
and  cultivation  are  probably  the  cause  of  many  of  the  differences 
.  which  have  now  become  fixed,  and  which  have  made  a  great 
deal  of  trouble  for  the  botanists  to  classify  and  describe. 
Though  there  is  a  difference  in  the  color  of  the  seed,  and  there 
are  many  different  names,  it  is  probable  that  whatever  superiority 
one  kind  of  upland  cotton  may  have  over  another  is  principally 
due  to  more  careful  culture  and  greater  pains  in  selecting  seed. 
The  Sea  Island  cotton  is,  of  course,  confined  to  low,  moist  land, 
and  is  not  adapted  to  general  cultivation. 


FARM  AND  FODDER    CROPS.  279 

But  though  the  natural  difference  in  upland  cotton  may  not 
be  as  great  as  has  been  supposed,  it  is  a  matter  of  importance 
for  the  farmer  to  obtain  the  very  finest  seed  which  he  can  secure 
of  some  sort  which  is  adapted  to  the  quality  of  the  land  which 
he  cultivates.  It  makes  a  great  difference  with  the  yield  and 
value  of  the  crop  whether  common  seed  is  used  or  that  from  a 
very  prolific  kind.  We  can  readily  understand  why  so  many 
farmers  have  but  little  faith  in  improved  cotton  seed.  There 
have  been  so  many  varieties  of  seed  sold  for  extremely  high 

'  prices  which  proved  far  inferior  to  the  claim  made  for  them,  that 
it  is  not  strange  that  the  advertisement  of  any  new  kind  of  seed 
is  quite  generally  regarded  as  a  speculation.  But  we  cannot 
believe  that  the  conclusion  to  which  many  growers  have  arrived 
that  "  one  kind  of  seed  is  as  good  as  another  "  is  correct.  On 
the  contrary  we  assert,  both  on  general  principles  and  also  as 
the  lesson  of  many  careful  experiments,  that  the  use  of  the  best 
seed  (not  always  the  seed  which  sells  for  extravagant  prices) 
will  largely  increase  the  quantity  and  value  of  the  crop.  With 
this,  as  with  all  other  crops  grown  from  seed,  the  finest  seed, 
of  the  best  varieties  adapted  to  the  circumstances  in  which  they 
are  to  be  grown,  will  certainly  produce  the  best  paying  crop. 

If  properly  managed,  the  cotton  plant  will  thrive  on  quite  a 
variety  of  soils.  The  best  kinds  for  upland  cotton  are  said  to  be 
clay  loam  and  silicious  soil  on  a  clay  subsoil.  On  sandy  soils, 
underlaid  by  sandstone  or  limestone  rocks,  and  also  on  rich 
bottom  land,  the  cotton  plant  can  be  made  quite  productive. 
Other  soils  can  be  made  to  grow  cotton  if  they  are  properly 
treated ;    but    land    containing    large    quantities    of    vegetable 

•  matter  which  is  not  thoroughly  decomposed,  and  in  which  the 
mineral  elements  are  deficient,  is  not  at  all  adapted  to  the  crop, 
and  should  not  be  selected  for  its  production. 

Cotton  has  a  long  tap-root  which  penetrates  the  subsoil,  if  it 
is  not  too  hard,  and  draws  part  of  its  food  therefrom.  On  this 
account,  deep  plowing  is  one  of  the  essential  operations  in  a 


280  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

suitable  preparation  of  the  soil  for  this  crop.  In  addition  to  this, 
soils  lying  upon  stiff  clay  also  need  underdraining.  The  cotton 
plant  needs  moisture,  but  standing  water  around  its  roots  proves 
very  destructive.  As  underdraining  will  carry  off  the  surplus 
water,  and  yet  allow  the  soil  to  be  kept  quite  moist  by  the 
retention  of  the  heavy  dews  which  fall  in  the  South,  it  proves 
of  immense  advantage  to  the  crop  both  in  wet  and  dry  seasons. 
When  this  cannot  be  given,  open  drains  will  prove  highly  bene- 
ficial. In  case  nothing  in  the  line  of  draining  can  be  done,  the 
land  should  be  cultivated  in  ridges,  and  a  water  furrow  left 
between  each  two  rows.  Though  not  nearly  as  valuable  as 
underdraining,  this  will  give  some  of  its  advantages,  and  in  a 
wet  season  may  save  the  crop  from  utter  destruction. 

For  uplands  which  wash  badly  under  heavy  rains,  and  from 
which  much  of  the  manure  which  is  applied  is  carried  off,  as 
well  as  the  most  valuable  parts  of  the  soil  itself,  what  is  called 
circle-ditching  and  circle-ploughing  has  been  strongly  recom- 
mended by  the  best  cotton-growers  who  have  had  experience 
in  such  locations.  It  is  claimed  that  by  these  means  lands 
which  have  not  been  spoiled  can  be  kept  from  injury  by  wash- 
ing, while  the  exhausted  soils  can  be  reclaimed.  The  circle- 
ditch  is  made  on  the  principle  of  a  mountain  road,  which 
enables  the  height  to  be  gained  by  a  long  and  gradual  incline. 
In  employing  this  system  of  drainage,  the  lowest  point  for  an 
outlet  must  be  found.  From  this  a  ditch,  with  a  bank  of  earth 
firmly  laid-  upon  the  lower  side,  and  rolled  down,  should  be 
made  which  shall  gradually  wind  around  the  hill  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  furnish  a  slight  and  uniform  descent  for  the  water. 
The  ditch  may  be  made  by  ploughing  two  or  three  furrows 
which  should  lap  over  each  other,  and  cleaning  out  the  last  one 
with  a  hoe.  The  ridge  thus  formed  should  never  be  disturbed, 
and  in  plowing  the  field  the  furrows  should  always  follow  the 
curves  of  the  ditch.  The  rows  of  cotton  should  also  follow  the 
same  direction.     In  this  way  the  land  can  be  kept  from  injury 


FARM  AND    FODDER    CROPS.  281 

by  heavy  rains,  as  the  water  will  have  only  a  slight  fall,  and  the 
fertilizers  which  are  applied  can  be  used  for  the  benefit  of  the 
crop,  instead  of  being  washed  away. 

A  great  deal  of  the  cotton-land  in  this  country  has  become 
very  poor  under  the  combined  action  of  repeated  croppings  and 
the  washing  away  of  the  fertilizing  elements  by  the  heavy  and 
frequent  rains.  On  this  account  fertilizers  are  absolutely  nec- 
essary to  the  production  of  profitable  crops  on  old  land,  and 
should  be  used  in  the  newer  fields  to  prevent  the  exhaustion 
which  will  otherwise  be  inevitable.  For  this  purpose  various 
articles  are  used.  The  quantity  to  be  applied  will  depend  upon 
the  use  which  is  made  of  the  crop.  If  the  stalks,  leaves  and 
burrs  are  left  on  the  land  and  plowed  in,  and  the  seeds  are  also 
returned  to  the  soil,  so  that  only  the  lint  is  really  taken  away, 
the  quantity  of  fertilizer  needed  will  be  much  less  than  will  be 
required  if  the  cattle  run  over  the  fields  in  winter  and  thg  seed 
is  sold  off  the  farm.  But  the  removal  of  the  lint  alone  makes  it 
necessary  for  the  farmer  to  return  something  in  the  shape  of  a 
fertilizer,  or  else  he  will  certainly  diminish  the  fertility  of  his 
land.  As  the  seed  often  is  removed,  the  average  cotton-grower 
needs  to  manure  his  fields  well,  in  order  to  keep  up  his  land, 
and  also  obtain  good  crops.  The  mere  removal  of  the  lint 
exhausts  the  soil  slowly  but  certainly.  When  the  seed  is 
removed,  the  exhaustion  is  about  twenty-five  times  as  rapid,  and 
is  fully  equal  to  that  caused  by  the  growth  of  corn  or  wheat. 
Manure  from  grain-fed  cattle  is  a  first-rate  fertilizer  for  this  crop, 
but  a  large  supply  cannot  be  obtained.  Ordinary  stable-manure 
contains  all  the  elements  of  fertility,  and  gives  good  returns. 
A  good  compost  is  also  a  quite  effective  fertilizer.  Commercial 
fertilizers  are  often  used  with  profit.  The  principal  mineral 
element  removed  by  cotton  and  which  must  be  supplied  by  the 
grower  is  phosphoric  acid.  Potash  and  lime  are  also  removed 
in  small  quantities.  Organic  matter  must  also  be  supplied,  in 
the  form  of  nitrogen,  to  all  soils  which  are  badly  worn.     Prof. 


282  FARMING   J-OK   PROFIT. 

Pendleton  has  found,  by  means  of  numerous  experiments,  that 
nitrogen  in  connection  with  soluble  phosphate  of  lime  will  not 
only  make  the  worn-out  soils  productive,  but  also  bring  them 
up,  as  far  as  the  growth  of  cotton  is  concerned,  to  their  original 
state  of  fertility.  He  recommends  the  use  of  an  ammoniated 
superphosphate  of  lime  for  this  crop.  Gypsum,  bone-dust,  and 
guano  are  sometimes  used  with  benefit  to  the  crop.  But  barn- 
yard-manure, or  some  fertilizer  containing  ammonia,  phosphoric 
acid,  potash  and  lime,  is  probably  the  best. 

The  quantity  to  be  applied  will  depend  upon  the  condition  of 
the  land,  and  whether  the  seed  is  removed  or  not.  While  it  is 
possible  to  use  more  manure  than  is  profitable,  the  great 
majorit}-  of  farmers  err  in  the  other  direction,  and  apply  too 
little.  The  fertilizers  should  be  applied  in  March,  and  plowed 
in  deeply  if  barn-yard-manure  is  used,  and  lightly  if  commer- 
cial fertilizers  are  employed.  In  the  latter  case  the  fertilize; 
should  be  covered  by  a  second  plowing,  as  the  first  one  should 
be  quite  deep.  Or,  if  preferred,  it  may  be  used  in  the  drills 
instead  of  being  spread  over  all  the  land.  If  this  is  done,  care 
should  be  taken  to  cover  it  well  before  the  planting  is  done,  or 
it  will  destroy  the  vitality  of  the  seed. 

Planting  should  not  be  attempted  until  the  land  is  quite 
warm.  With  this,  as  w^ell  as  with  other  crops,  there  are 
growers  who  advocate  very  early  planting,  others  who  plant 
very  late,  while  many  choose  an  intermediate  time.  But  there 
seems  to  be  no  possible  use  in  planting  extremely  early.  The 
land  must  be  warm  before  seeds  will  grow,  and  if  the  soil  is  too 
cold  and  wet,  the  seed  will  rot  in  the  ground.  On  poor  land 
earlier  planting  is  needed  than  is  required  on  richer  soils,  or 
those  which  are  well  manured.  When  the  land  is  rich  the 
planting  can  be  deferred  until  the  middle  or  twentieth  of  May, 
while  the  poorer  soils  should  be  planted  a  month  earlier.  The 
advantage  of  the  late  planting  consists  in  a  great  saving  of  labor, 
and  a  more  thorough  utilization  of  the  fertilizers.     If  rich  lands 


FARM  AND   FODDER   CROPS.  283 

are  planted  early,  they  send  up  large  quantities  of  grass  which 
feed  upon  the  manure*,  injure  the  cotton,  and  require  a  great 
deal  of  work  for  their  removal.  Consequently  it  is  better  to 
plant  rich  soils  rather  late  in  the  season.  But  this  course  must 
not  be  attempted  with  poor  land  which  is  not  manured,  as  here 
the  plant  grows  slowly,  and  if  the  seed  was  planted  late,  the 
crop  would  foil  to  mature. 

The  rows  should  be  from  two  and  a  half  feet  apart  in  poor 
soils  to  three  feet  and  a  half  in  rich  land.  Some  growers  place 
the  rows  still  farther  apart — from  four  to  six  feet  in  rich  bottom 
soils.  The  land  should  be  plowed  in  ridges,  so  that  each  row  of 
cotton  will  stand  upon  a  narrow  elevation,  with  a  furrow  for  the 
water  between  each  row  and  its  neighbor.  These  ridges  should 
be  thrown  up  some  weeks  before  the  time  for  planting,  in  order 
that  the  ground  may  become  well  settled  before  the  seed  is 
deposited.  When  the  time  for  planting  arrives,  the  tops  of  these 
ridges  should  be  pulverized  with  a  fine  harrow,  after  which  they 
should  be  opened  with  a  light  plow,  or  some  implement 
which  will  make  a  small  but  clean  drill.  The  seeds  should  be 
planted  in  this  drill.  If  soaked  a  day  or  two  before  planting, 
and  then  rolled  in  gypsum,  they  will  germinate  sooner  than 
they  will  if  planted  dry. 

The  distance  apart  of  the  hills  varies  from  eight  inches  to 
three  feet.  When  the  longer  distances  are  chosen,  several  seeds 
should  be  planted  in  each  hill.  The  seed  will  be  injured  by 
deep  covering,  but  it  is  of  great  importance  that  this  and  all  of 
the  operations  of  planting  should  be  well  done.  A  machine 
which  would  work  as  perfectly  with  cotton  as  some  of  the 
corn-planters  operate  would  be  of  immense  advantage  to  the 
cotton-grower.  Machines  which  do  pretty  fair  work  have  been 
invented,  but  many  growers  prefer  the  certain  methods  of  hand 
planting.  It  is  very  desirable  that  the  rows  should  be  quite 
straight,  and  a  uniform  distance  apart,  as  this  will  greatly 
facilitate  the  after  culture  of  the  crop. 


284  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

The  cultivation  of  the  cotton  plant  has  a  powerful  influence 
upon  its  development.  About  fifteen  days  after  planting,  a  light 
plow  should  be  run  close  to  the  line  of  plants.  This  will  tear 
up  grass  and  weeds.  The  plow  should  run  only  to  a  moderate  * 
depth,  and  men  should  follow  with  hoes,  smoothing  the  earth 
and  cutting  between  the  plants  in  the  rows.  If  seed  is  used  in 
the  drill  as  a  fertilizer,  many  of  the  plants  must  be  cut  out. 
Two  weeks  later  a  careful  hoeing  and  thinning  should  be  given. 
The  finest  plants  should  be  saved,  and  all  the  surplus  ones 
removed.  Fresh  earth  should  be  drawn  around  the  roots,  and 
all  weeds  and  grass  should  be  removed  from  the  ridges.  After 
this  much  of  the  work  can  be  done  with  plows  which  should  be 
used  frequently,  and  should  always  be  run  shallow.  Hand-hoes 
must  be  used  occasionally,  and  on  no  account  should  weeds  or 
grass  be  permitted  to  grow.  Good  culture  is  one  of  the  great 
essentials  of  success  in  cotton-growing,  and  the  crop  must  be 
hoed  often  enough  to  keep  it  clean.  Plowing  is  sometim'"" 
beneficial  wiicn  there  are  no  weeds,  as  it  promotes  the  growth, 
and  hastens  the  development  of  the  plants.  Care  should  be 
taken  not  to  cut  or  bruise  the  plants,  as  they  are  very  tender, 
and  if  injured  will  not  be  productive. 

The  enemies  of  the  cotton  plant  are  of  several  kinds  and  often 
prove  very  destructive.  In  the  early  stages  of  the  growth  of 
the  plant  the  cut  worm  nips  off  many  of  the  specimens.  A  top 
dressing  of  ashes  mixed  with  the  earth  around  the  roots  will 
sometimes  check  his  depredations. 

The  cotton  louse  attacks  the  plant  in  its  growing  state  and 
sucks  the  juices  from  the  leaves,  which  turn  yellow  and  drop 
off  These  lice  are  very  small  and  have  many  enemies,  but 
being  very  prolific,  they  often  do  a  great  amount  of  damage. 
Planters  have  sometimes  attempted  to  drive  them  off  by  sprink- 
ling poisonous  powders  upon  the  leaves,  but  the  labor  and 
expense  of  treating  a  whole  field  in  this  way  is  so  great  as  to 
make  it   unavailable.     Ihe  best  way  to  get  rid  of  them  is  to 


FARM  AND  FODDER   CROPS.  285 

encourage  the  presence  of  the  birds,  and  of  the  other  insects 
which  prey  upon  them. 

The  cotton  caterpillar  is  one  of  the  most  destructive  of  all  the 
enemies  of  the  crop.  It  is  peculiar  to  this  plant  and  lives  only 
where  cotton  is  produced.  It  is  said  that  in  a  single  fortnight 
in  1873  this  caterpillar  damaged  the  cotton  crop  to  the  amount 
of  twenty  millions  of  dollars.  The  most  effective  agent  for  the 
destruction  of  this  foe  is  the  Paris  green,  which  is  so  largely 
used  at  the  North  for  killing  the  Colorado  beetle  which  injures 
the  Irish  potato.  The  green  is  a  violent  poison  and  should  be 
very  carefully  handled.  It  should  not  be  allowed  to  come  in 
contact  with  the  skin,  and  the  dust  should  never  be  inhaled. 
Care  should  also  be  taken  to  keep  cattle  out  of  the  fields  in 
which  it  has  been  used,  and  the  pails  and  dishes  in  which  it  has 
been  placed  should  never  be  used  for  any  other  purpose.  The 
poison  is  usually  applied  dry.  It  should  be  mixed  with  thirty 
times  its  weight  of  flour,  or  gypsum,  and  shaken  upon  the  plants 
from  a  tin  box  with  small  holes  punched  through  the  bottom,  or 
from  a  sieve  made  for  the  purpose.  The  sieve  should  be  fastened 
to  a  stick  several  f6et  long,  so  that  there  shall  be  no  danger  that 
the  operator  will  breathe  the  dust.  It  can  be  shaken  over  the 
plant,  or  a  light  blow  from  a  short  stick  held  in  the  right  hand 
will  cause  enough  of  the  mixture  to  fall  out.  A  good  hand  will 
go  over  quite  a  field  in  a  day,  and  as  only  a  very  light  dusting  is 
required  for  each  plant,  the  quantity  of  poison  needed  will  not 
be  very  large.  A  single  pound  of  the  green  will  be  sufficient 
for  several  acres.  Although  this  is  a  cheap  and  efficient  remedy, 
it  is  open  to  the  disadvantage  of  being  equally  injurious  to  the 
friends  of  the  planter  as  it  is  to  his  enemies.  Many  birds  may 
be  destroyed  by  eating  the  poisoned  worms,  and  numbers  of 
insects  which  destroy  the  caterpillar  will  also  be  killed.  It  may, 
in  bad  seasons,  be  the  best  method  which  can  be  followed,  but 
it  is  to  be  hoped  that  a  better  one  will  some  time  be  devised. 

The  boll  worm  is  an  insect  foe  of  the  cotton  plant  which 


286  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

works  upon  the  small  bolls,  or  buds,  causing  them  to  fall  off 
and  thus  seriously  diminishing  the  rate  of  production.  Various 
remedies  are  employed.  The  easiest,  and  it  is  said  to  be  quite 
effective,  is  the  planting  of  occasional  rows  of  corn  through  the 
field  late  in  the  season.  The  miller  which  produces  the  worm 
prefers  corn  and  will  attack  it  in  preference  to  cotton.  Fires  are 
sometimes  built  at  the  edges  of  the  field,  and  in  them  ma-ny 
millers  are  destroyed.  Sometimes  the  hands  pass  through  the 
fields  early  in  the  morning  and  toward  night,  and  with  paddles 
knock  the  millers  off  the  plants,  or  catch  them  in  small  nets  and 
kill  them.  Another  method  of  preventing  their  injuries  is  to 
clip  off  the  ends  to  the  branches.  As  the  eggs  are  generally 
laid  in  this  position,  a  great  many  may  be  destroyed  in  this 
manner.     The  pruning  is  said  to  be  beneficial  to  the  plant. 

.There  are  several  other  insect  ^nemies  of  the  cotton  plant,  but 
the  injuries  which  they  inflict  are  slight  when  compared  with 
those  which  have  been  named.  Thorough  culture,  liberal  ma- 
nuring, and  the  multiplication  of  birds,  would  be  great  aids  in 
the  work  of  ridding  the  cotton  plant  of  all  its  insect  foes. 

The  diseases  which  attack  the  cotton  plant  are  few  in  number, 
though  often  working  considerable  evil.  There  is  a  rust  which 
attacks  the  plant  in  the  Southern  States,  which  is  similar  in  its 
cause  and  effects  to  the  same  disease  which  proves  so  destruc- 
tive to  the  wheat  plant  at  the  North.  The  parasitical  plants 
fasten  themselves  upon  the  stalk,  absorb  its  juices  and  weaken 
its  vitality.  They  thus  diminish  the  productiveness  of  the  plants 
which  the  owner  desires  to  have  grow,  and  use  the  food  which 
belongs  to  them  for  their  own  advantage.  The  remedy  for  this 
disease  is  to  be  found  in  the  selection  of  strong-growing  sorts, 
careful  culture  and  liberal  manuring.  There  are  several  other 
forms  of  disease,  all  coming  under  the  general  head  of  rust, 
which  prove  injurious,  and  sometimes  ruinous,  to  the  crops 
which  are  affected.  They  can  all  be  traced  to  one  common 
cause — the  want  of  suitable  plant-food  in  a  condition  in  which 


FARM  AND   FODDER   CROPS.  287 

it  can  be  immediately  used.  Even  the  true  parasitic  affection  is 
due  to  this  cause — the  foreign  growth  absorbs  the  juices  of  the 
plant  to  such  a  degree  that  its  health  and  vigor  are  sacrificed. 
The  common  rust,  which  appears  in  the  Northern  cotton 
regions,  does  not  appear  until  some  critical  time  in  the  life  of  the 
plant.  As  long  as  there  is  plenty  of  food  for  it  in  the  soil,  and 
rains  are  frequent  but  not  unusually  heavy,  all  goes  along  well. 
But  let  the  fertilizer,  or  one  of  its  leading  elements,  become 
exhausted,  or  let  there  be  a  drought  which  cuts  off  the  supply 
of  food  (which  must  be  in  solution  in  order  to  be  efficient,  and 
which  cannot  be  dissolved  in  time  of  drought  because  there  is 
not  sufficient  moisture  in  the  soil),  or  let  the  quantity  of  water 
be  excessive,  so  that  the  food  which  the  plants  need  is  dissolved 
in  three  or  four  times  the  quantity  which  they  can  use — under 
any  of  these  circumstances  the  plant  is  imperfectly  nourished 
and  the  rust  makes  its  appearance.  The  obvious  remedies  are 
the  application  of  a  liberal  quantity  of  plant-food,  thorough 
drainage  of  the  land,  and  clean  cultivation  of  the  crop.  On 
many  of  the  soils  at  the  South,  which  have  long  been  under 
cultivation,  the  organic  elements  are  first  exhausted.  The  ap- 
plication of  fertilizers  rich  in  nitrogen,  the  rotation  of  crops, 
allowing  the  land  an  occasional  rest,  or  the  plowing  in  of  green 
crops  for  manure,  are  among  the  best  means  which  can  be  em- 
ployed to  prevent  the  exhaustion  of  the  organic  elements  in  the 
soil,  and  thereby  prevent  the  forms  of  exhaustion  or  disease  of 
the  plants  which  are  known  to  the  growers  by  the  general  name 
of  rust. 

Not  only  is  it  important  to  devote  a  great  deal  of  time  and 
labor  to  the  planting  and  culture  of  cotton,  but  there  must  also 
be;  efficient  management  in  securing  the  crop.  As  soon  as  it  is 
ready,  the  gathering  should  be  commenced.  The  best  hands, 
and  plenty  of  them,  should  be  engaged  in  season.  It  involves  a 
great  waste  to  gather  the  cotton  crop  with  insufficient,  or  inex- 
perienced, help.     The  laborers  should  be  encouraged  to  gather 


288 


FAKMIXG  FOR   PROFIT. 


the  cotton  as  rapidly  as  possible,  but  should  always  be  kindly 
treated  'and  well  paid  for  their  work.  In  the  early  part  of  the 
season,  when  the  weather  is  fine,  the  work  should  be  pushed  as 
rapidly  as  possible.  The  cotton  picked  when  wet  with  rain  or 
dew  should  be  dried  before  being  packed  away,  but  ought  not 
to  be  exposed  to  the  sun  longer  than  is  necessary. 

Preparing  the  crop  for  market  is  also  an  important  part  of  the 
cotton-grower's  work.     If  he   consults    his  own   interests,  the 


FIG.   21. 

planter  will  see  that  all  the  details  of  this  work  receive  careful 
attention.  Vast  sums  of  money  have  been  lost  by  Southern 
planters  by  sending  off  their  cotton  in  poor  condition  for  the 
market.  This  seems  to  be  one  of  the  great  difficulties  with  a 
large  class  of  farmers  all  over  the  cotton-growing  region,  and 
only  loss  and  evil  can  result.  If  a  cotton  gin  is  owned,  the 
planter  should  see  that  it  is  put,  and  kept,  in  perfect  order. 
Very  much  depends  upon  this.  Then  the  cotton  must  be 
properly  prepared   for  the   ginning   process.      Ginning  cotton 


FARM  AND  FODDER    CROPS.  289 

when  it  is  damp,  and  feeding  in  large,  tangled  masses,  are  pro- 
lific sources  of  heavy  loss.  In  all  cases  speed  should  be  secon- 
dary to  good  work.  While  it  is  possible  to  run  through  eight 
bales  a  day,  it  is  better  to  attempt  to  clean  only  from  two  to 
four.  The  cotton  should  never  be  fed  in  faster  than  it  can  be 
nicely  cleaned.  A  good  press  is  one  of  the  necessities  of  the 
thrifty  planter.  He  can  bale  his  cotton  just  as  well  as  the  com- 
mission merchants,  and  do  it  for  one-quarter  the  price  which 
they  charge.  A  press  suitable  for  this  purpose  will  not  be  very 
expensive,  and  will  be  very  useful  for  many  other  operations. 

We  think  very  highly  of  the  plan  recommended  by  the  late 
Joseph  B.  Lyman,  of  Louisiana,  of  building  "  neighborhood  gin- 
houses  in  well-chosen  locations  so  as  to  be  central  to  large 
farming  communities."  Here  the  most  perfect  gins  and  presses 
could  be  employed,  all  needed  power  could  be  furnished,  and 
the  work  could  be  done  in  the  most  perfect  manner.  All  the 
planters  in  the  neighborhood  could  bring  in  their  cotton  and 
prepare  it  for  the  market  in  the  best  possible  manner  and  at  a 
much  less  cost  than  they  could  furnish  machines  them.selves. 
Such  a  plan  would  enable  many  men  who  have  not  the  means 
for  building  expensive  gin-houses  to  grow  cotton  profitably, 
would  draw  in  many  settlers  from  the  North,  and  would  power- 
fully tend  to  develop  the  material  resources  of  the  South.  In 
Figure  21  we  give  an  illustration  of  the  L^niversal  Cotton  Gin, 
manufactured  by  R.  H.  Allen  &  Co.,  of  New  York.  Figure  22 
represents  Dederick's  Patent  Cotton  Press,  made  by  P.  K.  Dede- 
rick  &  Co.,  of  Albany,  N.  Y. 

When  the  cotton  is  ready  for  the  market  the  grower  must 
decide  whether  to  sell  at  once  or  hold  it  for  higher  prices. 
Here  his  own  judgment,  enlightened  by  all  the  knowledge 
which  he  can  obtain  concerning  the  state  of  the  market  at  home 
and  abroad,  and  the  prospects  for  the  future,  should  be  his  guide. 
Still,  much  will  depend  upon  his  financial  condition.  If  he  is 
able  to  hold  his  crop,  and  is  confident  that  prices  will  go  nc 


290 


FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 


lower,  while  hope- 
ful that  they  will 
advance,  it  may 
not  be  best  to  sell 
at  once.  But  if  he 
needs  money,  and 
must  borrow  and 
pay  interest  until 
he  can  sell  his  cot- 
ton, it  may  be  bet- 
ter for  him  to  sell 
'd,^  at  rather  low  rates 
-  than  to  wait  in 
g  hope  of  a  slight 
8  advance.  As  a 
^  general  rule,  to 
G  which  there  are 
I  many  exceptions, 
"  when  a  crop  can 
E  be  sold  for  a  fair 
price  —  a  price 
which  will  'pay  all 
expenses  and  give 
a  reasonable  per- 
centage of  profit 
— it  does  not  pay 
to  hold  on  for  an 
advance.  In  no 
case  should  the 
grower  be  led  to 
engage  in  any 
speculations  with  his  crop.  He  must  not  take  great  risks  in 
the  hope  of  securing  great  gains.  Such  a  course  will  not  lead 
to  success,  but  it  very  often  precedes  financial  ruin. 


FARM  AND  FODDER   CROPS.  291 

In  addition  to  the  fibre  the  cotton-grower  will  have  a 
quantity  of  seed  of  which  he  must  make  some  disposition. 
This  seed  has  been  used  for  various  purposes.  The  oil  has 
been  extracted  and  sold,  the  seed  has  been  fed  to  stock  on  the 
farm,  large  quantities  have  been  ground  into  meal  and  sent 
North  for  feeding  to  stock,  and  many  farmers  have  used  it  for 
manure.  The  circumstances  of  each  grower  must  have  an 
influence  in  his  decision  of  the  question  what  to  do  with  the 
seed.  But  when  we  consider  the  great  worth  of  this  material 
for  a  general  fertilizer,  its  immense  value  to  return  to  the  fields 
upon  which  it  was  grown,  the  worn  condition  of  much  of  the 
Southern  cotton  land  and  the  scarcity  of  other  materials 
from  which  to  obtain  fertilizing  elements  for  the  growth  of 
crops,  as  well  as  the  high  price  of  commercial  manures,  it  seems 
plain  that  the  best  possible  use  to  which  many  planters  can  put 
their  cotton-seed  is  to  apply  it  to  the  land.  We  have  already 
shown  that  the  removal  of  only  the  fibre  exhausts  the  soil  but 
very  little,  while  the  seed  carries  off  the  elements  of  plant-food 
in  considerable  quantities.  The  return  of  the  seed  seems  to  be 
the  best  and  easiest  way  in  which  the  land  can  be  made 
productive,  and  still  remain  almost  uninjured  by  the  removal  of 
the  crops.  With  cotton,  as  with  all  other  farm  products,  the 
better  the  condition  in  which  the  land  is  kept  the  more 
profitable  its  cultivation  will  become.  And  good  culture  not 
only  secures  large  present  returns,  but  also  keeps  the  land  from 
becoming  exhausted  and  provides  for  the  growth  of  profitable 
crops  in  the  future. 

Corn. — This  is  considered  the  most  valuable  of  all   of  our 

agricultural  productions.      The  plant  belongs  to  the  order  of 

grasses,  is  a  native  of  America,  mms  cultivated  by  the  Indians, 

and  on  this  account  received  the  common  name  of  Indian  Corn. 

It  will   grow    in  any   part    of  the    cultivated    portions    of  the 

United  States,  but  finds  its  most  congenial  home  between  the 

thirty-fifth    and    forty-second    degrees    of  latitude.      It   readily 
19 


292  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

adapts  itself  to  changes  of  climate  and  soil.  Consequently 
it  is  an  universal  favorite.  The  value  of  the  corn  crop 
produced  in  this  country  in  a  single  year  exceeds  five  hundred 
and  eighty  millions  of  dollars.  Large  quantities  are  exported, 
it  is  the  leading  article  for  fattening  pork  and  beef,  and  it  is  used 
to  quite  an  extent  for  human  food. 

Although  the  corn  grown  in  different  parts  of  the  country 
presents  very  different  appearances,  but  little  care  has  been  taken 
to  keep  varieties  pure.  The  consequence  is  that  we  have  but 
very  little  really  pure-bred  corn.  In  many  of  the  corn-growing 
districts  the  only  difference  recognized  is  in  the  color  of  the 
grain,  and  white  corn  or  yellow  corn  is  called  for  without  regard 
to  any  other  name.  And  as  it  readily  mixes  with  different  kinds 
grown  in  the  vicinit}^  and  also  adapts  itself  to  the  soil  and 
climate  in  which  it  is  produced,  it  is  somewhat  difficult  to  keep 
a  variety  pure  and  unchanged  when  removed  from  its  original 
home.  There  are  varieties  which  are  very  small  and  ripen  very 
early.  In  ninety  days  from  the  time  of  planting  the  seed,  the  crop 
may  be  dry  enough  to  be  shelled  and  ground.  If  grown  in 
Maine,  or  in  any  of  the  extreme  Northern  States,  these 
characteristics  will  be  permanent.  But  plant  this  variet)'-  of  corn 
a  few  years  at  the  South  and  it  will  lose  its  present  distinguishing 
features,  will  grow  quite  large,  and  ripen  ver>'  late.  We  have 
often  seen  these  changes  going  on.  Year  by  year  the  corn 
would  grow  larger  and  ripen  later,  until  it  had  perfectly  adapted 
itself  to  the  climate  to  which  itjiad  been  taken. 

As  a  general  rule  the  small  "flint"  corn,  with  from  eight  to 
twelve  rows  per  ear,  and  ripening  very  early,  is  grown  only  in 
New  England,  northern  New  York,  Michigan,  Wisconsin, 
and  Minnesota.  Farther  South  the  "dent,"  or  gourd-seed,  is 
almost  exclusively  grown.  There  are  several  pretty  well- 
marked  varieties  of  the  flint  corn  which  are  really  valuable,  and 
many  others  which  are  more  or  less  distinct,  but  which  cannot 
be  .classed  as  superior.     The  best  of  these  kinds  which  we  have 


FARM  AND   FODDER    CROPS.  293 

seen  are  the  early  "Yellow  Canada,"  a  small  eight-rowed 
variety,  tl?e  Holden,  possessing  the  same  characteristics,  but 
more  productive,  and  Kingsbury's  Excelsior,  an  early,  yellow, 
twelve-rowed  kind,  which  makes  a  larger  growth  of  both  stalks 
and  grain  than  the  preceding  varieties.  The  two  latter  kinds 
have  been  long  kept  very  pure,  and  are  fine  sorts  for  the  extreme 
North.  Of  the  large  Southern  and  Western  corn  there  are 
many  kinds.  The  Early  Galena  is  one  of  the  best  for  late 
planting.  The  White  Gourd-Seed,  Southern  Big  Yellow, 
Long  John,  and  Illinois  Yellow,  are  all  largely  grown.  The 
Evans,  Proctor  Bread,  and  Chester  County  Mammoth  are 
extremely  large,  and,  on  rich  soil,  very  productive  varieties. 

There  are,  also,  many  intermediate  kinds,  which  have  merely 
local  designations,  and  which  are  specially  valuable  in  the  belt 
of  country  just  north  of  where  the  large  kinds  easily  ripen,  and 
south  of  the  line  above  which  it  is  necessary  to  grow  the  early 
ripening  kinds.  The  Connecticut  Valley  Corn  and  its  many 
variations  belong  to  this  class.  This  is  largely  grown  in  Con- 
necticut and  Massachusetts.  It  is  much  larger  than  the 
early  varieties,  but  smaller  than  the  large  gourd-seed  sorts.  It 
ripens  in  about  four  months  from  the  time  of  planting,  yields  a 
large  crop  of  nice,  yellow  grain,  and  a  large  quantity  of  stalks 
which  are  valuable  for  fodder.  This  variety  has  been  tested  in 
the  northern  part  of  Illinois,  and  proved  quite  valuable.  We 
believe  it  would  pay  the  farmers  of  some  of  the  Northern  corn- 
growing  States  to  cultivate  the  large,  yellow  corn  of  Massachu- 
setts and  New  York,  instead  of  the  gourd-seed  varieties.  The 
quality  of  this  corn  is  far  superior,  and  the  stalks  are  worth 
considerable  for  fodder.  Dr.  Nichols  claims  that  a  careful 
analysis  shows  that  a  bushel  of  Northern  corn  on  the  cob  is 
equal,  for  fattening  stock,  to  a  bushel  of  Western  corn  that  is 
shelled. 

The  average  yield  of  corn  in  this  country  is  very  far  below 
what  it  ought  to  be,  and  what  it  might  easily  be  made.     Ohio 


294  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

with  all  its  advantages  has  only  averaged  a  fraction  over  thirty- 
four  bushels  per  acre  for  the  past  twenty  years,  while  the  esti- 
mated average  for  the  country  is  less  than  thirty  bushels.  In 
some  of  the  States,  in  which  good  crops  might  be  grown,  the 
average  rate  of  production  runs  down  to  ten  bushels.  It  would 
be  a  very  easy  matter  to  largely  increase  this  average,  and  the 
interests  of  the  farmers  would  be  greatly  promoted  by  such  a 
change.  Under  favorable  circumstances,  and  with  skilful  culti- 
vation, immense  crops  have  often  been  produced.  And  though 
practical  farmers  look  with  distrust  upon  reports  of  excessive 
yields,  and  while  the  truth  of  many  of  these  reports  has  not 
been  as  fully  certified  as  it  should  have  been  if  they  were  strictly 
true,  yet  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  more  than  a  hundred  and 
twenty  bushels  of  sound,  shelled  corn  per  acre  has  many  times 
been  produced.  We  have  never  been  able  to  reach  this  yield, 
but  we  do  not  live  in  the  best  section  for  the  production  of  I'^o 
corn  crop.  We  have  no  doubt  that  from  sixty  to  eighty  bushels 
of  yellow  flint  corn  per  acre  have  been  grown  by  many  different 
farmers,  and  we  have  full  confidence  in  tlic  statement  of  Mk. 
Sturtevant,  of  Massachusetts,  that  from  his  thoroug!i  bred 
seed  of  this  variety  he  has  obtained  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
three  bushels  of  sound,  shelled  corn  per  acre.  There  are,  also, 
duly  attested  reports  from  Bucks  County,  Pa.,  of  a  corn  crop 
yielding  one  hundred  and  thirty-six  bushels,  and  of  another  of 
one  hundred  and  eight  bushels  per  acre.  In  these  instances  the 
large  gourd-seed  variety  was  planted.  The  assertion  has  been 
made  that  two  hundred  bushels  of  shelled  corn  per  acre  have 
been  grown,  but  it  is  the  general  opinion  that  this  is  a  highly 
exaggerated  statement.  The  great  majority  of  first-class  farmers 
find  it  difficult  to  obtain  one  hundred  bushels.  But  the  pro- 
duction of  the  latter  quantity  should  be  the  aim  of  every  farmer 
who  is  favorably  situated  for  growing  this  crop.  The  use  of 
first-class  seed  will  do  much  toward  securing  this  yield,  while 
good  land,  liberal  manuring,  and  skilful  cultivation,  will  be  very 


FARM  AND  FODDER    CROPS.  295 

efficient  and  necessary  aids.  The  best  methods  of  growing  seed 
will  be  considered  in  a  separate  chapter.  If  good  seed  is  not 
grown  upon  the  farm,  the  owner  should  purchase  some  of  other 
parties.     He  cannot  afford  to  use  poor  or  even  second-rate  seed. 

Corn  will  grow  in  almost  any  kind  of  soil,  but  will  give  the 
best  results  in  one  which  is  warm  and  rather  dry.  We  have 
grown  it  in  gravel,  and  in  muck,  and  in  the  various  intermediate 
kinds  of  land.  Though  it  does  better  in  land  which  is  well  suited 
to  its  wants,  no  farmer  need  despair  of  growing  corn  on  account 
of  the  character  of  his  soil.  If  he  can  grow  any  cultivated 
crop,  he  can  easily  fit  his  land  so  that  it  will  produce  good  crops 
of  corn.  If  extremely  wet  it  should  be  drained,  and  if  very 
cold  it  should  be  cultivated  in  ridges.  The  variety  to  be  grown 
should  be  selected  with  reference  to  the  quality  of  the  land.  If 
the  soil  is  cold,  an  early  ripening  kind  of  corn  should  be  planted. 
It  is  one  of  the  great  advantages  of  this  crop  that  by  means  of 
careful  fitting  of  the  soil,  and  a  skilful  .selection  of  the  variety, 
corn  can  be  grown  over  a  vast  extent  of  country,  on  almost  all 
kinds  of  land,  and  under  a  great  diversity  of  climates  and  tem- 
peratures. It  is,  when  properly  grown,  less  affected  by  varia- 
tions of  the  seasons  than  almost  any  other  crop.  An  excess  of 
water  is  injurious,  but  seldom  proves  destructive,  while  an 
ordinary  drought  is  borne  with  comparatively  little  injury. 

The  corn  plant  is  a  strong  feeder,  and  will  make  use  of  almost 
any  kind  of  plant-food.  Decomposed  barn-yard-manure,  hog- 
manure,  and  sheep-dung  are  especially  valuable.  On  some  soils 
plaster  proves  very  beneficial.  Ashes  are  excellent  for  this 
crop.  Chemical  fertilizers,  either  the  special  formulae  for  corn 
or  the  complete  manure,  are  almost  sure  to  give  good  results. 
The  quantity  of  manure  to  be  applied  per  acre  depends  upon 
many  circumstances.  With  a  little  manure  some  corn  can  be 
obtained  from  almost  any  soil.  But  the  crop  can  utilize  a  large 
amount  of  food,  and  the  more  liberal  the  application  of  manure, 
up  to  a  point  which  but  few  farmers  reach,  the  larger  will  be  the 


296  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 

crop.  Here  the  farmer  who  uses  only  barn-yard-manure  is  very 
liable  to  make  a  mistake.  He  finds  that  a  moderate  application 
of  manure  not  only  secures  the  growth  of  a  fair  crop  of  corn,  but 
also  that  the  effect  of  the  manure  is  visible  for  three  or  four  of 
the  succeeding  years.  The  crops  which  follow  the  corn  are  con- 
siderably larger  than  they  would  have  been  if  the  land  had  not 
been  plowed.  Consequently,  the  farmer  concludes  that  he  has 
applied  more  manure  than  the  corn  required,  and  that  it  is  this 
excess  which  stimulates  and  feeds  the  succeeding  crops.  But 
this  is  an  error.  The  corn  would  have  used  more  food  if  it 
could  have  obtained  it  in  a  suitable  form,  but  much  of  the 
manure  did  not  get  into  an  available  condition  until  long  after 
the  crop  was  removed.  It  should  always  be  remembered  in 
deciding  the  quantity  of  manure  to  be  used  on  corn  land  that 
the  ordinary  grades  of  this  fertilizer  contain  much  plant-food 
which  will  not  be  in  a  condition  to  use  the  first  season,  and  that, 
on  this  account,  an  extra  quantity  should  be  applied,  or  else 
some  commercial  fertilizer  should  be  used  in  connection  with 
the  manure  from  the  yard.  Many  farmers  use  only  twelve  two- 
horse  loads  of  compost  per  acre,  while  some  of  their  more  suc- 
cessful neighbors  apply  from  twenty  to  forty  such  loads  of  a 
much  better  quality  of  manure. 

The  method  of  its  application  will  have  some  influence  in 
determining  the  quantity  of  fertilizer  to  be  used.  When  the 
New  England  method  of  putting  the  manure  in  the  hill  is  fol- 
lowed, a  less  quantity  will  do  than  will  be  needed  if  applied 
broadcast.  Except  for  very  poor  land  it  is  much  better  to 
spread  the  manure  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  ground.  Corn 
roots  go  a  long  distance  in  search  of  food,  and  it  is  not  wise  to 
put  all  the  manure  directly  under  the  plant.  When  a  liberal 
quantity  of  manure  is  spread  on  the  surface  and  worked  in  to  a 
depth  of  a  few  inches,  and  a  small  quantity  of  manure,  or  com- 
mercial fertilizer,  is  used  in  the  hill  in  addition,  the  best  results 
will  be  obtained.     But,  on  account  of  the  great  amount  of  labor 


FARM  AND  FODDER   CROPS.  297 

involved,  this  is  generally  considered  impracticable.  When  the 
planting  is  done  by  hand  it  is  best  to,  at  least,  throw  a  handful 
of  plaster  and  ashes  in  each  hill.  This  will  give  the  corn  a 
strong  and  early  start,  and  keep  it  growing  until  the  roots  reach 
the  manure  which  has  been  plowed  or  harrowed  in.  When  fer- 
tilizers are  used  in  the  hills  they  should  be  slightly  covered 
before  the  seed  is  dropped.  Some  corn-planting  machines  have 
an  arrangement  for  dropping  plaster,  or  other  fertilizer,  near  the 
seed. 

It  is,  in  some  sections,  a  very  common  method  to  spread  the 
manure  upon  the  land  before  it  is  plowed.  On  dry,  light  land, 
which  is  only  plowed  four  or  five  inches  deep,  this  will  give 
good  crops  if  a  fertilizer  is  used  in  the  hills.  But  if  nothing  else 
is  done,  the  plowing  in  of  a  broadcast  application  is  not  a  good 
way  in  which  to  feed  the  crop.  If  spread  upon  a  heavy  sod, 
and  we  have  often  seen  this  done,  and  the  plow  run  quite  deep, 
the  corn  will  obtain  but  very  little,  if  any,  benefit  from  the 
manure.  Succeeding  crops  may  be  benefited,  but  for  imme- 
diate use  the  manure  is  not  available.  Even  when  the  plowing 
is  quite  shallow,  we  do  not  believe  it  pays  to  put  the  manure  in 
the  bottoms  of  the  furrows  and  cover  it  with  sods.  We  consider 
it  much  the  best  way  to  spread  manure  upon  the  surface  after 
the  land  has  been  plowed  and  work  it  in  with  a  harrow.  If  the 
manure  is  fine,  it  can  easily  be  got  in  with  a  common  square 
harrow.  If  it  is  coarse  and  strawy,  a  wheel-harrow  will  answer 
the  double  purpose  of  fining  the  manure  and  pulverizing  the 
soil.  If  chemical  manures  are  used,  they  are  to  be  sowed  broad- 
cast and  harrowed  in,  except  the  fertilizers  which  are  made 
specially  for  use  in  hills  or  drills. 

The  following  is  a  good  method  for  manuring  corn.  If  sod 
land  is  to  be  planted,  a  liberal  application  of  stable  manure 
should  be  made  after  the  land  has  been  plowed.  This  should 
be  thoroughly  harrowed  in.  A  light  application  of  some  special 
fertilizer  for  corn  should  then  be  made  and  covered  with  a  har- 


298  FARMING    FOR    PROFIT. 

row.  In  the  hills  or  drills  a  small  quantity  of  ashes  and  plaster, 
or  some  other  quickly  acting  fertilizer,  should  also  be  used.  If 
stubble  laiKi  is  to  be  planted,  a  liberal  quantity  of  manure  may 
be  plowed  in,  not  more  than  five  or  six  inches  deep,  and  the 
commercial  fertilizer  used  as  recommended  above.  But  if  only 
a  small  quantity  of  manure  can  be  had,  and  the  farmer  does  not 
choose  to  buy  commercial  fertilizers,  the  land  should  be  plowed 
and  harrowed,  the  row.s  marked  with  a  small  plow,  and  the 
manure  placed  in  hills  or  scattered  along  in  the  drills.  If  put 
in  drills,  the  manure  can  be  covered  by  turning  back  the  furrow 
which  was  laid  out,  and  the  corn  may  then  be  planted  with  a 
one-horse  machine.  But  when  manure  is  used  in  this  manner 
the  planting  is  usually  done  by  hand. 

The  seed  should  never  come  in  contact  with  the  manure. 
When  thoroughly  decomposed  material  is  used,  this  rule  is 
often  disregarded.  But  it  is  better  that  the  fertilizer  should  be 
covered  with  a  little  fresh  earth.  This  in  order  that  the  nat- 
ural moisture  of  the  land  may  hasten  the  growth  of  the  seed, 
and  also  to  prevent  all  possibility  of  injur\-  to  the  germ  by  heat- 
ing of  the  manure.  It  is  not  safe  to  plant  directly  in  unfer- 
mented  material,  while  a  bed  of  well-rotted  manure  is  not  a  good 
place  in  which  to  start  the  corn  plants.  When  corn  is  planted 
on  very  wet  land  which  is  imperfectly  drained,  the  manure 
should  be  put  in  hills,  or  drills,  in  order  to  elevate  part  of  the 
roots  of  the  plants  above  the  ordinary  level  of  the  soil.  But  it 
is  much  better  to  drain  the  land,  or  even  to  plow  it  in  ridges, 
than  it  is  to  build  up  the  hills. 

The  time  for  planting  varies  with  the  location  and  with  the 
character  of  the  season.  In  an  ordinary  year  the  planting  of 
this  crop  in  the  South  is  best  done  in  March ;  in  the  Middle 
States,  and  those  in  the  same  latitude,  from  the  first  to  the 
middle  of  May;  in  Massachusetts,  and  the  States  with  a  sim- 
ilar climate,  from  the  tenth  to  the  last  of  May ;  while  at  the 
extreme  North,  the  corn  is  not  planted  until  June.     In  some 


lAJ^AI  AND   FODDER   CHOPS. 


299 


FIG.    23. — NEW   YORK  CORN  AND   SEED-PLANTER.      MANUFACTURED   BY   N.    Y.   PLOW 
CO.,   NEW   YORK   CITY. 


FIG.    23. — DOUBLE  ROW  CORN-PLANTER.     MANUFACTURED   BY   A.    B.    FARQUHAR, 

YORK,   PA. 


300  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

seasons  the  seed  can  be  safely  planted  a  week  or  ten  days 
earlier  than  the  usual  time,  while  in  other  years,  which  are  cold 
and  wet,  the  work  must  be  delayed  until  the  weather  and  tem- 
perature are  favorable.  There  is  not  the  slightest  use  in  putting 
in  corn  long  before  the  ground  is  dry  and  warm.  The  seed 
cannot  grow  until  the  ground  is  warm ;  and  if  planted  sooner  it 
is  liable  to  decay.  But  it  is  well  to  do  this  work  promptly 
when  a  suitable  time  arrives.  Early  planting,  if  not  too  early, 
will  usually  give  better  crops  than  late  planting.  There  is  the 
additional  advantage  of  having  the  corn  large  enough  to  culti- 
vate before  the  time  for  haying  arrives.  At  the  North,  early 
ripening  is  desirable  in  order  that  both  grain  and  fodder  may 
escape  injury  by  frost ;  and  this  must  be  secured,  if  at  all,  by 
early  planting,  or  else  by  the  use  of  a  ver)'  early  variety.  W^e 
have  known  farmers  to  put  in  their  corn  so  late  that  the  plants 
did  not  get  large  enough  to  hoe  until  time  for  their  grass  to  be 
cut.  Then  they  were  under  the  necessity  of  either  neglecting 
their  hoeing  or  their  haying.  The  result  has  usually  been  that 
their  corn  became  very  weedy  and  their  grass  got  over-ripe. 
A  light  crop  of  corn  and  a  damaged  crop  of  hay  can  often  be 
traced  to  late  planting  of  the  corn.  Figures  23  and  24  repre- 
sent some  excellent  planting  machines. 

Whether  the  planting  should  be  done  in  hills,  or  in  drills,  is  a 
question  upon  which  there  is  a  difference  of  opinion.  A  great 
many  practical  farmers  favor  the  old  method  of  putting  the  seed 
in  hills,  while  others  consider  the  newer  method  of  drilling  an 
improvement.  When  it  is  done  in  squares,  hill-planting  allows 
the  corn  to  be  cultivated  both  ways.  This  is  certainly  an 
advantage.  But  when  the  corn  js  grown  in  drills,  the  plants 
are  more  evenly  distributed  over  the  ground,  all  crowding  is 
avoided,  and  the  sun  and  the  air  have  free  access  to  them.  The 
advocates  of  drill-culture  claim  that  these  benefits  more  than 
offset  the  gain  secured  by  running  the  cultivator  both  ways 
when  the  planting  is  done  in  hills.     Figures  25  and  26  show 


FARM  AND  FODDER   CROPS. 


301 


FIG.   26. — CORN  IN  HILLS. 


302  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

the  relative  appearance  of  corn  grown  by  these  methods. 
Many  of  the  best  planting  machines  can  be  adjusted  to  drop  the 
seed  either  in  hills  or  in  drills. 

In  order  to  be  highly  successful  with  the  corn  crop,  the 
farmer  must  give  it  frequent  and  thorough  cultivation.  Whether 
it  should  receive  level  culture  or  be  hilled  will  depend  upon  the 
character  of  the  land  and  of  the  fertilizers  which  were  used. 
On  dry  land  we  believe  in  keeping  the  surface  as  nearly  level  as 
possible.  On  wet  land  it  is  almost  always  best  to  make  the 
hills  a  little  higher  than  the  surrounding  level,  and  when  coarse 
manure  is  used  in  the  hills,  it  is  necessary  to  make  them  of 
considerable  size.  With  these  exceptions  we  much  prefer  level 
culture. 

The  first  cultivation  of  the  crop  should  be  given  when  the 

plants  are  quite  small.  This 
for  the  double  purpose  of 
checking  the  growth  of  the 
weeds  which  have  started  and 
promoting  the  growth  of  the 
^^^J^^ig^v-  crop.  We  do  not  favor  the 
^'*^-  ^7-  old-fashioned  method  of  hand- 

hoeing,  which  is  still  largely  practiced  in  New  England. 
It  does  not  pay.  With  a  good  cultivator  more  real  benefit  is 
conferred  upon  the  crop,  and  the  cost  of  the  work  is  much 
less  than  that  of  hand-hoeing.  Prout's  Hoeing  Machine  has 
already  been  noticed  as  an  excellent  implement.  In  Figure 
27  we  give  an  illustration  of  Allen's  Planet  Jr.  Horse-Hoe. 
This  simple,  cheap,  yet  effective  implement  is  made  by  S.  L. 
Allen  &  Co.,  of  Philadelphia.  Figure  28  represents  the  Garden 
City  Riding  or  Walking  Cultivator,  made  by  the  Furst  &  Bradley 
Manufacturing  Co.,  of  Chicago.  iMgure  29  illustrates  the 
Improved  Corn  Harrow,  manufactured  by  the  Warrior  Mower 
Co.,  of  Little  Falls.  N.  Y.  Either  of  these  implements  can  be 
made  to  do  almost  all  the  work  which  it  is  necessary  to  perform. 


FARM  A  AD  FODDER   CROPS. 


303 


A  hand-hoe  would  be  a  little  nicer,  but  hand-work  is  too  costly. 
After  the  first  hoeing,  the  corn  may  be  cultivated  with  profit 
once  a  week  until  the  tassels  are  out.  The  latter  part  of  the 
time  the  cultivator  should  not  run  ver)'  close  to  the  hills. 
Neither  should  the  culture  be  very  deep.  By  way  of  ex- 
periment it  may  be  well,  on  a  small  part  of  the  field,  to  disregard 
the  last  suggestion  and  try  the  effect  of  root-pruning.  By 
plowing  out  a  small  lot  of  corn  when  it  is  in  the  silk,  letting  the 
plow  run  deeply,  the  crop  may  be  greatly  increased.  It  will 
pay  to  give  this  plan  a  trial. 


FIG.    28. 

Harvesting. — Various  methods  are  employed.  The  New 
England  method  requires  considerable  time,  but  it  enables  the 
farmer  to  secure  his  crop  in  the  best  condition.  When  the 
kernels  are  thoroughly  glazed  (if  there  is  danger  of  frost  it  is 
done  sooner)  the  corn  is  cut  at  the  roots,  bound  in  bundles 
containing  the  stalks  of  from  twelve  to  sixteen  hills,  and  from 
six  to  ten  bundles  are  set  up  in  a  stack.  The  tops  of  the  stacks 
are  firmly  tied  and  the  corn  left  in  the  field  a  few  weeks  to  cure. 
Some  farmers  tie  the  tops  of  a  couple  of  hills  together,  cut  and 
set  up  a  dozen  hills  around  them  and  tie  the  whole  at  the  top. 


304 


FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 


After  these  stacks  have  dried  a  while,  the  centre  hills  are  cut  and 
the  whole  stacks  taken  to  the  barn,  or  else  husked  in  the  field. 
By  following  either  of  these  plans  the  fodder  is  all  saved,  and 
the  grain  is  secured  in  the  best  possible  condition. 

The  old  method  of  topping  the  corn  has  been  pretty  generally 
abandoned.  It  has  been  found  that  after  the  tops  and  leaves 
are  removed  there  can  be  no  farther  elaboration  of  plant-food, 
and  that  the  grain  does  not  improve.    But  if  the  plants  are  cut  at 


FIG.  29. 

the  roots  before  the  grain  is  ripe,  the  sap  in  the  stalks  will  carry 
on  the  ripening  process  to  some  exteht. 

Many  farmers  at  the  West  are  now  making  an  effort  to  save 
their  corn-fodder.  The  Ohio  Farmer  has  done  good  service  in 
calling  the  attention  of  its  readers  to  the  fact  that  this  fodder  is 
quite  valuable  and  ought  to  be  saved.  Other  papers  have  taken 
the  same  position,  and  many  of  the  best  farmers  have  found  that 
they  cannot  afford  to  waste  this  excellent  material  for  stock-food. 
The  method,  so  long  practiced  at  the  West,  of  merely  gathering 


FARM  AND  FODDER    CROPS. 


305 


the  ears  of  corn,  and  leaving  the  stalks  to  be  trampled  down 
by  the  cattle,  to  be  burned,  or  plowed  in,  will  not  much  longer 
be  very  generally  followed.  At  least  part  of  the  fodder  should 
be  saved  on  every  farm.  When  the  stalks  are  not  gathered  they 
should  not  be  burned,  but  cut  and  plowed  into  the  land. 
They  will  be  worth  something  as  plant-food  for  the  succeeding 
crop.  Figure  30  represents  a  machine,  with  a  roller  attachment, 
for  cutting  stalks  and  getting  them  out  of  the  way  of  the  plow. 
It  is  made  by  the  Eureka  Manufacturing  Co.,  of  Rock  Falls,  111. 
When  the  stalks  are  to  be  fed,  the  harvesting  of  the  crops 
should  be  done  as  soon  as  the  corn  is  fully  ripe.  The  grain 
will  be  just  as  good,  and  the 
fodder  much  better  than  it 
will  be  if  the  plants  stand  too 
long. 

When  the  stalks  are  well 
dried,  the  corn  should  be 
husked,  the  ears  stored  in 
suitable  bins,  or  cribs,  and 
the  fodder  stacked  near  the 
*  yards,  or  packed  away  in  a 
barn   or  a  spare    shed.     The 

corn  should  not  be  shelled  and  measured  for  at  least  three 
months  after  it  is  ripe.  Careful  experiments  have  proved  that 
corn  shrinks,  both  in  weight  and  measure,  for  several  months 
after  it  is  husked.  In  one  instance  in  which  corn  was  weighed 
and  measured  in  November  and  again  the  succeeding  August, 
the  last  trial  indicated  a  loss  of  eighteen  and  six-tenths  per  cent, 
in  bulk,  and  twenty-two  and  six-tenths  per  cent,  in  weight. 
Corn  is  usually  considered  merchantable  the  first  of  January, 
and  is  often  sold  earlier  in  the  season ;  but  it  continues  to  lose 
both  weight  and  bulk  until  April  or  May.  The  farmer  who 
sells  his  corn  early  saves  quite  a  loss  in  this  respect. 

This  crop  is  subject  to  the  attacks  of  worms  of  various  kinda 


FIG.   30. — EUREKA  DOUBLE-ROW  STALK- 
CUTTER. 


306  FARMING    FOR    PROFIT. 

The  cut-worm  works  when  the  plants  are  only  a  few  inches 
high.  He  cuts  the  stalks  off  near  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
We  have  found  this  worm  more  destructive  on  sod-land  than 
on  stubble.  When  but  little  corn  is  grown,  these  worms  can 
be  dug  out  of  the  hills  in  which  there  are  indications  that  they 
are  at  work.  When  large  crops  are  produced,  it  has  been  sug- 
gested that  a  pair  of  old  wheels  be  fitted  with  projections  on  the 
rims,  which  will  make  holes  four  inches  deep  when  the  wheels 
are  run  upon  the  land.  The  worms  will  attempt  to  follow  the 
smooth  tracks  made  by  the  rims  of  the  wheels,  fall  into  the 
holes,  and  be  destroyed  by  the  hot  sun.  It  is  a  wise  course  to 
build  bonfires  near  the  corn  fields  in  the  evenings  of  summer  in 
order  to  destroy  the  insects  which  produce  these  worms. 

Wire-worms  are  often  quite  destructive.  They  usually  do 
the  most  harm  when  the  plants  are  small,  but  they  sometimes 
keep  working  until  the  crop  is  fully  matured.  Various  prepa- 
rations have  been  recommended  for  use  in  the  hills,  but  we 
know  of  nothing  effectual  which  can  be  used  on  a  large  scale. 
Where  only  a  very  little  corn  is  grown,  a  piece  of  potato  ma}'  be 
put  in  each  hill,  examined  .daily,  and  the  worms  which  have 
entered  be  destroyed.  This  is  a  method  in  use  to  some  extent 
in  England.  It  is  said  that  if  a  piece  of  cob  is  placed  in  each 
hill  the  worms  will  enter  the  pith  and  can  be  killed.  A  mix- 
ture of  equal  parts  of  plaster  and  ashes,  the  whole  to  be  .satu- 
rated with  night-soil,  and  half  a  pint  placed  in  the  bottom  of 
each  hill,  has  been  highly  recommended.  This  would  make  it 
necessary  to  plant  the  corn  by  hand,  and  Avould  not,  on  this 
account,  be  applicable  to  large  fields.  We  have  but  little  faith 
in  anything  of  this  kind.  As  far  as  our  experience  goes,  it  is 
of  but  little  use  to  try  to  fight  the  worms  in  this  way.  They 
are  hardy  creatures,  and  not  easily  disgusted  with  their  sur- 
roundings. Anything  which  will  kill  them  will  also  kill  the 
corn,  and  they  are  not  readily  frightened  away.  As  they  work 
most   where   the    land    is  wet   and   cold,  the    best  method  of 


FARM  AND   FODDER    CROPS.  307 

defeating  them  seems  to  be  by  thorough  draining  of  the  soil, 
making  the  land  as  light  and  warm  as  possible,  and  in  using 
fertilizers  which  will  give  the  plants  a  quick  start  and  a  rapid 
growth.  Plowing  in  the  fall  also  proves  useful  in  the  Northern 
and  Middle  States  by  subjecting  a  great  many  worms  to  a 
degree  of  cold  which  will  destroy  them. 

The  diseases  of  corn  are  not  numerous,  and  are  not  usually 
very  destructive.  The  yellows  is  a  sort  of  disease  caused  by 
an  excess  of  water  in  the  soil.  The  corn  cannot  grow  be- 
cause there  is  so  much  water  around  the  roots.  The  plants 
turn  a  yellow,  sickly  color,  and  will  not  thrive  until  the  land 
becomes  drier.  This  disease  can  be  wholly  prevented  by 
draining  the  land,  or  partially  by  cultivating  it  in  ridges. 

The  smut  is  a  fungoid  disease  which  in  some  seasons,  espe- 
cially those  which  are  very  warm  and  wet,  destroys  many  of  the 
ears  of  corn.  It  has  been  suggested  that  sowing  salt  upon  the 
soil  before  planting  would  be  the  means  of  partially  preventing 
this  disease.  As  the  loss  from  this  source  is  not  very  great,, 
but  little  effort  has  been  made  to  find  either  a  cause  or  remedy 
for  the  disease.  Good  culture,  high  manuring,  and  a  judicious 
rotation,  so  that  corn  shall  not  be  planted  on  the  same  land, 
more  than  two  successive  years,  will  be  almost  sure  to  secure  a- 
large  crop  in  spite  of  any  and  all  attacks  of  this  disease. 

In  some  sections  the  birds  cause  considerable  injury  to  the 
corn  crop.  The  crows  and  blackbirds  will  sometimes  pull  the 
plants  when  they  are  only  a  few  inches  high,  in  order  to  obtain 
the  kernels.  The  latter  also  occasionally  attack  a  field  when, 
the  corn  is  in  the  milk  and  work  a  great  injury.  When  the 
grain  is  ripe,  and  from  that  time  until  it  is  taken  from  the  field, 
these  and  other  classes  of  birds  often  do  a  great  deal  of  harm. 
The  blackbird  destroys  the  eggs  and  young  of  many  better 
birds,  and  should  be  kept  in  check,  if  possible.  But  the  crow  is 
a  very  useful  bird,  and  should  be  frightened  rather  than  killed. 
Coating  the  seed-corn  with  coal-tar  will  usually:  prevent  birds 
20 


308  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

from  pulling  the  plants.  If  the  work  is  done  early,  the  corn 
can  be  planted  with  a  machine.  We  put  from  four  to  six  quarts 
of  corn  in  a  leaky  pail,  turn  on  some  warm  water,  and  stir  the  corn 
thoroughly.  When  all  of  the  kernels  are  wet  we  drain  off  the 
surplus  water,  dip  a  stick  into  a  dish  of  tar  and  with  it  stir  the 
corn  again.  Only  a  very  little  tar  is  needed  to  cover  the  corn 
well.  A  quart  of  tar  will  cover  several  bushels  of  com.  After 
it  is  coated  with  the  tar,  the  corn  is  spread  in  the  sun. 
When  it  is  nearly  dry,  it  is  spread  under  cover  and  left  until 
wanted  for  use.  Corn  treated  in  this  way  can  be  planted  in  a 
machine  just  as  well  as  it  could  if  it  had  not  been  tarred.  Corn 
which  is  to  be  planted  at  once  may  be  covered  with  tar  and  then 
rolled  in  plaster.  If  planted  with  a  machine,  the  slides  must  be 
open  farther  than  usual,  as  it  will  not  drop  freely. 

In  order  to  prevent  depredations  later  in  the  season,  and  some 
growers  take  this  course  to  prevent  the  pulling  of  the  corn, 
'■'scarecrows"  are  often  erected  in  the  fields.  Images  of  various 
kinds  frequently  prove  effective  with  crows,  but  the  blackbirds 
are  not  as  easily  frightened.  Small  pieces  of  polished  tin,  sus- 
pended from  a  pole  by  a  string,  are  very  good.  Pieces  of  look- 
ing-glass, hung  in  the  same  way,  are  still  more  efficient  and  will 
be  likely  to  keep  all  birds  from  the  corn. 

On  small  farms  the  husking  is  done  by  hand.  It  should  be 
attended  to  early  in  the  season.  This,  because  the  work  can  be 
much  more  easily  and  rapidly  performed  in  warm  weather  than 
it  can  in  cold  days,  and  also  in  order  that  the  corn  and  fodder 
may  not  be  too  long  exposed  to  the  sunshine  *and  storms. 
Where  large  quantities  are  grown,  a  machine  for  husking,  or 
one  for  shelling  cars  which  have  not  been  husked,  will  be  found 
a  great  convenience,  and  will  save  much  time  and  a  great  deal 
of  hard  work. 

Before  feeding,  corn  should  be  shelled  and  ground.  This  is  a 
much  more  economical  way  than  it  is  to  feed  it  on  the  ear. 
-Many  farmers  are  in  the  habit  of  having  both  corn  and  cobs 


FARM  AND  FODDER    CROPS.  309 

ground.  This  saves  shelling,  and  many  feeders  say  that  it 
greatly  improves  the  quality  of  the  meal.  Other  men,  of  equal 
intelligence,  consider  the  cob  worthless,  and  sometimes  injurious, 
for  food.  We  have  never  found  it  profitable,  though  we  ha\e 
sometimes  tried  the  experiment,  to  feed  cob-meal.  We  believe 
that  the  cob  contains  but  little  nutritive  matter,  that  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  grind  corn  and  cobs  together  as  finely  as  they 
should  be,  that  for  young  stock  the  cobs  are  liable  to  cause  irri- 
tation of  the  digestive  organs,  and  that  for  a  fattening  animal  so 
large  a  quantity  of  the  mixture  is  needed  that  the  stomach  will 
be  unduly  distended  and  overloaded.  In  order  to  fatten  an 
animal  rapidly,  very  rich  food  is  required.  If  it  is  desired  to 
carry  on  the  fattening  process  slowly,  a  small  quantity  of  meal 
should  be  given  It  is  quite  expensive  hiring  the  cobs  ground. 
We  consider  them  worth  more  to  put  in  the  hog-yards  for 
manure  than  they  are  to  grind  into  meal.  They  are  also  good 
for  fuel,  though  it  is  said  they  are  injurious  to  the  stoves  in 
which  they  are  burned.  As  they  contain  considerable  potash 
they  are  quite  valuable  for  manure,  and  ought,  in  some  form,  to 
be  saved  and  returned  to  the  land. 

The  stalk  crop  is  of  such  importance  that  it  should  be 
considered  in  this  connection.  We  are  strongly  in  favor  of 
growing  corn  for  feeding  both  in  a  green  and  a  dry  state.  For 
green  food  in  the  summer,  corn  is  one  of  the  best  crops  which 
can  be  grown.  For  drying  for  use  in  cold  weather,  it  is  almost 
equally  valuable.  We  prefer  the  sweet  corn  for  this  purpose. 
It  is  not  as  large  as  some  kinds,  but,  if  properly  grown,  the  cattle 
will  eat  quite  a  proportion  of  the  stalks.  There  is  not  half  the 
waste  to  this  fodder  that  there  is  to  the  gourd-seed  varieties. 
We  plant  in  drills,  with  a  machine,  three  feet  apart.  Not 
more  than  ten  or  twelve  kernels  per  foot  should  be  dropped. 
Thicker  planting  will  make  more  fodder,  but  the  quality  will  be 
much  poorer.  As  soon  as  the  plants  are  two  or  three  inches, 
high,  a  cultivator  should  be  run  close  to  the  rows.     During  the 


310  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

season  the  crop  should  be  cultivated  several  times.  When  two 
feet  hio"h  it  will  do  to  feed  green.  That  which  is  to  be  dried 
should  be  allowed  to  stand  until  the  kernels  on  the  ears  are  well 
formed.  It  should  always  be  cut  before  a  frost.  It  should  dry 
a  day  or  two,  and  then  be  bound  in  small  bundles  and  set  up  in 
small  stacks.  These  should  remain  until  well  dried.  Then  the 
bundles  should  be  set  out  in  the  sun  a  few  hours,  after  which 
they  may  be  drawn  to  the  barn  or  stacked  near  the  yards.  If 
the  land  is  good,  and  a  fair  quantity  of  manure  has  been  used,  a 
large  amount  of  very  good  fodder  will  be  secured.  Broadcast 
sowing  will  give  double  the  quantity,  but  the  quality  will  not  be  as 
good.  Almost  every  farmer  who  keeps  stock  can  make  it  pay 
to  grow  this  crop  every  year.  The  Ensilage  of  corn  fodder,  by 
means  of  which  the  stalks  can  be  kept  fresh  and  green  for  an 
indefinite  time,  will  be  considered  in  a  separate  chapter. 

Hops. — The  hop  is  a  perennial  plant  which  sends  up  a  long, 
twining  stem,  and  bears  its  fruit  in  clusters.  The  stem  is  killed 
by  frost,  but  another  grows  the  succeeding  year.  The  fruit  is 
useful  in  medicine  as  a  tonic,  and  it  probably  possesses  a  nar- 
cotic property.  Hops  wet  in  warm  water  are  among  the  most 
efficient  remedies  for  that  terrible  disease,  neuralgia.  We  have 
used  them  for  this  purpose  with  great  success.  Nervous, 
wakeful  people  often  derive  great  benefit  from  sleeping  on  a 
pillow  made  of  hops.  But  the  great  use  of  hops  is  for  making 
beer.  On  account  of  this  perversion  they  prove  an  injury  to  the 
human  race.  But  they  are  so  extremely  valuable  for  use  in 
cases  of  neuralgia,  for  making  yeast,  and  other  household 
purposes,  we  have  concluded  to  give  brief  directions  for  growing 
them  on  a  small  scale  and  for  home  use. 

Any  good  corn  soil  will  grow  good  hops.  If  very  wet,  the 
land  should  be  underdrained.  If  not,  rich  well-rotted  compost 
should  be  applied.  Lime  is  often  a  valuable  fertilizer  for  this 
crop.  If  the  land  is  very  stony,  it  should  be  cleared  of  these 
obstructions  before  a  plantation  is  started.     A  ^pcation  sheltered 


FARM  AND   FODDER   dROPS.  3lJ. 

from  strong  and  cold  winds  should  be  chosen.  The  plowing 
should  be  done  in  the  fall,  and  should  be  qu.te  deep.  In  spring 
manure  should  be  applied  and  harrowed  in.  The  surface  should 
be  made  very  mellow,  marked  out  in  squares  with  the  rows  per- 
fectly straight,  and  at  a  distance  of  eight  feet  apart.  Between 
these  rows  corn  or  potatoes  may  be  grown  the  first  season. 
The  underground  runners  from  old  vines  are  used  for  planting. 
About  two  bushels  of  good  trimmed  sets  will  be  needed  for  an 
acre.  The  runners  should  be  cut  into  slips,  each  containing  two 
or  three  buds,  and  kept  moist  until  wanted  for  planting.  The 
runners  from  the  male  and  female  plants  should  be  kept 
separate.  Only  eight  or  ten  of  the  former  will  be  needed  on  ant 
acre.  Four  slips  may  be  put  in  a  hill.  They  should  be 
covered  from  two  to  three  inches  deep  with  fine  soil.  Many 
growers  put  a  shovelful  of  compost  manure  in  each  hill  before 
planting,  while  others  make  the  land  rich  enough  by  spreading 
fertilizers  on  the  surface.  If  the  land  is  dry,  the  latter  course  \% 
preferable.  If  rather  wet  land  is  used,  manuring  in  the  hills 
will  be  a  benefit. 

During  the  first  year  some  growers  cultivate  sufficiently  to 
keep  down  the  weeds,  but  they  do  not  set  the  poles,  and  they 
make  no  effort  to  obtain  a  crop  until  the  second  season.  Others 
put  up  the  stakes,  and  secure  a  partial  crop  the  first  year. 
When  the  latter  plan  is  followed,  poles  eight  feet  long  should  be 
used.  They  should  be  set  one  foot  in  the  ground.  All  the 
vines  in  a  hill  should  run  upon  one  pole.  Good  cultivation 
should  be  given.  Poles  for  permanent  use  may  be  from, 
eighteen  to  thirty  feet  long.  Various  kinds  of  wood  are  used'. 
Cedar  are  the  most  durable,  but  are  quite  costly.  Poles  are  apt 
to  be  blown  down  or  broken  off  by  the  wind,  and  thus  injure  the 
crop.  On  this  account  horizontal  yards  are  preferred  by  many 
growers.  One  stake  is  set  at  each  hill.  These  stakes  are 
sawed  an  inch  and  a  quarter  square,  nine  feet  long,  and  covered 
with  coal  tar.     A  row  of  stakes  should  be  set  ei^ht  feet  outside 


312  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

of  the  hills  all  around  the  field.  The  tops  of  all  the  stakes  are 
connected  with  strong,  tarred  twine.  At  the  male  hills  pole.s 
eighteen  or  twenty  feet  long  should  be  used,  so  that  the  wind 
can  blow  the  pollen  over  the  whole  plantation.  The  horizontal 
method  is  much  cheaper  than  the  use  of  long  poles :  the  hops 
grow  better,  and  the  crop  is  gathered  with  loss  work. 

When  the  vines  get  two  or  three  feet  long,  they  must  be  tied 
to  the  poles  or  stakes.  Frequent  cultivation  should  be  given, 
and  no  weeds  should  be  allowed  in  or  near  the  hills.  As  the 
vines  grow  they  will  need  tying  occasionally  to  the  stakes,  and, 
if  the  horizontal  method  is  employed,  when  they  get  a  little  above 
the  top  they  must  be  laid  on  and  wound  around  the  strings.  If 
small  poles  are  used,  two  may  be  set  in  each  hill,  but  about 
fifteen  inches  apart.  In  the  fall  a  shovelful  of  well-rotted 
manure  is  to  be  thrown  upon  each  hill.  In  the  spring  this  is 
carefully  hoed  away,  the  root-stocks  are  cut  off,  and  saved  for 
use  or  sale,  and  the  old  vines  should  be  trimmed  off  above  the 
sprouts  with  a  sharp  knife.  If  any  grubs  are  in  the  hills,  they 
should  be  got  out  and  destroyed.  After  cultivation  should  be 
sufficient  to  keep  the  field  clean.  It  is  not  well  to  hoe  this  crop 
when  in  blossom,  but  no  injury  will  result  from  hoeing  after  the 
hops  are  set. 

As  soon  as  the  seed  becomes  hard  and  its  color  changes  to 
purple  the  hops  are  ripe,  and  picking  may  be  commenced  at 
once.  When  the  horizontal  plan  is  pursued,  the  hops  can  be 
picked  directly  from  the  vines.  If  grown  by  the  other  system 
the  vines  are  cut  with  a  sharp  knife,  the  poles  taken  up  and  laid 
over  a  box  at  which  two  or  four  pickers  work.  The  hops 
should  be  picked  off  clean  and  no  leaves,  or  pieces  of  the  vines, 
should  go  with  them  into  the  box.  Some  growers  cut  the  vines 
from  three  to  five  feet  lioni  the  ground.  Others  cut  them  closer. 
When  the  boxes  are  full  the  hops  are  shovelled  into  sacks  and 
carried  to  the  kiln.  If  only  a  small  quantity  of  hops  are  grown, 
the  drying  can  be  done  in  a  store-room,  or  any  convenient  place. 


FARM  AND   FODDER    CROPS.  3l3 

But  when  this  crop  is  grown  on  a  large  scale  a  kiln  will  be 
required.  The  hops  should  not  be  packed  until  they  are 
thoroughly  dried,  and  if  dried  in  a  kiln  they  must  also  be 
allowed  to  cool.  When  thoroughly  dry  and  cool  they  may  be 
put  into  sacks,  pressed,  and  stored  or  sold. 

Onions. — Although  at  the  South  onions  cannot  be  grown 
from  the  seed  in  one  season,  but  must  have  two  years-  in  which 
to  mature,  the  great  value  of  the  crop  at  tjie  North  and  West 
gives  it  a  strong  claim  upon  our  consideration  and  an  honorable 
position  among  the  products  of  the  farm.  Though  largely 
grovv^n  by  market  gardeners,  there  are  many  farmers  who  make 
this  crop  a  specialty,  and  many  more  who  choose  it  as  one  of 
their  principal  money  crops.  At  the  South  it  is  a  quite  com- 
mon custom  to  grow  this  crop  from  sets.  The  hot  summer 
prematurely  checks  the  growth  of  the  plant  started  from  Southern 
seed,  and  the  stalk  dies  down  long  before  the  plant  has  attained 
its  normal  size.  The  bulbs  which  are  thus  formed  are  very  small 
and  of  no  value  for  the  table,  but  if  set  out  the  next  spring  they 
will  grow  into  onions  of  a  fair  size  and  passable  quality.  They 
ripen  earlier  than  onions  grown  directly  from  the  seed,  and  on 
this  account  the  first  year's  growth,  or  sets,  are  in  demand  at 
the  North  for  use  instead  of  seed  by  growers  who  desire  to 
supply  the  market  very  early  in  the  season.  The  onions  grown 
in  this  way  are  not  as  good  keepers  as  those  which  are  secured 
from  seed,  and  this  method  is  not  recommended  except  for  those 
who  want  a  very  early  crop.  Southern  grown  sets  are  much 
better  than  those  which  are  produced  at  the  North.  It  has 
recently  been  proved  that  seed  grown  far  North  will,  under 
favorable  conditions,  mature  a  crop  at  the  South  the  first  season, 
but  this  result  cannot  be  attained  with  native  seed. 

To  grow  good  sets  the  land  should  be  plowed,  lightly  ma- 
nured, the  surface  made  very  fine  and  smooth,  and  the  seed 
sowed  early  in  the  spring  in  drills  ten  inches  apart.  These  drills 
should  be  broad  and  shallow,  and  seed  should  be  used  at  the 


314  FARMING   FOR    PROFIT. 

rate  of  thirty  pounds  per  acre.  When  the  crop  is  mature,  the 
onions  must  be  pulled,  cured,  and  then  stored  in  a  cool  and 
well-ventilated  loft.  The  next  spring  these  sets  are  put  out,  in 
rich  land,  in  rows  ten.  or  twelve  inches  apart  and  two  or  three 
inches  apart  in  the  row.  They  should  be  lightly  covered,  and, 
during  the  season,  should  receive  sufficient  cultivation  to  keep 
down  all  the  weeds.  The  farmer  who  lives  near  a  large  city 
may  be  able  to  work  off  some  onions  of  this  class,  but  in  small 
villages  they  do  not  sell  in  any  except  very  small  quantities  and 
we  do  not  consider  it  an  object  for  those  who  mustdepcnd  upon 
such  markets  to  attempt  their  cultivation. 

The  Rareripe  is  another  form  of  the  onion,  though  often  mis- 
taken for  the  set.  This  is  still  less  desirable  than  the  set,  and 
its  production  is  not  to  be  generally  commended.  It  is  merely 
a  mature  onion  \Wiich  has  been  kept  through  one  winter  and  is 
ready  to  devote  its  energies  to  the  production  of  seed.  If  kept 
from  seeding,  the  bulb  will  increase  in  size.  Many  farmers  keep 
their  very  small  onions  for  use  in  this  way.  Large  onions  which 
have  become  badly  sprouted  also  answer  the  same  purpose. 
The  small  ones  grow  to  a  much  larger  size,  and,  in  common 
with  the  large  ones,  send  up  seed  stalks.  These  should  be  cut 
off  as  soon  as  the  swelled  growth  is  exhibited  and  just  below 
where  the  stalk  begins  to  enlarge.  The  plants  should  be  kept 
free  from  weeds,  and,  with  the  exception  of  requiring  a  little 
more  room  when  large  specimens  are  used,  arc  to  be  treated  in 
the  same  manner  as  a  crop  grown  from  sets.  These  onions  will 
mature  early,  but  are  not  very  good. 

The  Potato  onion  is  a  variety  which  multiplies  in  the  soil. 
This  kind  is  easily  grown,  but  is  too  poor  to  become  a  general 
favorite. 

The  Shallot  is  similar  to  the  Potato  onion,  but  better  in  quality 
and  an  extra  keeper.  The  bulb  which  is  planted  divides  into 
several  irregular-shaped  onions  which  never  attain  a  large  size. 

Top  onions  arc  large,  coarse,  and  decidedly  poor.     They  arc 


FARM  AND   FODDER    CROPS.  315 

very  poor  keepers,  but  as  they  are  early,  have  a  very  mild  flavor, 
and  are  easily  grown,  they  are  more  common  than  their  actual 
merits  would  lead  one  to  expect.  They  are  propagated  by  little 
bulbs,  which,  sometimes  to  the  number  of  a  dozen,  grow  on  top 
of  a  seed  stalk.  They  grow  in  the  same  place  and  way  as  the 
ordinary  seeds,  but  are  miniature  onions  instead  of  black  seeds. 
These  bulbs  are  to  be  gathered  when  ripe  and  spread  in  a  cool 
place.  Early  in  the  spring  they  may  be  put  out  in  rows  from 
ten  to  fourteen  inches  apart  and  cultivated  enough  to  keep  them 
free  from  weeds. 

We  now  come  to  a  consideration  of  the  genuine  onion  in  its 
best  form.  This  is  grown  from  the  black  seed  which  is  pro- 
duced in  a  sort  of  head  on  top  of  a  tall  stalk  which  is  thrown 
up  during  the  second  year  of  the  life  of  the  bulb.  The  quality 
of  the  seed  which  is  used  will  have  a  very  strong  influence  upon 
the  yield  and  quality  of  the  crop  which  will  be  obtained.  Many 
growers  of  onion  seed  use  for  this  purpose  an  inferior  lot  of 
bulbs.  Often  those  which  are  badly  formed,  or  are  too  small  to 
sell,  are  used  for  seed  stock.  A  few  growers  select  the  finest 
bulbs  and  grow  seed  therefrom.  Seed  from  the  best  stock  is 
the  only  kind  which  should  ever  be  used.  A  difference  of  hun- 
dreds of  bushels  per  acre  is  often  made  in  the  yield  of  a  crop 
simply  by  the  quality  of  the  seed.  It  is  not  only  necessary  to 
secure  seed  from  good  stock,  but  it  is  of  great  importance  that 
it  should  be  fresh.  Seed  three  years  old  is  good  for  nothing, 
and  at  two  years  of  age  but  a  very  small  proportion  of  ordinary 
seed  will  germinate.  If  very  carefully  kept,  perhaps  one-half  of 
a  lot  of  strictly  first-class  seed  will  grow  when  two  years  old. 
but  even  then  there  is  a  great  deal  of  risk.  Consequently,  it  is 
much  better  to  obtain  new  seed  than  to  place  the  slightest 
dependence  upon  that  which  is  old.  It  is  a  great  damage  to  be 
obliged  to  plant  over,  and  the  grower  can  better  afford  to  pay 
double  price  for  good  seed  than  to  go  through  this  operation, 
even  though  the  seed  for  his  first  sowinjj  costs  him  nothing;. 


316  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

Early  sowing  is  one  of  the  essentials  of  success  with  this 
crop.  The  onion  land  should  be  plowed  and  got  in  condition 
for  sowing  as  early  in  the  season  as  possible.  The  best  soil  for 
onions  is  neither  very  hea\y  nor  very  light ;  is  not  too  dry,  and 
is  far  from  being  wet.  A  sandy  or  gravelly  loam  will  gener- 
ally give  good  crops,  but  many  other  kinds  of  land  will  yield 
pretty  well.  Unlike  most  crops,  onions  do  better,  and  it  is 
much  less  work  to  grow  them,  when  planted  on  the  same  land 
year  after  year.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  grow  carrots  on  the  pro- 
posed onion-bed  as  a  sort  of  preparatory  crop.  When  onions 
are  to  be  grown,  a  liberal  application  of  first-rate  manure  should 
be  made.  Well-rotted  stable-manure,  hog-manure,  or  night- 
soil,  will  give  good  results  if  freely  used.  As  a  general  thing 
farmers  do  not  make  their  land  rich  enough  to  give  the  best 
results  with  this  crop.  It  is  a  strong  feeder,  and  must  be  well 
fed  in  order  to  be  made  profitable.  The  manure  should  be 
extremely  fine,  and  should  be  plowed  in  to  a  depth  of  four  or 
five  inches.  Not  less  than  eight  cords  of  strictly  first-class 
manure  should  be  used  on  an  acre.  After  the  land  has  been 
plowed,  it  must  be  rolled  if  it  is  inclined  to  be  lumpy,  and  then 
harrowed.  If  the  soil  is  reasonably  fine,  the  rolling  may  be 
omitted.  Wood-ashes  at  the  rate  of  from  one  to  two  hundred 
bushels  per  acre,  or  a  liberal  quantity  of  some  special  onion 
fertilizer,  should  be  sown  and  harrowed  in.  If  there  are  any 
stones  on  the  surface,  they  must  removed.  After  the  har- 
rowing, the  land  must  be  carefully  raked  with  a  fine-toothed 
hand-rake.  This  in  order  to  get  out  small  stones,  and  crush  or 
remove  any  lumps  of  earth  which  may  remain.  It  is  consider- 
able work  to  fit  an  onion-bed  to  receive  the  seed,  but  it  is  very 
important  that  this  work  should  be  faithfully  performed.  The 
yield  of  the  crop  largely  depends  upon  the  manner  in  which 
this  preparation  is  made,  and  the  labor  attending  its  after  cultiva- 
tion will  be  modified  thereby  in  a  still  greater  degree.  An  extra 
day's  work  on  one-eighth  of  an  acre  of  land  before  sowing  may 


FARM  AND   FODDER    CROPS.  31 7 

save  several  days'  time  afterwards,  and  will  certainly  save  a 
great  deal  of  very  hard  labor.  Until  the  surface  soil  is  light 
and  fine  as  ashes,  do  not  be  tempted  to  think  that  it  will  "  do 
well  enough."  It  will  not  be  well  enough  until  the  land  is 
perfectly  fitted. 

When  this  stage  is  reached,  the  seed  should  be  sown.  The 
quantity  required  will  be  from  three  to  four  pounds  per  acre,  if 
the  seed  is  perfect ;  and  from  four  to  five  pounds  if  it  is  almost, 
but  not,  quite,  first-class.  If  the  rows  are  only  twelve  inches 
apart,  of  course  more  seed  will  be  needed  than  will  be  required 
if  the  spaces  are  eighteen  inches  wide.  We  think  sixteen 
inches  is  far  enough  apart,  and  do  not  believe  that  it  is  well  to 
put  the  rows  nearer  together.  For  sowing,  a  machine  of  some 
kind  should  always  be  used.  It  takes  a  great  while  to  sow 
onion  seed  by  hand,  and  in  the  effort  to  sow  in  this  way  quite  a 
proportion  of  it  is  wasted.  There  are  machines  made  for  this 
special  purpose,  which  cost  only  a  few  dollars  and  do  the  work 
perfectly.  But  it  is  better  to  obtain  a  combined  drill  and  hoe. 
With  this  machine  not  only  the  sowing  but  also  a  large  part  of 
the  cultivation  of  the  crop  can  be  done.  If  but  a  small  quantity 
of  .onions  are  grown,  a  {^v^  neighbors  can  buy  one  of  these  drills 
in  company,  and  thus  make  the  individual  expense  very  light. 
After  the  seed  is  sown  a  light  hand-roller  may  be  run  over  the 
land.  Most  seed-drills  have  a  roller  which  passes  over  the  row, 
and  when  they  are  used  this  operation  is  unnecessary.  Figure 
31  represents  the  celebrated  Planet  Jr.  Garden-Drill,  Wheel- 
Hoe,  Wheel-Cultivator  and  Wheel-Plow  combined.  If  is  made 
by  S.  L.  Allen  &  Co.,  of  Philadelphia.  We  have  used  one  of 
these  implements  several  years,  and  found  it  first-rate  for  each 
of  the  various  kinds  of  work  which  it  is  intended  to  perform. 

It  is  never  well  to  grow  this  crop  on  weedy  soil.  If  the  pro- 
posed onion  bed  is  weedy,  it  is  better  to  grow  carrots,  or  even 
corn,  upon  it  until  the  weeds  are  rooted  out.  But  whatever 
the  character  of  the    land  in  this  respect  there  will   be  weeds 


318 


FARMING   FOR  PROFIT. 


enough,  and  they  will  make  their  appearance  very  soon  after 
the  land  is  worked.  Just  as  soon  as  the  rows  can  be  plainly 
seen,  a  wheel-hoe  should  be  run  between  them.  This  will  bene- 
fit the  crop,  and  destroy  a  multitude  of  weeds. 

If  only  a  small  business  in  this  line  is  attempted,  the  com- 
bined machine,  shown  in  Figure  31,  will  answer  every  purpose. 
But  where  onions  are  extensively  grown,  the  Planet  Jr.  Double 
Wheel-Hoe,  Wheel-Plow  and  Cultivator,  made  by  the  same 
Company,  will  be  found  better.  This  machine  is  illustrated  in 
Figure  32.  It  will  not  do  to  delay  cultivation  until  the  weeds 
get   well   started.      Such   a   course   will    involve   an    immense 


FIG.    31. — PLVNET    JR.   COMBINED   DRILL 
AND    HOE. 


FIG.    32. — PLANET  JR.    WHEEL-HOE, 


amount  of  needless  labor.  We  have  sometimes  raked  the  rows 
lengthwise  with  an  iron  tooth-rake,  and  in  this  way  destroyed 
many  of  the  feeble  weeds  without  injuring  the  onions.  As  soon  as 
they  arc  large  enough  the  onions  must  be  weeded.  Whoever 
docs  this  work  must  get  upon  his  hands  and  knees  and  expect 
to  have  a  tiresome  job.  The  work  should  not  be  slighted.  One 
good  weeding  is  worth  two  imperfect  ones.  During  the  season 
this  process  will  need  repeating  two  or  three  times.  No  weeds 
should  be  allowed  to  grow  at  any  time  upon  land  devoted  to 
this  crop. 

When  the  crop   is   nearly  ripe,  the  tops  of  the  onions  will 
begin  to  fall  upon  the  ground.     For  a  little  while  after  this  the 


FARM  AND  FODDER   CROPS.  3I9 

bulbs  will  grow  very  fast.  Then  they  will  ripen,  and  the  tops 
will  die.  Sometimes  a  crop  matures  unevenly.  Some  of  the 
tops  fall  over,  while  many  remain  upright.  When  this  occurs 
it  is  best  to  roll  an  empty  flour-barrel  over  the  rows  in  order  to 
bend  down  the  tops,  and  thus  hasten  the  ripening  process  on 
the  part  of  those  plants  which  would  otherwise  remain  green 
too  long.  When  most  of  the  tops  are  dry  where  they  join  the 
bulbs,  the  onions  should  be  pulled.  If  allowed  to  remain 
longer,  they  may  begin  to  grow  again  and  very  soon  be  spoiled. 

The  onions  may  be  pulled  by  hand,  or,  if  very  ripe,  raked  out 
with  a  common  hand-hay-rake.  They  may  be  put  in  windrows, 
five  or  six  rows  in  each,  and  allowed  to  dry.  If  the  tops  are 
green  they  should  not  be  stirred  for  several  days,  but  if  quite 
ripe  they  may  be  raked  over,  carefully,  with  a  hay-rake,  evejy 
fair  day.  In  a  short  time  the  tops  will  die  down  and  the  bulbs 
will  feel  hard  and  be  quite  solid.  W'hen  this  stage  is  reached 
the  crop  is  well  cured.  Unless  they  are  to  be  sold  at  once,  care 
must  be  taken  that  the  tops  become  dry  dose  to  the  bulbs.  The 
end  of  the  tops  almost  to  the  onion  will  often  seem  quite  dry 
when  the  necks  are  green.  It  will  not  do  to  cut  the  tops  in  this 
state,  as  the  onions  will  "  bleed "  and  very  soon  decay.  The 
drying  must  go  on  until  the  top  is  dead  throughout  its  entire 
length.  When  this  stage  is  reached,  the  tops  may  be  cut,  close 
to  the  bulbs,  with  a  sharp  knife,  or,  what  we  like  much  better,  a 
pair  of  old  sheep-shears.  The  onions  can  then  be  carried  to 
market  or  stored  for  winter.  The  small  ones  should  be  sepa- 
rated from  the  large  ones.  They  are  good  to  eat,  but  on 
account  of  the  extra  work  of  fitting  them  for  the  table  they  will 
sell  for  only  half  or  two-thirds  as  much  as  the  large  ones.  The 
very  small  ones — those  not  larger  than  a  hazel-nut — will  some- 
times sell  at  full  rates  to  parties  who  want  them  for  pickling. 

We  have  made  it  an  invariable  rule  to  push  off  this  crop  as 
soon  as  possible  after  it  is  ripe.  Other  growers,  who  are  dif- 
ferently situated,  often  find  it  for  their  interest  to  hold  on  until 


320  FARMIXG   I- OR   PROFIT. 

the  middle  of  October,  and  some  keep  their  crops  until  the  next 
spring.  The  latter  course  is  sometimes  the  best.  We  have 
known  onions  to  bring  extremely  high  rates  in  the  spring.  But 
there  is  a  great  risk  in  keeping  them.  They  sometimes  decay, 
and  when  they  do  not  they  are  often  plenty  and  prices  are  very 
low.  We  have  known  growers  to  almost  give  away  large  quan- 
tities of  onions  late  in  the  spring.  No  one  would  pay  much 
for  them,  they  were  beginning  to  sprout,  and  many  showed 
unmistakable  signs  of  decay. 

If  it  is  thought  best  to  put  the  crop  into  winter  quarters,  the 
onions  should  be  spread,  in  an  exposed  building,  about  a  foot 
and  a  half  deep,  upon  the  floor.  A  space  of  two  feet  should  be 
left  all  around  the  pile  between  the  onions  and  the  boards. 
When  the  onions  are  frozen  hard,  the  pile  should  be  covered 
with  sheets,  or  cloth  of  some  kind,  in  order  to  keep  the  bulbs 
clean,  and  then  hay  should  be  packed  between  the  pile  and  the 
sides  of  the  building.  The  top  of  the  pile  should  also  be  cov- 
ered to  a  depth  of  two  or  three  feet.  A  lattice-work  bin  a  little 
inside  of  the  outer  wall  would  be  a  still  better  place  for  storage. 
In  the  bin  the  onions  should  be  covered,  as  before  directed,  and 
hay  must  be  placed  around  the  outside  of  the  slats  in  order  to 
fill  the  space  between  the  bin  and  the  wall.  In  some  sections 
the  large  growers  have  fitted  up  buildings  for  the  special  purpose 
of  keeping  this  crop  frozen  through  the  winter.  After  the 
onions  are  frozen  they  should  be  let  alone  until  they  thaw  in 
the  spring.  Then  they  should  be  spread  and  dried  as  rapidly  as 
possible  and  sent  to  market  without  delay.  If  it  is  only  desired 
to  store  a  few  onions  for  winter  use,  they  may  be  put  in  barrels 
which  have  had  several  pieces  chipped  out  of  their  sides  with  a 
hatchet,  and  allowed  to  stand  in  a  cool  room  until  nearly  time 
for  heavy  frosts.  Then  they  should  be  removed  to  a  cool  and 
well-ventilated  cellar.  The  tops  of  the  barrels  should  be  covered 
to  keep  out  the  light. 

As  soon  as  the  crop  is  got  oflT,  the  bed  should  be  cleared  of 


FARM  AND  FODDER    CROPS,  321 

all  weeds,  decayed  onions,  and  tops,  and  harrowed  thoroughly. 
If  any  weed  seeds  have  ripened,  this  working  of  the  soil  will 
cause  them  to  germinate  at  once.  In  a  few  weeks  the  land 
should  receive  another  harrowing.  This  will  destroy  the  weeds, 
and  these  two  harrowings  will  save  an  immense  amount  of  work 
the  next  year.  Late  in  the  autumn  it  is  a  good  plan  to  plow  the 
ground  in  order  that  the  frost  may  make  it  fine  and  mellow.  It 
may  need  plowing  again  in  the  spring,  but  the  fall  plowing  will 
prove  highly  advantageous.  If  the  land  is  quite  mellow,  the 
spring  preparation  may  be  made  with  a  cultiv^ator.  If  this  is 
designed,  a  liberal  quantity  of  manure  should  be  applied  before 
the  fall  plowing  is  performed.  In  this  case,  we  might  say  in 
any  case,  ashes  should  be  used  in  the  spring  with  an  unsparing 
hand.  In  plowing  land  for  onions  the  cultivation  should  always 
be  shallow.  Neva'  plow  deeper  than  five  inches,  and,  on  many 
soils,  four  is  still  better.  If  the  land  is  light,  always  roll  it  in 
the  spring  after  plowing  and  before  it  is  harrowed. 

In  all  the  operations  with  this  crop  a  great  deal  of  care  is 
needed.  If  the  bulbs  are  cut,  with  a  hoe  or  knife,  they  are 
spoiled.  Careless  handling  when  the  crop  is  grown  is  very 
wasteful,  as  it  will  cause  many  of  the  onions  to  decay.  All  dis- 
eased bulbs  should  be  removed  from  the  land  as  soon  as  the 
trouble  is  discovered.  If  the  maggot  appears,  a  little  guano  may 
be  sprinkled  along  the  rows,  or  unleached  ashes  may  be  applied 
in  the  same  manner.  Some  years  this  pest  proves  very  destruc- 
tive, while  other  seasons  it  does  but  little  harm. 

We  usually  buy  our  seed  of  the  man  whom  we  consider  the 
best  -grower  in  the  country.  Occasionally  we  grow  a  small 
quantity.  There  is  no  trouble  in  obtaining  seed  enough.  Any 
one  can  do  this.  But  it  is  not  every  one  who  can  grow  first- 
class  onion  seed.  To  do  this,  a  careful  selection  of  bulbs,  of  the 
exact  form  which  it  is  desired  to  produce,  must  be  made,  and 
they  must  be  set  very  early  in  the  season  in  good  land  and  care- 
fully tended.     During  the  various  hoeings,  the  earth  should  be 


322  JAKMIXC   FOR   PROFIT. 

heaped  around  the  stalks  to  a  height  of  eight  or  ten  inches,  or 
else  a  framework  of  slats,  or  some  stakes  and  strings,  i^hould  be 
put  up  to  support  the  heavy  seed  tops  and  keep  the  stalks  from 
breaking  over.  W'licn  the  seed-stalks  turn  }ellow  near  the 
ground  and  the  seed-cells  begin  to  crack  open,  the  tops,  with 
about  six  inches  of  the  stalks,  should  be  cut,  spread  in  a  warm 
chamber  to  a  depth  of  only  a  few  inches,  and  frequently  stirred. 
When  thoroughly  dry  the  seed  may  be  shelled  and  stored  in  a 
dry  place.  The  cleaning  may  be  done  with  a  fine  sieve,  and  the 
imperfect  seeds  may  be  removed  by"  putting  the  whole  into 
water  and  skimming  off  all  those  which  come  to  the  top.  The 
seed  should  be  stirred  while  in  the  water,  and,  tlyjugh  a  few  of 
them  might  grow,  it  will  be  best  to  throw  away  all  seeds  which 
do  not  sink.  After  this  is  done  the  seed  must  be  thoroughly 
dried.  This  is  very  important,  as  a  great  deal  of  seed  is  spoiled 
by  being  put  av.ay  too  damp.  The  drying  may  be  done  in  a 
warm  room,  but  not  very  near  a  fire.  Some  growers  prefer,  what 
is  certainl}'  a  safer  (and  they  claim  almost  as  effective)  way,  to 
winnow  their  onion  seed  in  the  wind.  This  will  take  out  most 
of  the  defective  seeds,  and  there  will  be  no  danger  from  an 
excess  of  moisture. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  the  onion  which  are  grown  from 
the  black  seed.  The  Early  Red  Globe  is  a  very  good  and  pro- 
ductive early  onion,  and  the  Early  Cracker  is  a  fine,  light  col- 
ored, but  not  a  remarkably  prolific  sort.  Of  the  late  kinds  the 
Earge  Red  Wethersfield  is  very  large  and  productive.  It  is  a 
flat  variety,  requires  a  long  season,  looks  nicely,  and  is  a  favorite 
in  the  New  York  market.  The  Early  Round  Danvers  Yellow 
is  an  early  globular  bulb,  ripens  in  a  short  season,  is  very  hand- 
some, and  extremely  prolific.  It  is  the  favorite  in  Boston,  and 
dealers  say  that  in  point  of  quality,  appearance  and  yield,  it 
easily  stands  at  the  head  of  all  the  kinds  grown  at  the  North. 
There  are  several  other  sorts,  some  of  them  great  favorites  in 
certain  localities,  which  are  not  well  adapted  to  general  cultiva- 


FARM  AND   FODDER    CROPS.  323 

tion.  A  few  European  varieties  are  grown  by  market  garden- 
ers, but  they  are  not  to  be  recommended  for  cultivation  on  the 
farm. 

The  Peanut. — This  is  a  Southern  plant,  and  needs  a  warm 
climate  in  which  to  grow  to  the  best  advantage.     But  by  means 
of  skilful  culture  it  can  be  grown  much  farther  North  than  was 
once  supposed,  and  it  will  succeed  well  in  the  Southwestern 
States.     Though  formerly  grown  largely  at  the  South  for  feed- 
ing to  hogs,  and  even   now  (as   mentioned   under  the  head  of 
Peas)   used  to  some  extent  for  this  purpose,,  the-  peanut  has 
become  an  article  of  great  market  value.     Almost  wholly  un- 
known at  the  North  twenty  years  ago,  it  is  now  for  sale  in 
nearly  every  village,  and  town,  and  city,  in  the  land.     Where- 
the  climate  is  favorable,  the  cultivation  of  this  crop  is  not  diffi- 
cult.    A  soil  that  is  rich  and  reasonably  dry  should  be  chosen,, 
and  \{  the  crop  is  designed  for  the  market,  a  light-colored  soil 
will  prove  the  best.     This  because  a  dark  soil  colors  the  pods,, 
and,  though  they  are  just  as  good  for  all  practical  purposes,  the 
dark  pods   will   not  sell   as   readily  as  the  light-colored   ones. 
Lime  seems  to  be  a  specific  manure  for  this  plant,  though  it 
should  not  be  used  alone,  but  in  connection  with  a  good  quality 
of  compost.     The  plowing  should  be  done  early  in  the  spring 
and  should  be  only  four  or  five  inches  deep.     The  surface-  must 
be  made  very  mellow  by  means  of  a  harrow  or  cultivator.    Then 
rows  may  be  marked  out,  three  feet  apart,  by  plowing  a  light 
furrow.    Into  this  trench  the  manure  should  be  thrown  and  a  fur- 
Tow  turned  over  it  upon  each  side.     This  will  cover  the  manure 
and  make  a  ridge  upon  which  the  peas  should  be  planted,  two 
in  a  hill,  in  hills  three  feet  apart.     The  planting  should  not  be 
done   until   the   ground   is   quite   warm.       The   soil   should    be 
kept  mellow  and  free  from  weeds,  but  after  the  vines  begin  to 
spread  they  must  not  be  disturbed.     The  earth  may  be  carefully 
drawn  up  to  the  hills,  but  care  must  be  taken  not  to  cover  the 

vines  at  any  time.     If  there  are  vacant  places  in  the  rows.  thev. 
21  '' 


324  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

may  be  filled  by  transplanting  from  a  row  in  which  an  extra 
quantity  of  seed  was  planted,  in  order  to  supply  such  a  demand 
When  the  vines  have  been  killed  by  frost,  the  harvesting  may 
be  done.  The  earth  can  be  loosened  with  a  fork,  and  the  vines, 
with  most  of  the  pods  adhering  to  them,  be  pulled  by  hand,  or 
the  earth  may  be  loosened  by  driving  between  the  rows  with  a 
plow  having  a  sharp  knife  coulter  which  should  be  run  near  the 
hills.  When  they  are  pulled,  the  vines  must  be  spread  upon  the 
ground.  They  should  remain  there  for  several  days.  When 
fairly  cured,  they  may  be  carted  to  the  barn  and  spread  upon 
any  convenient  loft,  or  the  nuts  may  be  picked  off  at  once. 
When  the  ground  has  been  cleared,  the  hogs  should  be  turned 
on  and  allowed  to  gather  the  nuts  which  remain  in  the  soil. 
Some  growers  prefer  flat  culture,  but  we  consider  the  ridges  a 
very  great  improvement  upon  this  method. 

This  crop  cannot  be  recommended  for  market  much  farther 
North  than  Virginia,  but  for  home  use  it  can  be  grown  in 
almost  any  State  in  the  Union.  It  has  been  grown  in  Massa- 
chusetts with  considerable  success.  When  grown  at  the  North, 
ridge  culture  should  always  be  employed  and  very  warm  loca- 
tions selected.  The  plants  may  be  started  in  a  cold  frame,  or  in 
boxes  in  the  house,  and  put  out  when  all  danger  from  frost  is 
past  and  the  ground  has  become  quite  warm. 

PoT.vroES. — Although  it  was  with  great  difficulty  that  the 
civilized  races  were  persuaded  that  the  potato  was  good  for  food, 
and  the  time  when  large  farmers  raised  only  a  bushel  or  two  per 
year  has  not  yet  passed  from  the  memory  of  aged  people,  it  has 
gradually  won  its  way  into  the  popular  favor  and  become  one 
of  the  leading  crops  in  this  country  and  also  in  foreign  lands. 
Until  the  appearance  of  the  "potato  rot,"  this  was  a  very  pro- 
ductive crop  and  was  grown  at  very  small  expense.  Since  that 
time  the  yield  has  greatly  decreased  and  the  cost  of  production 
has  rapidly  advanced.  But  it  is  a  crop  for  which  there  is  always 
a  demand  in  market,  and  which  is  needed  in  every  family.    Con- 


FARM  AND  FODDER   CROPS.  325 

sequently  it  finds  a  place  on  almost  every  farm.  In  that  part  of 
the  country  where  it  succeeds,  the  Irish  potato  is  generally 
grown.  Farther  South  the  Sweet  potato  is  extensively  culti- 
vated. The  method  of  growing  this  crop  is  very  simple,  and  the 
amount  of  labor  required  is  not  excessive.  As  these  different 
kinds  need  different  treatment,  we  will  consider  them  separately. 
The  Irish  potato  will  grow  in  a  great  variety  of  soils,  but 
thrives  best  in  warm  and  fairly  dry  land.  If  land  which  is 
naturally  wet  is  to  be  planted  with  potatoes,  it  should  be  thor- 
oughly drained.  Quite  a  quantity  of  potatoes  may  be  grown  in 
a  wet  field,  if  other  things  are  favorable,  but  their  quality  will 
be  poor  and  they  will  present  an  inferior  appearance.  The  land 
for  this  crop  should  be  plowed  in  the  spring.  Well-rotted  yard- 
manure,  or  compost,  may  be  spread  on  in  liberal  quantities  and 
plowed  in,  or  the  manure  may  be  scattered  directly  under  the 
seed.  If  a  machine  is  used  for  planting,  it  will  be  best  fo  spread 
the  manure.  When  the  planting  is  done  by  hand,  we  prefer  to 
put  at  least  a  part  of  the  manure  in  the  hills.  By  spreading 
about  twenty  loads  of  good  yard-manure  and  using  about  eight 
hundred  pounds  of  a  good  chemical  fertilizer  in  the  hills,  the 
very  best  results,  both  as  regards  quantity  and  quality,  may  be 
secured.  We  consider  this  altogether  the  best  way  in  which  to 
grow  this  crop,  and,  while  it  involves  some  expense,  think  it  pays 
better  than  any  other  plan  with  which  we  are  acquainted.  It  is 
a  well-known  fact  that,  on  new  land,  potatoes  yield  largely 
and  are  very  free  from  disease.  Some  growers  have  thought 
that  this  was  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  new  soil  contains  large 
quantities  of  potash — an  element  which  the  potato  requires,  and 
which  is  very  likely  to  be  deficient  in  land  which  has  long  been 
under  cultivation.  The  chemical  fertilizers  which  are  made  for 
this  crop  contain  quite  a  proportion  of  potash,  and  they  almost 
invariably  prove  highly  beneficial.  Wood  ashes,  too,  contain 
potash,  and  have  proved  a  valuable  manure  for  the  potato. 
If  home  resources  are  entirely  relied  upon,  let  the  land  be  well 


32G  PAR  MING  FOR   PROFIT. 

coated  with  yard-manure  and  a  large  handful  of  ashes  be  put  in 
each  hill.  On  many  soils  a  mixture  of  plaster  and  ashes,  in 
about  equal  quantities,  proves  very  useful.  But  we  much  prefer 
to  use  a  special  "potato  fertilizer"  in  addition  to  the  yard- 
manure.  We  consider  old  land  better  than  sod,  but  this  crop 
can  be'grown  on  the  latter,  if  desired. 

Deep  plowing  is  not  necessary,  but  it  is  very  important  that 
the  soil  to  a  depth  of  four  or  five  inches  should  be  very  fine  and 
mellow.  A  wheel-harrow  is  a  good  implement  for  fitting  sod 
for  this  crop.     Trues  Potato-Planter,  manufactured  by  Nash  & 


FIG.  33. — TRUE'S   potato-planter. 

Bro.,  of  New  York  city,  is  shown  in  Figure  33.  This  imple- 
ment marks  the  rows,  cuts,  drops,  and  covers  the  seed  at  one 
operation.  If  the  planting  is  to  be  done  by  hand,  the  rows 
should  be  marked  with  a  plow  which  will  make  a  small  furrow, 
two  or  three  inches  deep.  If  the  planting  is  to  be  in  drills,  no 
further  marking  is  needed,  but  if  hill  culture  is  required,  rows 
should  be  marked  across  the  field,  so  that  the  planting  can  be 
done  in  squares.  For  the  smaller  kinds  of  potatoes  the  rows 
and  hills  need  not  be  more  than  two  and  a  half  feet  apart,  but 
fb;"  the  larger  sorts  three,  or  three  and  a  half,  feet  will  be  better. 


FARM  AN-D  FODDER   CROPS.  327 

If  planted  in  drills,  the  rows  may  be  the  same  distance  apart  as 
when  grown  in  hills,  but  the  pieces  of  seed  potatoes  may  be 
placed  only  ten  or  twelve  inches  apart.  We  have  tried  bo'Ji 
methods  and  find  that  with  equal  chances  the  yield  varies  but 
little.  On  the  whole  we  prefer  growing  the  crop  in  hills.  After 
the  marking  is  done  the  fertilizer  is  distributed  and  covered. 
This  covering  may  be  done  with  a  plow,  and  if  strong  manures 
are  used,  should  not  be  neglected.  Contact  with  concentrated, 
fertilizers  will  injure  if  not  wholly  destroy  the  seed. 

For  planting,  the  very  best  potatoes  should  be  used.  Those 
of  medium  size,  which  are  perfect  in  form  and  condition,  should 
be  selected  and  cut  in  pieces  of  from  two  to  four  eyes.  One  or 
two  pieces  should  be  placed,  the  cut  side  down,  in  each  hill. 
We  can  remember  when  it  was  the  custom  to  put  one  large,  or 
two  small,  potatoes  in  each  hill  for  seed,  but  we  are  glad  to  say 
that  a  more  reasonable  method  is  now  in  voeue.  But  we  think 
there  has  been  a  tendency  to  go  to  the  other  extreme  and  not 
use  seed  enough.  Cutting  to  single  eyes  and  using  but  one  or 
two  pieces  to  a  hill,  seems  too  light  seeding  for  a  field  crop. 
Too  much  seed  is  ruinous,  as  it  will  give  an  immense  number 
of  very  small  and  almost  worthless  tubers,  while  too  light  seed- 
ing cannot  possibly  produce  a  full  crop.  After  the  seed  has 
been  dropped,  it  can  be  covered  with  a  light  plow  or  with- 
hand-hoes. 

As  a  general  rule  it  is  best  to  plant  early  in  the  season.  When 
we  first  began  to  work  on  a  farm,  it  was  the  usual  practice  to 
plant  the  potatoes  after  the  corn  had  all  been  put  in.  Now  it  is 
the  general  custom  to  plant  the  potatoes  first.  It  requires  con- 
siderable time  for  the  potato  to  get  through  the  ground,  and  it 
seems  to  come  along  almost  as  rapidly  if  planted  in  May  as  it 
does  in  June.  As  soon  as  the  ground  is  warm,  and  danger 
from  frost  has  passed,  the  seed  for  the  main  crop  may  be  safely 
planted.  For  an  early  crop  the  seed  must  be  got  in  as  soon  as 
it  will  possibly  do,  and  if  there  is  danger  of  frost,  the  young 


328  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

plants  may  be  lightly  covered  with  earth.     This  can  be  done 
with  a  one-horse  plow,  and  will  not  be  injurious. 

As  soon  as  the  crop  is  well  up  a  cultivator  should  be  run 
between  the  rows,  and  also  between  the  hills  if  the  planting  was 
done  in  squares,  and  the  potatoes  hoed  by  hand  if  necessar>'. 
It  is  a  good  plan  to  throw  a  handful  of  ashes  and  plaster,  with 
which  a  little  salt  has  been  mixed,  upon  each  hill.  In  ten  days 
or  a  fortnight  run  a  plow  between  the  rows  near  the  hills, 
turning  the  earth  away  from  them.  The  furrows  thus  made 
should  be  four  or  five  inches  in  depth,  so  as  to  leave  the  hills 


FIG.    34. —  DOUBLE-MOULD   BOARD-PLOW. 

mere  "squares  of  earth"  upon  which  the  sun  can  shine,  and 
which  the  air  can  readily  penetrate.  When  the  vines  are  six  or 
seven  inches  high  another  plowing  should  be  given.  This  time 
a  double-mould  board-plow  should  be  used,  and  the  dirt  thrown 
towards  the  hills.  Figure  34  represents  one  of  these  plows 
made  by  the  New  York  Plow  Co.,  55  Beekman  street.  New  York 
city.  Cultivation  should  never  be  given  after  the  blossoms 
appear,  as  it  will  cause  the  setting  of  a  new  lot  of  tubers  and  thus 
prove  very  injurious. 

Another  method  requires  the  use  of  guano  alone  as  a  fertilizer. 
After  the  land  is  plowed,  one-half  of  the  quantity  which  is  to  be 


FARM  AND  FODDER    CROPS.  •  320 

applied  is  sowed  broadcast  and  harrowed  in.  Drills  are  then 
made  with  a  large  plow,  and  in  the  bottom  and  on  the  sides  of 
the  furrows  thus  formed  one-half  of  the  remainder  of  the  guano 
is  sowed.  The  pieces  of  seed-potatoes  are  dropped  and  covered 
two  inches  deep,  but  the  drills  are  left  open  except  where  the 
seed  is  placed.  When  the  shoots  begin  to  crack  the  tops  of  the 
hills,  the  remainder  of  the  guano  is  sowed  along  the  drill  and 
all  covered  over  evenly  with  the  ground.  This  plan  was 
devised  by  Mr.  William  Hunt,  of  Connecticut,  who  has 
followed  it  with  great  success. 

A  few  years  ago  the  directions  which  have  been  given  would 
have  been  sufficient  for  the  cultivation  of  this  crop,  and  its  care 
until  the  time  for  harvesting.  But  the  Colorado  Beetle, 
or,  as  more  commonly  designated,  the  potato-bug,  has  made  his 
appearance  in  nearly  all  the  places  in  this  country  in  which 
potatoes  are  produced,  and  made  it  necessary  for  the  farmer  to 
take  vigorous  methods  for  protecting  the  growing  crop.  This 
pest  often  attacks  the  plants  when  they  are  quite  small.  The 
female  potato-bug  lays  some  seven  hundred  eggs.  These  are 
usually  deposited  upon  the  under  side  of  potato  leaves.  In  a 
few  days  these  eggs  hatch  into  larvs,  which  feed  upon  the  plant 
and  prove  terribly  destructive.  If  no  preventive  measures 
are  taken,  these  pests  will  in  a  short  time  eat  all  of  the 
leaves,  and  thus  utterly  destroy  the  crop.  There  are  three 
broods  each  year,  and  as  the  eggs  are  laid  at  intervals  the  bugs 
can  be  found  in  all  stages  of  development  at  almost  any  time 
during  the  warm  weather. 

Various  methods  have  been  devised  for  destroying  this  enemy 
of  the  farmer.  Some  potato-growers  pick  off  and  burn  the 
leaves  upon  which  the  eggs  are  deposited,  and  gather  and 
destroy,  either  by  crushing,  burning,  or  scalding,  the  larvae  and 
the  full-grown  bugs.  This  requires  a  great  deal  of  time  and 
needs  frequent  repetition.  Consequently  it  proves  too  expensive. 
Another  plan  is  for  a  man  to  take  an  old  pail,  or  pan,  hold  it 


330  •  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

one  side  of  a  hill  and  strike  the  vines  on  the  other  side  with  a 
short  stick  or  an  old  broom.  In  this  way  most  of  the  bugs 
are  sh;ikon  into  the  vessel,  and  they  may  be  easily  destroyed  in 
either  of  the  ways  noted  above.  A  machine  for  gathering  the 
bugs  and  which  can  be  used  with  horse-power  has  also  been 
invented,  and  when  the  vines  have  attained  a  sufficient  size 
proves  quite  effective.  But  it  is  necessary  to  do  something  in 
the  line  of  protection  while  the  plants  are  very  small,  and  this 
method  is  not  applicable  at  that  time.  The  only  plan  which  has 
yet  been  devised  which  is  at  once  cheap  and  fully  reliable  is  to 
apply  some  poisonous  substance  to  the  vines.  There  are  some 
noa-poisonous  mixtures  sold  for  this  purpose.  Our  own  ex- 
perience, and  also  our  reading,  inclines  us  to  believe  that  these 
cannot  be  fully  trusted.  We  were  very  reluctant  to  apply 
poison,  and  followed  hand-picking  for  a  long  time.  We  also 
applied  various  substances,  which  were  supposed  to  be  safe  for 
men,  and  which  proved  to  be  just  as  safe  for  the  bugs,  in  hope 
that  we  could  grow  potatoes  without  resort  to  this  dangerous 
expedient.  But  the  force  of  circumstances  was  altogether  too 
strong  and  we  finally  commenced  using  the  poison.  It  is  to  be 
hoped,  and  expected,  that  some  non-poisonous  compound  will 
be.  made  which  will  be  efficient.  Just  as  soon  as  such  an  article 
is  introduced  it  should  be  used  in  preference  to  poison.  At 
the  present  writing,  so  far  as  we  have  been  able  to  learn,  Paris 
green  is  the  best  thing  for  the  purpose  which  has  yet  been 
discovered.  Although  it  is  a  deadly  poison  it  can  be  used  with 
safety  to  the  farmer,  and  with  a  certainty  of  destroying  the  bugs 
without  injuring  the  plants.  It  has  been  in  use  many  years  at 
the  West,  and  is  recommended  b\'  the  leading  growers  of  the 
potato  crop,  and  by  the  highest  scientific  authorities. 

There  are  several  grades  of  this  poison.  The  pure  article  is 
more  expensive  by  the  pound,  but  it  is  a  great  deal  more  effi- 
cient than  the  cheaper  kinds.  It  may  be  applied  in  the  form  of 
a  powder,   or   may  be  mixed   with  water.     When  used  diy,  it 


FARM  AND   FODDER    CROPS.  331 

should  be  carefully  and  thoroughly  mixed  with  thirty  times  its 
weight  of  flour.  Great  care  must  be  exercised  in  this  mixing, 
as  the  poison  is  a  very  dusty  material,  and  it  is  extremely 
dangerous  to  breathe  the  dust  which  will  be  almost  sure  to  arise 
when  the  mixing  is  performed.  If  a  low  grade  of  Paris  green 
is  used,  a  less  quantity  of  flour  must  be '  added  to  it.  From 
fifteen  to  twenty  times  the  weight  of  the  low  qualities  of  the 
poison  will  be  sufficient.  This  material  is  to  be  sprinkled  upon 
the  vines  when  they  are  wet  with  dew  or  rain.  The  flour  will 
cause  the  poison  to  adhere  to  the  leaves,  and  in  the  course  of 
their  depredations  the  insects  will  take  it  into  their  systems  and 
be  destroyed.  Quite  a  number  of  "  dusters  "  with  which  this 
poison  can  be  safely  applied  are  now  in  the  market.  Some 
farmers  fasten  a  tin  box,  in  the  bottom  of  which  they  have  made 
several  smalT  holes,  to  the  end  of  a  long  stick,  and  use  it  for 
dusting  the  vines.  It  is  not  well  to  apply  the  poison  in  this 
way  when  the  wind  blows,  as  the  operator  will  then  be  liable 
to  inhale  the  dust. 

Another  and  we  think  a  safer  way  is  to  dilute  the  poison  with 
water.  A  tablespoonful  of  the  poison  to  a  gallon  and  a  half  of 
water  will  be  sufficient  when  the  green  is  pure.  When  the 
plants  are  small,  only  a  little  of  this  mixture  should  be  applied, 
and  an  excessive  quantity  should  never  be  used.  This  form  of 
the  poison  can  be  applied  by  means  of  a  common  watering-pot 
with  a  sprinkler  attachment.  The  poison  will  tend  to  settle  at 
the  bottom.  Consequently  the  mixture  must  be  frequently 
stirred.  Several  sprinklers  have  been  invented  which  are  much 
easier  to  manage,  and  which  use  the  material  more  economically. 
The  poison  will  remain  on  the  vines  for  some  time,  unless  washed 
off  by  rains.  Only  a  few  applications  will  be  needed  during  the 
season.  When  the  plants  are  small,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  gather 
the  bugs  by  hand.  As  soon  as  the  eggs  begin  to  hatch  in  large 
numbers,  poison  may  be  applied.  The  war  with  this  enemy 
should  be  kept  up  until  the  close  of  the  season.     Some  growers 


332  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

have  kept  off  the  bugs  until  the  tubers  were  nearly  grown,  and 
then  let  them  take  their  course.  But  the  destruction  of  the 
leaves  at  this  stage  is  a  serious  injury,  and  will  certainly  prevent 
the  ripening  of  the  crop. 

Paris  green  should  always  be  handled  with  the  greatest  care. 
No  dish  in  which  it  is  placed  should  ever  be  used  for  any  other 
purpose  ;  no  package  of  the  poison  should  be  left  within  reach  of 
children  or  domestic  animals,  and  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
scatter  any  of  the  mixture  for  use  on  the  potatoes,  on  grass  or 
vegetables.  As  soon  as  the  crop  is  dug  in  the  fall,  the  land 
should  be  plowed,  and  the  potato  vines  turned  into  the  bottoms 
of  the  furrows. 


FIG.    35. — POTATO- DIGGER. 

Harvesting  the  potato  crop  by  hand  is  quite  hard  and  slow 
work.  The  tubers  may  be  dug  with  a  hoe,  a  potato-hook,  or  a 
six-tined  fork.  The  work  can  be  done  much  faster  with  the  fork 
than  with  the  other  implements.  Some  farmers  run  a  plow 
close  to  the  hills.  This  turns  out  many  of  the  tubers,  but  as 
it  covers  some  and  injures  others,  the  method  is  not  very  gener- 
ally followed.  A  good  machine  for  digging  potatoes  is  almost 
a  necessity  where  this  crop  is  largely  grown.  In  Figure  35  we 
present  an  illustration  of  an  excellent  implement  for  this  pur- 
pose.    It  is  made  by  A.  Speer  &  Sons,  Pittsburgh,  Pa. 

Potatoes  should  be  dug  soon  after  they  are  ripe.  If  allowed 
to  remain  a  long  time  in  the  ground  after  they  are  matured,  the 


FARM  AND  FODDER    CROPS.  333 

quality  will  be  injured,  and  many  of  the  tubers  will  decay.  Be- 
sides, as  the  days  become  short  and  cold,  the  difficulty  of  har- 
vesting the  crop  will  be  increased. 

It  is  very  desirable  that  the  ground  should  be  dry  when  the 
digging  is  performed.  The  potatoes  should  be  picked  up  and 
put  in  heaps  in  which  they  can  go  through  the  sweat.  The 
practice,  which  is  common  in  some  sections,  of  leaving  the 
tubers  exposed  for  a  few  hours  to  the  light,  and  to  the  burning 
rays  of  the  sun,  is  very  injurious  to  the  quality  of  the  potatoes. 
The  heaps  in  which  they  are  placed  to  sweat  should  be  kept 
constantly  covered  with  straw.  When  the  sweat  is  over,  the 
potatoes  may  be  carried  to  the  cellar  and  piled  on  the  ground, 
if  it  is  perfectly  dry,  or  in  bins  if  the  ground  is  wet.  They 
should  be  covered  with  earth  or  a  light  cloth.  During  all  the 
operations  of  harvesting,  great  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
bruise  or  injure  the  tubers. 

If  large  quantities  are  to  be  kept  over,  they  may  be  buried  in 
the  ground.  For  this  purpose  a  dry  side  hill  should  be  chosen, 
and  several  pits  holding  from  ten  to  twenty  bushels  each  should 
be  excavated.  Or  a  long,  shallow  trench  may  be  dug.  This 
should  be  cut  up  and  down  the  hill  so  that  there,  shall  be  no 
trouble  about  drainage.  As  it  is  not  well  to  have  too  many 
potatoes  together,  it  is  best  to  put  in  fifteen  or  twenty  bushels 
at  the  lower  end,  filling  the  trench  as  full  as  is  desirable,  then 
.  at  the  end  of  the  pile  thus  formed  put  in  a  few  bundles  of  straw 
and  a  little  dirt,  then  more  potatoes  with  straw  and  dirt  as 
before.  The  trench  will  thus  be  filled  in  sections.  This  will 
insure  the  better  keeping  of  the  tubers,  and  also  make  it  safe  to 
open  the  trench  in  winter  if  only  a  few  bushels  are  wanted.  A 
{zyf  furrows  may  be  plowed  at  each  side  of  the  trench.  They 
will  carry  off  the  surplus  water,  and  furnish  the  dirt  used  to 
cover  the  potatoes.  There  is  some  risk  in  covering  potatoes  in 
the  soil,  for  if  covered  too  closely  they  will  decay,  while  if  not 
covered  enough  they  will  be  spoiled  by  freezing       Mr.  Compton, 


334  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

of  Pennsylvania,  one  of  the  most  successful  growers  of  this 
crop,  recommends  covering  the  potatoes  in  the  pits  with  clean 
straw  to  the  depth  of  six  inches,  and  upon  this  tlirowing  five  or 
six  inches  of  earth,  except  over  a  small  space  which  should 
furnish  an  opening  at  the  top  which  will  be  needed  in  order  to 
give  sufficient  ventilation.  Upon  this  opening  a  flat  stone  or  a 
board,  elevated  at  one  side,  should  bo  laid  in  order  to  take  off 
the  rain  which  falls  upon  it.  When  the  weather  becomes  cold 
a  wisp  of  straw  should  be  placed  in  this  opening,  and  the  pit 
covered  with  more  earth  or  with  coarse  manure. 

On  a  large  farm  it  would  pay  to  have  a  pit  constructed,  near 
the  house,  which  should  be  walled  like  a  cellar,  covered  at  the 
top  with  planks  and  earth,  with  a  large  door  at  one  side.  In 
this  room  vegetables  and  fruit  could  be  stored.  They  would 
keep  much  better  here  than  in  pits  in  the  field,  while  the  danger 
of  storing  large  quantities  of  these  articles  under  the  house 
would  be  wholly  avoided. 

The  varieties  of  the  potato  are  almost  numberless,  and  those 
which  arc  in  popular  favor  are  constantly  changing.  The  kinds 
which  stood  at  the  head  of  the  list  twenty  years  ago  have  been 
almost  entirely  superseded.  Those  which  are  now  popular  will 
probably  soon  go  by  and  new  ones  will  take  their  places.  We 
are  confident  that,  with  proper  care  in  the  selection  of  seed,  varie- 
ties can  be  kept  up  to  their  original  standard  of  excellence  for 
an  indefinite  time.  Still,  as  many  of  the  new  sorts  are  said  to 
be  great  improvements  upon  the  old,  there  is  not  the  motive 
for  retaining  the  old  kinds  which  there  otherwise  would  be. 
The  late  Ri:v.  C.  E.  Goodrich,  of  Utica,  N.  Y.,  spent  fifteen 
years  in  developing  and  perfecting  new  varieties  of  the  potato, 
and  to  him  the  people  of  this  country  owe  an  immense  debt  of 
gratitude.  Other  cultivators  have  taken  up  the  work  and  accom- 
plished a  great  deal.  To  them,  also,  great  praise  is  due.  From 
the  Garnet  Chili,  one  of  Mr.  Goodrich's  seedlings,  Mr.  Albert 
Bresee,  of  Vermont,  grew  the   Early  Rose,  which  for  many 


FARM  AND  FODDER    CROPS.  '      335 

years  has  stood  at  the  very  highest  place  among  the  varieties 
of  the  potato.  Although  it  seems  to  be  now  rather  going  by,  it 
has  been  one  of  the  most  popular  potatoes  ever  grown,  and  it 
well  deserved  its  popularity.  Mr.  Pringle,  whose  new  varieties 
of  wheat  are  very  popular  at  the  North,  has  also  originated  many 
new,  and  some  valuable,  varieties  of  the  potato.  The  Alpha, 
which  is  probably  the  earliest  potato  in  the  world,  is  one  of  his 
seedlings.  A  large  number  of  other  growers  have  introduced 
valuable  varieties  and  done  much  for  the  benefit  of  all  who  grow 
this  crop. 

Sweet  Potatoes.— Until  quite  recently  the  cultivation  of  this 
crop  has  been  confined  to  the  Southern  and  Middle  States, 
but  within  a  few  years  it  has  been  grown  at  the  North  with  a 
very  fair  degree  of  success.  This  crop  has  proved  quite  reliable  in 
Massachusetts.  Northern  growers  are  obliged  to  take  better 
care  of  it  than  Southern  growers,  but  they  can  secure  a  fair 
crop  every  year.  The  following  method  of  growing  can  be  fol- 
lowed with  success  in  almost  any  part  of  the  country.  At  the 
South  the  precautions  against  frost  will  not  be  required.  Other- 
wise, the  cultivation  may  be  the  same. 

Unlike  the  Irish  potato,  the  sweet  potato  is  grown  from 
sprouts,  or  plants.  These  may  be  bought  of  dealers  or  be 
grown  at  home.  In  order  to  grow  them  a  hot-bed,  or  a  cold- 
frame,  will  be  required.  Consequently,  if  but  {^.^sf  plants  are 
wanted  it  is  better  for  the  farmer  to  buy  them  than  to  attempt 
to  grow  them.  If  they  are  to  be  grown  in  a  cold-frame  the  soil 
should  be  covered  to  a  depth  of  two  inches  with  sand,  the  seed 
potatoes  cut  lengthwise  and  placed,  cut  side  down,  quite  near 
each  other  on  the  sand.  These  pieces  should  be  covered  with 
from  two  to  four  inches  of  sand  which  should  be  kept  moist  and 
well  aired.  When  the  plants  are  four  or  five  inches  high  they 
may  be  separated  from  the  potatoes.  .This  must  be  done  with 
the  thumb  and  forefinger,  carefully,  so  as  not  to  move  the  pota- 
toes.    When  these  sprouts  are  removed  the  same  pieces  will 


336  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

send  up  another  lot  of  plants.  The  bed  should  be  started  from 
the  first  to  the  last  of  April,  according  to  the  locality.  In 
favorable  seasons  plants  can  be  grown  in  a  frame  which  is  left 
open  days  and  covered  with  boards  at  night,  but  it  is  much  safer 
and  better  to  have  sashes  with  which  to  cover  the  bed.  It  is  a 
good  plan  for  those  who  want  to  grow  plants  to  save  some  of 
the  ripest  and  finest  specimens  for  seed.  They  should  be  dug 
in  a  fine  day,  dried  a  few  hours  in  the  sun,  then  spread  in  a 
warm  loft  for  several  days,  after  which  they  should  be  very  care- 
fully packed  in  boxes  or  barrels,  with  dry  sand,  and.  put  in  a 
warm,  dry  place  for  the  winter.  Only  perfect  specimens  should 
be  saved  for  seed,  as  the  slightest  bruise  or  defect  will  cause 
them  to  decay.  It  is  utterly  useless  to  attempt  to  save  seed 
potatoes  by  merely  putting  them  in  a  bin  in  the  cellar.  Even 
with  all  the  care  which  we  have  indicated,  potatoes  grown  at 
the  North  cannot  always  be  kept  sound  until  spring. 

Sweet  potatoes  can  be  grown  upon  quite  a  variety  of  soils,  but 
one  which  is  dr}%  warm,  and  sandy  yj'xW  give  much  the  finest 
qualitj'.  The  land  should  be  plowed  to  a  depth  of  six  or  seven 
inches  about  the  first  of  May,  harrowed  thoroughly,  and  marked 
out  with  a  large  plow  in  rows  four  feet  apart.  In  the  furrows 
thus  made,  a  liberal  quantity  of  well-rotted  stable-manure  should 
be  scattered.  This  is  to  be  covered  by  plowing  a  furrow  each 
side  toward  the  row  and  turning  the  dirt  upon  the  manure. 
Then  with  a  hand-hoe  the  ridges  thus  made  should  be  smoothed 
and  their  tops  spatted  down.  These  ridges  should  be  at  least 
a  foot  high. 

It  is  not  well  to  set  the  plants  at  the  North  until  the  last 
week  in  May  or  the  first  week  in  June,  but  the  ridges  should  be 
made  two  or  three  weeks  earlier  in  order  that  they  may  have 
time  to  settle  before  the  plants  are  put  out.  When  the  ground 
is  quite  warm,  and  there  is  no  danger  of  frosts,  the  plants  may 
be  set,  upon  the  tops  of  the  ridges,  from  fifteen  to  eighteen 
inches  apart.     If  good  plants  are  obtained  and  are  carefully  set 


FARM  AND   FODDER    CROPS.  337 

almost  every  one  will  grow.  During  the  summer  the  land 
must  be  kept  free  from  weeds,  but  the  ridges  must  not  be  hoed 
down.  If  any  weeds  appear  near  the  plants  they  should  be 
pulled.  Cutting  with  a  hoe  will  be  likely  to  destroy  the  earliest 
and  finest  tubers.  These  start  very  near  the  surface  and  are 
easily  injured.  Between  the  rows  a  common  cultivator  may  be 
used  to  keep  the  land  open  and  destroy  weeds.  When  the  vines 
attain  a  length  of  two  or  three  feet  they  will  root  down  at  many 
of  the  joints.  At  the  North  these  must  be  pulled  up  or  the 
crop  will  be  ruined.  Wherever  these  roots  start  a  large  number 
of  potatoes  will  set.  They  will  not  come  to  any  size  themselves 
and  will  take  nearly  all  the  productive  power  from  the  hills. 
The  vines  may  be  loosened  with  the  hands  or  with  a  wide  fork. 
This  work  should  be  done  several  times  during  the  growing 
season. 

When  the  potatoes  are  sufficiently  matured,  or  after  the 
leaves  have  been  killed  by  frosts,  the  crop  should  be  harvested. 
If  allowed  to  remain  in  the  ground  during  cold,  wet  weather, 
the  quality  of  the  tubers  will  be  seriously  impaired.  If  possible, 
a  dry  time  should  be  chosen  in  which  to  harvest  them.  The 
vines  may  be  cut  with  a  sharp  corn-knife  near  the  hills,  and 
thrown  to  one  side  of  the  piece.  A  plow  may  then  be  run  each 
side  of  the  ridge,  but  not  near  enough  to  interfere  with  the 
tubers.  This  v/ill  lighten  the  labor  of  digging,  but  it  is  not 
absolutely  necessary  that  it  should  be  done.  The  best  im- 
plement which  we  have  found  for  throwing  out  the  potatoes  is  a 
six-tined  fork.  They  can  be  dug  with  a  hoe  or  a  pointed 
shovel.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to  bruise  or  cut  the  tubers, 
as  the  slightest  injury  will  cause  speedy  decay. 

After  lying  in  the  sun  a  short  time,  the  potatoes  should  be 
spread  in  a  warm  room  to  dry.  After  remaining  here  a  week  or 
two,  they  may  be  packed  in  sand  as  directed  for  seed-potatoes. 
The  tubers  are  very  easily  chilled,  and  when  chilled  are  utterly 
spoiled.     It  is  rather  difficult  to  keep  those  grown  at  the  North 


338  FARM/.VG   I'OK   PROFIT. 

later  than  the  first  of  December,  but  there  is  no  reason  why  for 
three  months  previous  to  that  time  almost  every  farmer  should 
not  have  an  abundance  for  family  use.  We  have  set  plants  in 
Massachusetts  the  first  day  of  June,  and  had  our  first  potatoes 
the  seventh  day  of  September.  If  we  had  grown  an  early 
variety,  we  could  have  h&d  them  at  least  ten  days  sooner. 

There  arc  but  few  varieties  of  the  sweet  potato.  Of  these 
the  Nanscmond  is  the  most  extensively  grown.  The  Early 
Peabody  is  a  better  kind  for  Northern  growers.  It  is  large, 
productive,  and  of  good  quality.  We  once  obtained  a  good 
crop  from  plants  set  the  twenty-fifth  of  June. 

The  great  essentials  to  success  in  growing  this  crop  at  the 
North  are  liberal  manuring,  ridge  culture,  and  frequent  loosen- 
ing of  the  vines. 

Sugar. — As  the  cane,  the  roots  and  the  trees,  from  which 
sugar  is  obtained,  all  are,  or  may  profitably  be,  planted,  it  is 
proper  that  this  important  product  should  receive  attention  in 
this  connection.  While  sugar  may  be  made  from  a  large  num- 
ber of  very  different  substances,  the  principal  sources  of  supply 
are  the  sugar-cane,  the  sorgo-plant,  the  beet-root,  and  the 
maple  tree.  These  we  will  consider  in  the  order  in  which  they 
are  named. 

The  genuine  tropical  plant  known  as  the  Ribbon-Cane  {^Sac- 
chariun  officiiianivi)  is  the  best  of  all  the  sources  from  which 
sugar  is  secured.  It  is  a  perennial,  but  is  easily  killed  by  frost 
and  does  not  thrive  in  cool  climates.  The  Northern  limit  of 
profitable  production  is  said  to  be  the  thirty-second  degree  of 
latitude.  Even  here  the  plant  dies  down  each  year  if  not  cut 
before  frost.  It  does  not  flower  as  far  North  as  Louisiana, 
and  the  seed  does  not  ripen  well  in  the  West  Indies.  Propa- 
gation is  carried  on  by  cuttings,  and  by  importations  of  seed 
from  Otaheite.  The  cuttings  are  taken  from  the  main  stalks, 
planted  in  trenches  cither  in  the  spring  or  fall,  and  send  up 
shoots  which  in  from  eight  to  fourteen  months  are  large  enough' 


FARM  AND   FODDER    CROPS. 


)O0 


to  be  cut  for  the  sugar  which  they  contain.  There  are  several 
varieties  of  the  ribbon-cane.  All  of  them  "  rattoon,"  or  send  up 
a  growth  from  the  roots  when  the  stalks  are  cut.  In  Louisiana 
the  plantations  need  renewing  every  two  or  three  years,  but  in 
the  West  Indies  they  last  from  five  to  ten  years.  It  is  very 
important  that  the  propagation  should  be  from  first-class 
qualities  of  cane.      Neglect  of  this  very  simple  and  reasonable 


FIG.  36. — VICTOR   CANE  MILL. 


requirement  has  entailed  an  immense  loss  upon  the  sugai^- 
planters  both  in  this  country  and  the  West  Indies.  Much  of 
the  cane  has  also  been  deteriorated  by  want  of  proper  cultiva. 
tion  and  sufficient  manure.  The  growers  have  not  been  in  a 
condition  to  reach  tlie  best  results  with  this  crop.  But  there 
are  indications  that  a  better  system  will  soon  be  adopted. 

The  land  should  be  well  drained,  and  deeply  plowed.      Cut- 


(340) 


FARM  AND  FODDER   CROPS.  341 

tings  from  the  sweetest  and  best  cane  should  be  secured  and  set 
in  rows  from  six  to  eight  feet  apart.  For  this  plant  chemical 
manures  are  the  best.  They  should  be  liberally  applied  to  the 
surface  of  the  land,  and  worked  in  with  a  harrow  or  cultivator. 
If  yard-manure  is  used,  it  can  be  spread  in  large  quantities  and 
plowed  in.  The  stalks  should  stand  quite  near  each  other  in 
the  row,  and  should  receive  frequent  cultivation  in  order  to  pro- 
mote their  growth  and  keep  down  the  weeds.  The  last  hoeing 
of  the  season  should  be  given  early  in  June.  At  this  time,  the 
cane  may  be  hilled  up  about  four  inches  and  then  left  until  it  is 
ripe.  When  the  cane  is  ripe,  which  will  be  clearly  indicatej^y 
its  appearance,  the  tops  musi  be  cut  as  far  down  as  the  leaves 
are  diy,  the  leaves  pulled  off,  and  the  stalks  cut  close  to  the 
ground  and  carted  to  the  mill.  If  it  cannot  be  ground  at  once, 
the  cane  may  be  cut  close  to  the  ground,  three  rows  placed  in  a 
single  line,  or  windrow,  the  tops  of  one  hill  being  thrown  over 
the  butts  of  the  preceding  one,  and  thus  piled  up  to  a  height 
of  three  or  four  feet.  When  this  plan  is  pursued,  the  tops 
should  not  be  cut  until  the  stalks  can  be  ground.  In  this  way 
the  cane  may  be  kept  three  or  four  weeks,  and  will  not  be 
injured  by  an  ordinary  frost. 

In  order  to  express  all  of  the  juice  very  powerful  machinery 
is  required.  A  lack  of  suitable  mills  has  been  one  of  the  great 
■  drawbacks  to  profitable  sugar  production.  Careful  men  estimate 
that  forty  per  cent,  of  the  sugar  which  was  contained  in  the  cane 
which  has  been  grown  during  the  past  few  years  has  been 
wasted  for  want  of  strong  mills  for  crushing  the  stalks.  Some 
very  perfect  mills  are  now  in  the  market.  They  are,  necessarily, 
quite  expensive,  but  will  in  a  short  time  enable  the  owner  to 
obtain  enough  more  sugar  to  pay  the  difference  between  their 
price  and  that  of  poor  ones. 

Figure  36  represents  the  Victor  Cane  Mill,  made  by  the 
Blymyer  Manufacturing  Co.,  of  Cincinnati,  Ohio.  This  is 
designed  to  be  driven  by  animal  power,  and  is  an  efficient  mill 


FARM  AND  FODDER   CROPS.  343 

for  grinding  either  the  Sorgo  or  the  Ribbon  cane.  Figure  37 
shows  a  first-class  Evaporator  made  by  the  same  company. 
Figure  38  repiesents  their  powerful  Double-Geared  Plantation 
Cane  Mill. 

We  strongly  favor  the  purchase  of  a  set  of  first-class  machinery 
by  a  company  of  small  planters.  This  neighborhood  system 
has  been  recommended  by  able  writers  at  the  South,  and  we 
are  confident  that  it  will  give  good  results.  It  would  easily 
enable  the  farmer  to  grow  the  cane  in  connection  with  other 
crops — a  much  better  method  than  the  production  of  this  alone. 
During  quite  a  proportion  of  the  year  labor  to  any  great  extent 
is  not  required  in  the  sugar  grounds.  The  hands  might  then  be 
at  work  on  the  cotton  crop.  If  four-fifths  of  the  cultivated 
area  is  devoted  to  the  cotton  crop  and  the  remaining  fifth  to  the 
sugar  cane,  the  work  can  be  done  to  good  advantage,  and  the 
profits  of  the  business  will  almost  certainly  be  larger  than  will 
be  the  case  if  only  one  of  the  crops  is  grown. 

The  fact  that  the  people  of  this  country  are  now  paying  one 
hundred  and  seventy-five  millions  of  dollars  per  year  for 
imported  sugar  and  molasses,  which  might  just  as  well  be 
produced  at  home — even  in  the  one  State  of  Louisiana — ought 
to  induce  farmers  who  are  now  engaged  in  producing  these 
articles  to  give  a  greater  degree  of  attention  to  this  department 
of  their  labor.  Many  other  farmers  who  are  suitably  located 
might  also  find  it  for  their  interest  to  grow  the  sugar  cane,  and 
thus  do  something  toward  supplying  the  home  market  with 
articles  produced  on  our  own  soil.  There  is  always  a  ready 
market  for  sugar,  and  the  intelligent  producer  may  be  very  sure 
of  obtaining  fairly  remunerative  prices. 

The  Sorgo  (also  called  the  Chinese  sugar  cane,  and  the 
Northern  cane)  can  be  grown  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  country. 
From  small  beginnings  it  has  already  become  a  very  popular 
crop,  and  is  destined  to  take  a  high  rank  among  our  national 
productions.     In  addition  to  the  sorgo  there  are  several  varieties 


344  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 

of  the  African  cane.  These  are  properly  called  Imphees,  but 
are  often  confounded  with  the  sorgo.  Although  resembling  the 
genuine  sorgo  they  are  not  as  hardy,  and  therefore  not  as 
well  adapted  to  cultivation  at  the  North.  In  growing  sorgo  it 
is  highly  important  that  good  seed  should  be  secured.  This 
necessity  is  emphasized  by  the  fact  that  the  seed  of  this  plant 
readily  mixes  with  broom  corn,  millet,  and  similar  plants. 
Every  stain  of  mixture  deteriorates  the  cane  for  the  production 
of  sugar.  It  has  been  found  that  seed  grown  in  a  cold  climate 
will  not  produce  as  valuable  cane  as  that  which  is  produced 
farther  South. 

This  crop  can  be  produced  on  any  good  wheat  or  corn  land. 
The  best  results  are  obtained  upon  sandy  uplands  which  were 
well  fertilized  in  the  fall  with  yard-manure,  or  upon  which 
chemical  fertilizers,  lime,  or  wood-ashes,  are  used  in  the  spring. 
Deep  plowing  will  be  beneficial,  and  if  the  land  is  wet,  ridge 
culture  should  be  adopted.  As'  soon  as  the  soil  is  warm  in 
the  spring,  the  seed  should  be  planted  in  rows  four  feet  apart, 
with  the  hills  from  three  to  four  feet  apart  in  the  row.  The  seed 
should  be  soaked  in  warm  water  for  a  day  or  two  before  it  is 
planted.  Twenty  or  thirty  seeds  should  be  put  in  each  hill  and 
they  should  be  only  slightly  covered.  When  the  stalks  are  a  few 
inches  high  they  may  be  thinned.  From  seven  to  ten  should 
be  left  in  each  hill.  The  young  plants  are  very  weak  and 
should  receive  careful  attention.  No  weeds  should  be  allowed 
to  grow. 

The  cultivation  is  about  the  same  as  that  recommended  for 
corn,  except  that  it  should  all  be  given  early  in  the  season. 
After  the  phnts  are  three  feet  high,  the  cultivator  should  not  be 
used  at  all  or  should  be  run  very  lightly  between  the  rows. 

At  the  South  two  cuttings  can  be  obtained  from  the  plants 
each  year,  but  at  the  North  it  requires  some  skill  to  get  a 
single  crop  well  ripened.  With  some  of  the  early  varieties 
there  is  no  great  difficulty  in  an  ordinary  season.      Kenney's 


FARM  AND   FODDER   CROPS.  345 

Early  Amber  cane  has  proved  highly  satisfactory  in  Min- 
nesota, where  it  yields  a  large  quantity  of  syrup  and  ripens 
its  seed.  It  has  also  given  good  results  in  Massachu- 
setts. 

When  the  seed  of  the  sorgo  is  in  the  dough  state,  and  that  of 
the  imphees  is  in  the  milk,  the  time  for  cutting  has  arrived.  It 
is  the  best  way  to  grind  the  cane  as  soon  as  it  is  cut,_  but  if  this 
is  impracticable,  the  tops  may  be  cut  off,  removing  one  or  two 
joints,  and  the  canes  then  cut  and  stacked  like  corn,  or  stored 
in  a  well-ventilated  shed  or  barn.  The  leaves  had  better  remain 
upon  the  stalks  until  the  grinding  can  be  performed,  though 
some  growers  remove  them  before  the  stalks  are  cut.  If  cut 
before  frost,  and  cured  with  the  leaves  on,  cane  can  be  kept 
several  weeks  without  injury.  The  tops  should  be  dried,  and 
the  seed  shelled  and  fed  to  stock.  When  well  ripened  the 
seed  is  considered  worth  more  per  bushel  than  oats.  Sheep 
will  eat  it  on  the  head,  but  for  other  animals  it  should  be  shelled 
and  ground.  On  good  land  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  bushels 
of  seed  per  acre  can  be  secured. 

By  far  the  largest  part  of  the  sorgo  grown  in  this  country  is 
converted  into  syrup,  though  sugar  is  also  made  to  some  extent, 
A  good  quality  of  both  these  articles  can  be  secured  from  this 
plant.  For  their  manufacture,  good  mills  and  evaporators  are 
required.  We  think  that  where  farmers  grow  this  crop  for 
their  own  use,  several  should  club  together,  obtain  all  the 
necessary  machinerj',  and  use  it  in  common.  Or  they  might 
induce  some  one  who  had  power  and  conveniences  to  buy  a  mill, 
and  manufacture  the  syrup  and  sugar  for  a  specified  price. 

We  are  strongly  in  favor  of  the  cultivation  of  the  sorgo.  We 
are  confident  that  it  places  within  the  reach  of  farmers  in  the 
Northern  and  Middle  sections  of  the  country  the  means  for 
producing  on  their  own  farms  a  large  proportion  of  the  sugar 
and  molasses  which  they  need.  We  do  not  advise  growing  the 
sorgo  on  a  large  scale,  as  a  commercial  enterprise,  but  simply 


346  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

in  sufficient  quantities  for  home  use,  and  in  order  to  prevent  the 
necessity  of  paying  out  money  at  the  store.  This  plan  would 
not  interfere  with  the  one  suggested  in  regard  to  the  increase  of 
the  area  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  the  SoutheKxX  cane. 
There  is  ample  room  for  both  these  plants.  The  population  of 
the  country  is  increasing,  and  with  it  the  demand  for  sugar  will 
inevitably  be  augmented.  Besides,  if  we  should  produce  more 
than  is  needed  at  home,  we  could  readily  find  a  foreign  market 
for  all  the  surplus. 

The  Beet-Root. — In  Europe  large  quantities  of  sugar  are 
annually  produced  from  the  beet-root,  and  an  effort  is  now 
being  made  to  induce  farmers  in  this  country  to  grow  beets  for 
the  same  purpose.  Many  experiments  have  been  made  which, 
as  far  as  producing  good  sugar  is  concerned,  have  been  fully 
successful,  but  in  too  many  instances  the  cost  of  production  has 
exceeded  the  value  of  the  product.  But  recent  improvements 
in  the  machinery  and  methods  employed  have  greatly  reduced 
the  expense,  and  it  is  now  thought  that  sugar  can  be  produced 
from  this  source  with  profit  to  the  grower  and  the  manufacturer. 
The  sugar-beet  will  thrive  in  all  the  Northern  States.  It  will 
also  grow  well  enough  at  the  South,  but  in  warm  climates  it 
becomes  deficiertt  in  saccharine  matter.  For  the  South,  the 
ribbon-cane  seems  to  be  pre-eminently  the  sugar-producing 
plant.  Farther  North  the  sorgo  flourishes,  while  at  the 
extreme  North  the  beet-root  and  the  maple  tree  seem  to  be  the 
best  adapted  for  this  purpose. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  the  beet  from  which  sugar  can 
be  made,  but  those  which  have  smooth,  long,  and  tapering  roots, 
which  do  not  grow  above  the  surface,  which  are  smooth,  white, 
and  hard,  and  which  do  not  grow  extremely  large,  are  decidedly 
the  best.  The  White  Silesian  seems  to  answer  these  purposes  as 
well  as  any,  in  some  respects  is  superior  to  others,  and  is  quite 
generally  preferred  by  manufacturers.  But  as  the  owner  of  the 
mill  at  which  the  sugar  is    made  will   probably  either  furnish 


FARM  AND  FODDER    CROPS.  347 

se3d,  or  recommend  his  favorite  kind,  the  farmer  need  have  but 
Httle  difficulty  in  determining  what  variety  to  produce. 

Land  which  is  free  from  stones,  which  does  not  contain 
mineral  salts  in  large  proportion,  and  which  is  neither  wet  nor 
clayey,  should  be  chosen  for  this  crop.  Light,  sandy,  but  rich 
soils  are  the  best.  A  loose  sub-soil  is  desirable,  and  a  dark 
surface,  if  not  colored  by  metallic  elements,  is  to  be  preferred. 
Beets  should  not  be  grown  upon  sod,  but  on  land  which  has  had 
clean  cultivation.  In  the  fall  a  heavy  covering  of  manure 
should  be  given  and  the  land  plowed  to  a  depth  of  six  or  seven 
inches.  A  iQ.\^  weeks  later  another  plowing,  with  a  large  plow 
and  a  heavy  team,  should  be  given.  This  time  the  depth  should 
be  from  twelve  to  fifteen  inches.  This  deep  plowing  is  neces- 
sary in  order  that  the  beet  may  develop  wholly  beneath  the  soil. 
If  the  plowing  is  shallow,  part  of  thd  root  will  grow  above  the 
surface.  This  is  worse  than  useless  for  making  sugar,  as  it  con- 
tains no  sugar  in  itself,  but  furnishes  acids  which  will  lessen  the 
quantity  which  can  be  extracted  from  the  remainder  of  the  root. 
The  part  which  grows  above  the  ground  is  always  cut  off  and 
fed  to  stock  or  else  thrown  away.  After  plov/ing,  the  land  is 
harrowed  and  left  until  spring.  As  soon  as  the  soil  is  dry  and 
warm  it  must  be  plowed  again.  This  time  the  depth  should  be 
about  eight  inches.  If  the  furrows  can  go  across  those  turned 
in  the  fall  it  will  be  better  than  to  turn  them  the  same  way.  If 
the  land  is  wet  it  should  be  drained,  thrown  up  in  ridges,  or  else 
devoted  to  some  other  crop.  After  plowing,  the  surface  soil 
must  be  made  v&xy  fine  with  a  harrow.  Then  the  land  must  be 
rolled,  or,  what  some  consider  preferable,  the  harrow  must  be 
turned  over  and  used  with  the  teeth  the  upper  side. 

When  the  land  is  in  a  suitable  state,  which  at  the  North  is 
usually  in  the  last  part  of  April,  the  seed  should  be  sown.  The 
seeds  should  be  rubbed  over  a  screen  so  as  to  separate  those 
which  stick  together  and  reduce  them  to  a  uniform  size.  They 
should  then  be  steeped  five  or  six  hours  in  a  mixture  of  sul- 


548  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

phate  of  potash  (nine  ounces)  and  sulphate  of  lime  (nine  ounces) 
dissolved  in  four  or  five  quarts  of  warm  water,  to  which  five  or 
six  gallons  of  cold  water  should  be  added  after  the  materials 
are  dissolved.  Enough  of  this  mixture  should  be  used  to  cover 
the  seeds.  After  they  have  been  steeped  the  water  should  be 
turned  off  and  the  seeds  dried  by  mixing  them  thoroughly  with 
plaster  or  slaked  lime  and  then  spreading  in  a  warm  room. 
When  dry  enough  so  that  they  will  not  stick  together  the  seeds 
may  be  sown.  There  arc  several  hand-machines,  and  some 
drills  which  are  drawn  by  horses,  which  will  sow  beet  seeds 
well.  The  rows  should  be  from  fourteen  to  twenty  inches  apart, 
the  seeds  covered  about  two  inches  deep,  and  ten  or  twelve 
pounds  of  seed  per  acre  should  be  used.  The  land  should  be 
rolled  as  soon  as  the  sowing  is  finished. 

As  soon  as  the  plants  "are  up,  if  any  weeds  appear,  as  they 
probably  will,  cultivation  should  be  commenced.  For  a  small 
field,  a  wheel-hoe  will  be  an  excellent  implement  for  this  pur- 
pose. For  large  operations,  a  machine  drawn  by  a  horse  will 
be  required.  If  the  ground  close  to  the  roots  is  hard  it  should 
be  loosened  with  a  light  hoe,  and  the  beets  must  be  thinned 
to  twelve  or  fourteen  inches  apart  in  the  rows.  If  there  are 
vacant  places,  transplanting  can  be  successfully  performed. 
The  thinning  may  be  done  either  at  the  first  or  second  hoeing. 
If  there  are  weeds  in  the  rows,  they  must  be  carefully  removed. 
Weeding  must  be  done  whenever  needed  —  generally  from 
three  to  six  times — during  the  season,  and  by  frequent  hoe- 
ings,  either  by  machines  or  by  hand,  the  earth  must  be  kept 
loose  around  the  roots.  If  any  roots  begin  to  grow  above  the 
surface  ihey  may  be  hilled  up  in  July.  When  the  leaves  are 
large  enough  to  shade  the  soil  no  further  cultivation  will  be 
required,  except  the  pulling  of  any  stray  weeds  which  may 
appear,  and  the  cutting  of  the  flower-stalks  of  the  few  plants 
which  may  seem  inclined  to  produce  seed.  If  any  plants  throw 
up  seed-stalks  when   small  they  may  as  well   be  pulled,  but 


FARM  AND   FODDER   CROPS.  349 

when  the  roots  are  large  they  may  be  saved  by  removing  the 
stalk. 

The  harvesting  should  be  done  before  hard  frosts,  and,  if  pos- 
sible, during  fair  weather.  When  ripe,  the  leaves  wither  and 
fall  off!  If  the  land  is  dry  and  the  weather  good  the  quality 
of  the  roots  is  improved  by  leaving  them  in  the  ground  for 
a  while,  but  if  wet  weather  comes  on  it  proves  highly  injurious. 
The  roots  may  be  dug  with  a  pointed  shovel,  a  strong  fork,  or 
may  be  turned  out  with  a  plow.  If  thi  dirt  adheres,  the  beets 
must  be  struck  together  in  order  to  get  it  off  The  roots  should 
be  thrown  into  windrows  and  the  tops  cut  off  with  a  sharp  spade 
or  a  knife.  If  the  root  grew  beneath  the  surface  the  leaves 
should  be  cut  close  to  the  crown,  but  if  any  part  of  it  grew 
above  the  ground  that  portion  must  be  cut  off  with  the  leaves. 
When  this  is  done  the  roots  may  be  drawn  in  wagons,  or  carts, 
directly  to  the  factory.  They  should  be  handled  carefully,  as 
wounds  and  bruises  induce  fermentation  which  lessens  the 
quantity  of  sugar  which  can  be  obtained  and  also  causes  the 
roots  to  decay. 

Beets  may  be  preserved  in  pits,  similar  to  those  describv,d  u  r 
storing  potatoes,  or  in  piles  on  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Or 
they  may  be  frozen  if  they  are  kept  steadily  in  this  condition 
until  wanted.  When  kept  in  piles  a  dry  spot  should  be  chosen, 
a  shallow  ditch  dug  around  it  for  drainage,  the  beets  piled  to  a 
height  of  five  or  six  feet  and  covered  with  earth.  The  beets 
which  form  the  walls  of  the  pile  should  be  carefully  laid  with 
the  crowns  outside,  but  the  interior  may  be  filled  by  throwing 
in  the  roots.  If  piled  at  all,  the  work  should  be  done  as  soon 
as  the  beets  are  dug.  When  the  crop  can  be  disposed  of  at 
once  it  will  usually  be  better  for  the  farmer  to  draw  his  beets 
directly  to  the  factory  than  it  will  to  attempt  to  preserve  them. 

The  Sugar  Maple  has  become  an  important  source  from 
which  sugar  is  obtained.  It  is  a  beautiful  tree  and  deseives  to 
be  more  extensively  planted  both  for  its  sugar,  its  beauty,  and  its 


350  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 

shade.  It  is  a  hardy  tree  and  can  be  easily  grown  in  nearly  all  parts 
of  the  count^)^  At  the  South,  however,  it  will  not  yield  as  much 
sugar  as  at  the  North  on  account  of  the  absence  of  a  sufficient 
degree  of  frost.  The  sugar  is  made  from  the  sap  of  the  tree  in 
the  latter  part  of  the  winter  and  early  in  the  spring.  When  the 
weather  becomes  warm  enough  for  the  sap  to  run,  the  trees  are 
"  tapped,"  usually  with  a  bit  or  small  auger,  and  wooden  spouts 
are  inserted  in  the  holes  thus  made.  These  spouts  conduct  the 
sap  into  buckets  which  are  placed  upon  the  ground  or  hung 
upon  the  trees.  Once  or  twice  a  day  the  sap  is  gathered  in 
barrels  and  drawn  upon  a  sled  to  the  sugar-house,  a  little  build- 
ing fitted  up  for  the  purpose  of  sugar-making,  or  the  arch  kettle 
at  the  house.  Some  makers  use  an  evaporator  in  preference  to 
a  kettle  and  find  it  much  easier  to  manage. 

The  sap  should  be  boiled  over  a  steady  fire,  and  as  it  evapo- 
rates, a  fresh  supply  should  be  added.  After  boiling  from  eight 
to  twelve  hours,  stirring  often  and  filling  up  as  required,  the  con- 
tents of  the  kettle  should  be  converted  into  syrup  as  thick  as  can 
be  conveniently  strained.  All  the  dirt  and  scum  which  rises  dur- 
ing the  boiling  process  should  be  removed  with  a  skimmer  as 
fast  as  it  appears.  When  the  syrup  is  thick  enough,  it  should  be 
strained  into  a  clean  tub  and  allowed  to  settle.  When  well  set- 
tled, it  should  be  turned  into  a  clean  kettle  and  subjected  to 
further  boiling.  During  this  stage  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent 
boiling  over.  A  piece  of  butter  the  size  of  a  walnut  is  some- 
times used  as  a  preventive.  Some  makers  dip  in  a  piece  of  fat 
pork.  If  these  methods  are  not  tried,  or  prove  inefficient,  the 
fire  must  be  kept  so  low  that  while  the  syrup  will  boil  steadily, 
it  will  not  run  over.  To  determine  when  the  boiling  should 
cease,  a  little  of  the  material  is  put  upon  some  snow.  If  it  cools 
in  the  form  of  wax  on  top  of  the  snow,  it  is  in  good  condition 
to  be  put  into  tubs,  but  if  to  be  made  into  cakes,  it  should  be 
boiled  until  it  will  break  like  ice  when  cooled  in  this  manner. 
If  no  snow  can  be  obtained,  a  little   of  the  material  must  be 


FARM  AND   FODDER    CROPS.  351 

rapidly  stirred  in  a  dish.  When  it  granulates  with  a  moderate 
amount  of  stirring,  it  will  do  to  put  into  tubs,  and  when,  by 
holding  a  little  on  a  stick  and  blowing  through  it,  ribbons  or 
feathers  are  formed,  it  will  do  to  put  into  cakes.  If  to  be  made 
into  cakes,  the  moulds  which  are  used  should  be  dampened  with 
water,  so  that  the  sugar  will  readily  come  out. 

During  all  the  operations  the  greatest  attention  must  be  paid 
to  cleanliness,  and  all  the  tubs,  pails,  and  dishes  in  use  must  be 
kept  perfectly  sweet.  Constant  care  is  also  needed  in  order  to 
prevent  burning  or  running  over  on  the  one  hand,  and  to  keep 
the  boiling  process  going  on  as  rapidly  as  possible  on  the  other. 

If  the  work  of  making  maple  sugar  was  required  during  the 
busy  season,  it  would  not  be  very  profitable.  But  it  can  be  done 
at  a  time  when  the  farmer  can  do  little  or  nothing  else,  and  as 
but  little  expense  except  the  labor  is  involved,  he  converts  his 
time  into  money  and  makes  the  sugar  season  one  of  the  most 
profitable  ones  in  the  whole  year.  In  taste  and  appearance 
maple  sugar  is  very  different  from  cane  sugar,  and  though  for 
some  purposes  of  cooking  it  is  inferior,  for  others  it  is  very  much 
finer.  Almost  every  one  likes  it  to  eat,  and  all  that  is  of  fair 
quality  can  be  readily  sold. 

Although  the  product  from  the  different  sources  we  have 
named  presents  a  great  diversity  in  taste  and  appearance;  each 
one  furnishes  genuine  cane  sugar.  It  is  composed  of  very  sim- 
ple substances,  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen — merely  charcoal 
and  water — but  so  delicately  and  mysteriously  combined,  that 
the  art  of  man  cannot  produce  anything  which  approaches  it  in 
value.  The  chemist  can  change  cane  sugar  to  grape  sugar, 
which  is  of  much  less  value,  but  he  cannot  convert  grape  sugar 
into  cane  sugar.  Sugar  is  not  a  manufactured  article.  Man 
cannot  make  it.  He  can  extract  it  from  certain  substances  in 
which  it  is  contained,  but  it  is  a  strictly  natural  production,  and 
the  chemist  is  as  powerless  to  compound  it  as  he  is  to  make  a 
world.  But  with  the  aid  of  nature  it  can  be  obtained  in  unlim- 
ited quantities. 


352  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

Although  often  regarded  as  a  luxury,  sugar  is  a  valuable 
article  of  diet.  Children  crave  it  riot  only  for  its  sweet  taste,  but 
also,  as  good  physiologists  assert,  because  it  supplies  a  natural 
want  of  the  system.  It  furnishes,  in  a  concentrated  and  an 
easily  assimilable  form,  the  same  elements  as  are  supplied  by  fat 
meat,  butter,  and  by  the  starch  in  potatoes  and  bread.  It  is  a 
curious  fact  that  the  demand  for  sugar  keeps  pace  with  the 
progress  of  civilization  and  the  increase  of  intelligence.  One  of 
the  first  calls  of  a  people  emerging  from  barbarism  is  for  sugar. 
To  all  intelligent  nations  sugar  has  become  one  of  the  great 
necessities.  And  the  beneficence  of  God  is  manifested  in  the 
manner  in  which  the  means  for  supplying  this  great  want 
have  been  provided.  The  different  plants  which  produce  sugar 
in  abundance  are  adapted  to  the  different  parts  of  the  world,  and 
at  least  one  of  them  will  grow  in  one  or  more  of  the  thickly  set- 
tled portions  of  the  globe.  Each  part  of  the  world  has  a  sugar- 
producing  plant  which  is  adapted  to  its  climate.  Thus  the 
means  of  supply  have  been  made  as  extensive  as  the  demand. 
The  prosperity  of  the  country  requires  a  largely  increased  rate 
of  sugar  production,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  this  important 
industry  will  soon  receive  the  attention  which  it  deserves. 

Tea. — A  large  number  of  experiments  which  have  been  made 
during  the  past  twenty  years,  and  especially  those  which  have 
been  quite  recently  carried  on,  seem  to  have  proved  that  tea  can 
be  successfully  and  economically  produced  in  the  Southern 
half  of  the  United  States.  We  do  not  recommend  this  plant 
for  cultivation  on  a  large  scale.  Probably  the  majority  of  our 
standard  crops  pay  much  better  than  tea  can  be  made  to  do,  if 
grown  for  the  market.  But  we  are  confident  that  on  a  small 
scale  the  farmer  and  gardener  can  produce  good  tea  at  a  less 
cost  than  the  imported  article  involves.  Merely  for  home  use 
we  think  it  will  pay  the  Southern  farmers  to  cultivate  tea,  and 
we  will  give  a  few  simple  directions  for  its  growth  on  a  small 
scale. 


FARM  AND   FODDER    CROPS.  353 

In  its  wild  state  the  tea  plant  grows  in  the  form  of  a  tree. 
Sometimes  it  reaches  a  height  of  thirty  feet,  and  its  trunk  meas- 
ures ten  inches  in  diameter.  But  in  this  country  it  grows  merely 
as  a  shrub.  In  order  to  make  it  more  productive,  and  to  facili- 
tate the  gathering  of  the  leaves,  the  plant  is  often  pruned.  The 
first  year  it  should  be  headed  in  by  cutting  off  the  top  of 
the  plant.  This  will  insure  a  stronger  growth  and  cause 
a  lateral  development.  The  after-pruning  which  is  needed 
must  be  in  the  line  of  removing  straggling  branches  which  may 
appear,  and  so  clipping  the  ends  of  the  branches  as  to  give  the 
shrub  a  conical  form.  After  reaching  an  age  of  nine  or  ten 
years  the  plants  are  cut  down,  in  order  that  the  young  shoots, 
which  will  soon  spring  up,  may  give  a  greater  supply  of  leaves. 

The  tea  plant  will  do  well  in  quite  a  variety  of  soils.  Too 
much  water  is  very  injurious.  Excessively  rich  land  is  not 
required,  but  the  soil  should  be  in  fair  condition,  and  should  be 
kept  under  cultivation.  The  plant  is  grown  from  seeds,  similar 
in  appearance  to  hazel-nuts,  which  come  up  readily  when  left 
under  the  bushes  from  which  they  have  dropped.  The  plants 
may  be  started  in  this  way,  by  planting  the  seeds  in  a  nursery, 
or  where  the  shrubs  are  to  grow.  It  requires  some  time  for  the 
seeds  to  germinate,  and  if  planted  they  should  be  put  in  a  cool, 
moist,  and  shaded  place.  When  from  six  months  to  one  year 
old,  the  shrubs  can  be  readily  transplanted  if  care  is  taken  not 
to  break  the  long  tap-root.  The  young  plants  are  often 
destroyed  by  the  heat  of  the.  sun.  Consequently  it  is  best  to 
shade  them  during  the  first  year.  Probably  heavy  mulching 
would  prove  highly  beneficial.  When  two  or  three  feet  high, 
the  plants  will  produce  flowers  and  seed  as  well  as  leaves. 
They  are  evergreen  and  quite  ornamental.  They  will  success- 
fully resist  the  winter  where  the  mercury  does  not  go  more  than 
five  or  ten  degrees  below  zero,  and  they  are  not  injured  by  an 
ordinary  drought  in  summer. 

The  leaves  should  not  be  taken  from  cultivated  plants  until 


354  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

they  are  three  years  old.  They  are  gathered  three  times  each 
year.  The  yield  will  vary  with  the  size  of  the  plant  and  the 
care  which  it  receives.  Half  a  dozen  good  plants  should  fur- 
nish all  the  tea  required  in  an  ordinary  family.  The  shrubs 
should  stand  about  four  feet  apart  each  way. 

The  greatest  difficulty  with  this  crop  is  in  curing  it  properly. 
The  methods  in  use  in  tea-growing  countries  require  so  much- 
time  and  labor  that  they  cannot  be  adopted  here.  Some  of  the 
parties  who  have  been  growing  the  tea  plant  merely  heat  the 
leaves  in  an  oven,  and  then  spread  in  a  spare-room  to  dry,  while 
others  followa  much  more  elaborate  method.  Mrs.  Screven,  of 
Georgia,  proceeds  very  nearly  as  follows  :  Spread  the  leaves  on 
tables  as  soon  as  they  are  gathered.  The  next  day  the  leaves, 
which  have  become  somewhat  wilted,  are  rubbed  in  the  hands 
until  they  become  soft.  They  are  then  left  in  heaps  for  an 
•hour  or  two,  when  they  are  put  into  a  Dutch  oven  and  roasted 
over  a  moderate  fire.  While  in  the  oven,  the  leaves  are  con- 
stantly stirred  to  prevent  burning.  After  roasting  for  five 
minutes  they  are  again  rubbed  and  rolled  on  the  table.  Then 
they  are  spread  in  the  sun  and  frequently  stirred.  After  dr>'ing 
a  short  time,  they  are  roasted  and  rolled  again  as  before.  They 
are  then  placed  about  an  inch  thick  upon  a  sieve,  and  held 
over  some  hot  coals.  During  this  process  they  must  be  con- 
stantly stirred.  They  are  then  taken  out  and  rolled  again. 
This  work  must  be  continued  until  the  leaves  assume  a  dark 
color.  They  are  then  put  in  a  basket,  hung  over  some  coals, 
and  stirred  until  the  leaves  are  black  and  dry.  They  should 
then  be  packed  in  tight  boxes  made  of  tin  or  wood.  This 
method  involves  a  great  deal  of  work,  and  requires  considerable 
skill  and  close  attention.  But  by  its  means  a  very  fine  quality 
of  tea  may  be  secured — much  finer,  it  is  said,  than  any  which  is 
brought  here  from  abroad.  The  thorough  working  and  rolling, 
which  is  recommended,  seems  to  be  absolutely  necessary  to  the 
securing  of  a  fine  flavor. 


FARM  AND   FODDER    CROPS.  355 

Parties  who  grow  their  own  tea  cannot  only  save  the  money 
which  would  be  needed  to  purchase  it,  but  they  also  have  the 
great  advantage  of  obtaining  a  pure  article.  It  is  also  stated 
that  the  capsules  of  the  tea-nuts  possess  a  bitter  property  which 
is  equal  to  the  famous,  expensive,  but  indispensable,  cinchona. 
This,  if  the  claim  proves  to  be  well  founded,  will  add  greatly  to 
the  value  of  the  plant.  While  we  do  not  advise  the  cultivation 
of  the  tea  plant  on  a  large  scale  until  further  trial  has  been 
made,  we  do  believe  that  it  is  for  the  interest  of  the  average 
Southern  farmer  to  grow  a  few  plants,  and  make  an  effort  to 
produce  all  the  tea  required  for  home  consumption. 

Tobacco. — This  has,  we  are  sorry  to  say,  become  one  of  the 
leading  crops  in  many  localities,  and  is  grown  on  a  larger  o.v 
smaller  scale  in  nearly  all  sections  of  the  country.  The 
varieties  which  are  most  in  demand  are  the  Connecticut  seed- 
leaf,  the  Virginia,  the  Havana,  and  a  large  number  of  sub- 
varieties  caused  by  differences  in  soil,  climate  and  cultivation. 
For  the  North,  the  genuine  Connecticut  seed-leaf  is  undoubt- 
edly the  best  kind.  This  variety  also  does  well  in  the  Middle 
States.  At  the  South,  the  Havana  tobacco  is  often  preferred, 
though  other  kinds  are  largely  grown. 

This  crop  needs  a  warm  and  extremely  rich  soil,  and  a  warm 
climate  is  desirable.  The  seed  should  be  sown  in  a  carefully 
prepared  bed  in  a  sheltered  position,  about  the  middle  of 
March.  This  bed  must  be  rich,  and  the  surface  soil  must  be 
made  extremely  fine.  As  the  seed  is  very  small,  it  is  best  to  mix 
it  with' fine  earth,  or  sand,  before  sowing.  Otherwise  the  plants 
will  be  likely  to  come  up  very  unevenly.  It  is  a  good  plan  to 
burn  a  pile  of  brush  upon  the  bed  before  it  is  sowed.  The  fire 
will  kill  the  weed-seeds,  while  the  ashes  will  prove  useful  as  a 
fertilizer.  But  little  seed  is  required.  One  tablespoonful  of 
nice  seed  will  furnish  plants  enough  for  five  acres  of  land.  But 
as  some  of  the  seeds  may  not  grow,  and  many  of  the  plants 
may  be  destroyed,  it  is  best  to  use  a  larger  quantity  than  i.« 


356  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

usually  thought  necessary.  After  sowing  the  seed,  the  bed 
should  be  rolled  with  a  hand-roller,  and  covered  with  brush. 
If  the  surface  becomes  dry,  it  must  be  occasionally  watered. 
The  seed  grows  slowly,  and  the  plants  will  not  appear  until 
about  three  weeks  after  the  sowing  is  performed.  The  weeds 
must  be  carefully  removed.  In  order  to  make  this  work  easier, 
the  bed  should  be  made  on  land  which  is  not  very  weedy  (as 
many  of  the  seeds  may  escape  the  fire  when  the  brush  is 
burned),  manure  which  is  free  from  seeds  should  be  used,  and 
the  bed  should  be  long  and  narrow.  Several  weedings  may  be 
required,  but  under  favorable  circumstances  one  or  two  will  be 
effectual.  This  work  must  not  be  slighted,  but  should  be 
attended  to  promptly  and  as  often  as  necessary. 

The  tobacco  plant  grows  very  rapidly.  Consequently  it  needs 
its  food  in  a  condition  in  which  it  can  be  readily  appropriated. 
Any  well-rotted  manure  will  do,  but  the  better  the  quality  of 
the  manure  the  heavier  and  better  will  be  the  crop.  Special 
fertilizers  for  tobacco  are  prepared  by  several  manufacturers. 
These  can  be  profitably  used  in  connection  with  yard-manure. 
Heavy  manuring  is  one  of  the  great  essentials  of  success  with 
this  crop,  and  there  is  no  danger  of  getting  the  land  too  rich. 
Green  manure  (made  from  decaying  plants)  often  proves  highly 
beneficial. 

It  is  not  well  to  grow  this  crop  on  sod  land.  It  ought  to 
follow  a  crop  which  was  well  manured  and  which  received  clean 
cultivation  The  land  should  be  plowed  early  in  the  spring,  and 
receive  a  second  plowing  just  before  the  plants  are  ready  to  be 
put  out.  Some  growers  only  plow  once.  Before  the  last  plowing 
a  large  quantity  of  the  best  manure  should  be  spread  upon  the 
land.  This  should  be  turned  in  by  a  plow  running  six  or 
seven  inches  deep.  The  surface  should  be  made  very  fine  with 
a  harrow,  or  a  roller  should  be  used  if  necessary  to  secure  this 
result.  When  level  culture  is  pursued,  the  land  should  be 
marked    both  ways  with  a  small  plow.     The  rows  should   be 


FARM  AND  FODDER    CROPS.  357 

three  feet  apart  and  the  marks  for  the  hills  two  feet.  If  very- 
large  varieties  are  grown,  the  hills  must  be  three  feet  apart.  If 
the  land  is  not  very  rich  some  tobacco  fertilizer,  guano,  or  wood- 
ashes,  may  be  scattered  in  these  drills.  Where  the  furrows 
cross  each  other,  small  hills  should  be  made  with  a  hoe  and  the 
tops  spatted  down.  When  ridge  culture  is  chosen,  a  tobacco 
ridger  should  be  used  to  make  the  ridges  and  mark  the  places  for 
the  plants.  This  work  should  be  done  but  a  short  time  before 
the  plants  are  ready  to  be  set. 

The  setting  may  be  done  any  time  from  the  first  to  the  last  of 
June.  For  the  latitude  of  New  York  the  middle  of  the  month 
will  usually  do  very  well.  It  is  a  great  help  to  hav^e  the  ground 
wet  with  showers  or  to  have'a  rainy  day  precede  the  setting  of 
the  plants.  But  it  is  not  best  to  wait  too  long  for  rain.  The 
extra  work  had  better  be  done  than  to  have  the  setting  come  too 
late  in  the  season.  In  taking  the  plants  from  the  bed  it  is  best 
to  loosen  the  earth  with  a  trowel,  and  then  pick  up  the  plants 
separately.  They  should  be  taken  to  the  field  in  baskets,  and 
one  dropped  at  the  side  of  each  hill.  In  setting,  the  plant 
should  be  taken  in  the  left  hand  and  a  hole  made  in  the  centre 
of  the  hill  with  a  stick  held  in  the  right  hand.  The  hole 
should  be  just  deep  enough  to  take  in  the  root,  without  bending, 
to  the  same  level  at  which  it  stood  in  the  seed-bed.  The  earth 
should  be  packed  closely  around  the  root  by  pressing  upon  it 
with  the  forefinger  and  thumb.  Considerable  pressure  should 
be  given  in  order  that  the  hole  may  be  closed  at  the  bottom  as 
well  as  the  top.  It  pays  to  do  this  work  well.  If  the  ground 
IS  wet,  and  the  plants  carefully  put  out,  most  of  them  will  live. 
It  is  a  good  plan  to  shade  them  with  leaves,  or  pieces  of  paper, 
for  a  day  or  two,  though  this  is  not  absolutely  necessary. 

If  the  ground  is  very  dry  the  labor  will  be  greatly  increased. 
The  seed-bed  must  be  watered  before  the  plants  are  taken  out, 
and  water  must  be  turned  upon  the  hills  before  the  setting  is 
done.     Shading  will  then  be  necessary.     The  plants  should  be 


358  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 

watered  at  night,  and  may  require  watering  once  a  day  for  three 
or  four  days.  The  watering  before  the  plants  are  put  out 
should  be  quite  liberal.  A  light  watering  at  this  time  is  no 
advantage.  Some  growers  never  use  water  until  the  plants 
are  set,  but  it  is  better  to  put  them  into  wet  soil. 

During  the  early  stages  of  its  growth  this  crop  requires 
considerable  cultivation.  Prout's  Hoeing  Machine,  Figure  20, 
is  a  good  implement  for  the  purpose.  A  good  cultivator  also 
answers  \&ry  well.  Hand-hoeing  will  be  required  three  or  four 
times  during  the  season.  When  the  leaves  are  large  they 
break  easily.  Cultivation  must  then  be  abandoned.  But  until 
then  the  ground  should  be  kept  very  fine  and  mellow,  and  all 
weeds  which  appear  should  be  eradicated.  Tillage  not  only  keeps 
the  land  clean,  but  proves  a  great  benefit  to  the  growing  crop. 

The  principal  enemies  of  this  plant  are  the  cut-worm,  which 
eats  off"  the  stalk  soon  after  the  tobacco  is  set  out,  and  the  large 
green  worm  which  comes  later  and  feeds  voraciously  upon  the 
leaves.  In  order  to  guard  against  the  cut-worm  it  is  necessary 
to  keep  a  close  watch  of  the  field  for  several  days  after  putting 
out  the  plants.  By  going  among  the  plants  early  in  the  morning 
the  worms  can  be  found.  Small  heaps  of  fresh  dirt  and  small 
round  holes  near  the  hills  indicate  the  presence  of  the  enemy. 
If  part  or  all  of  the  leaves  of  a  plant  are  cut  off",  there  is,  in 
this  fact,  abundant  evidence  that  a  cut-worm  is  near.  Whenever 
and  wherever  one  of  these  worms  can  be  found  in  a  tobacco 
field,  it  should  be  destroyed.  It  pays,  where  there  are  many  of 
these  pests,  to  go  around  and  dig  them  out  of  the  hills.  When 
a  plant  has  been  destroyed,  a  new  one*  should  be  put  in  its 
place.  But  before  setting  a  new  one,  diligent  search  should  be 
made  for  the  destroyer  of  the  other.  If  let  alone,  he  will  continue 
to  cut  off"  the  plants  as  fast  as  they  are  provided.  The  worm 
which  feeds  upon  the  leaves  is  hatched  from  an  (t^^  deposited 
by  a  moth,  and  at  first  is  so  small  as  to  escajje  ordinary  obser- 
vation.   But  it  grows  very  rapidly  and  proves  terribly  destructive. 


FARM  AND  FODDER    CROPS.  359 

It  begins  to  eat  the  leaf,  on  the  under  side,  when  it  is  no  larger 
than  a  small  needle.  A  small  hole  through  the  leaf  is  the  first 
sign  of  its  operations.  The  leaf  must  be  turned  over  and  the 
worm  removed  and  destroyed.  If  left  for  a  few  days,  the  worm 
will  rapidly  increase  in  size  and  will  utterly  spoil  the  leaf.  When 
full-grown  one  of  these  worms  is  as  long  and  almost  as  large  as 
a  man's  finger,  and  will  eat  nearly  the  whole  of  a  large  leaf  in  a 
day.  There  are  two  sets  of  these  worms  each  season.  The 
first  lot  appear  when  the  plants  are  nearly  half  grown,  and  the 
others  when  the  tobacco  is  almost  ripe.  During  the  season  for 
these  pests  the  plants  must  be  looked  over  almost  every  day, 
and  all  the  worms  and  eggs  which  can  be  found  must  be  de- 
stroyed. The  worms  are  quite  formidable-looking  creatures,  but 
are  perfectly  harmless  to  man  and  beast.  They  are  usually 
crushed  between  the  thumb  and  fore-finger  of  the  man  who 
finds  them. 

In  order  to  increase  the  size  and  value  of  the  lower  leaves, 
prevent  the  plant  from  seeding,  and  hasten  its  maturity,  the 
tobacco  needs  to  be  topped.  This  should  be  done  as  soon  as 
tlie  blossom-bud  on  top  of  the  stalk  is  formed.  It  consists  in 
breaking  off  the  top  of  the  stalk.  The  length  to  be  removed 
will  depend  upon  the  condition  of  the  plant,  but  it  is  a  safe  rule 
to  take  off  all  the  leaves  which  are  less  than  six  inches  in  length. 
If  it  is  very  late  in  the  season,  it  may  be  necessary  to  break  the 
top  still  lower  and  take  off  a  few  larger  leaves.  • 

After  the  topping  is  done,  suckers  will  begin  to  grow  from  the 
stalk  at  the  upper  side  of  each  leaf  As  soon  as  the  top  suckers 
are  three  or  four  inches  long,  the  field  should  be  gone  over  and 
all  on  the  upper  half  of  the  stalks  should  be  broken  oK.  Those 
near  the  ground  are  then  so  small  that  they  can  be  safely  left 
until  the  next  suckering.  In  a  week  or  ten  days  the  plants  will 
be  ready  to  cut.  All  the  suckers  should  be  broken  off  and  all 
the  worms  removed  just  before  the  tobacco  is  ripe. 

It    is   somewhat    difficult    for  a  bef^inner    to    tell    when   to- 


360  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

bacco  is  just  ripe  enough  to  cut.  When  the  plant  is  mature 
the  leaves  assume  a  spotted  appearance,  seem  to  be  considerably 
thicker  than  they  were  a  few  days  before,  and  if  doubled  and 
pressed,  the  leaf  will  break  off  short.  Some  growers  judge 
entirely  by  the  color.  Others  insist  that  the  plant  should 
stand  until  the  leaves  can  be  folded  without  breaking.  While 
it  is  very  desirable  that  the  plant  should  fully  mature,  it  very 
rapidly  deteriorates  by  getting  over-ripe.  It  is  also  necessary 
that  the  harvesting  should  be  done  before  cold  weather, 
as  even  a  slight  frost  proves  ruinous  to  every  leaf  which  is 
touched.  Better  cut  before  it  is  ripe  than  run  much  risk  of 
having  the  plants  frosted.  A  tobacco  hatchet  is  the  best  imple- 
ment with  which  to  cut  this  crop.  If  this  is  not  at  hand,  a  sharp 
butcher-knife,  or  a  corn-cutter,  may  be  used.  Some  growers  in 
this  section  use  a  common  hand-saw.  The  plant  should  be  bent 
over  with  the  left  hand,  and  a  quick  stroke  of  the  hatchet,  or  a 
drawing  cut  with  the  knife,  should  be  given.  The  plant  must 
be  cut  close  to  the  ground,  and  left  for  a  while  to  wilt.  The 
tobacco  should  not  be  cut  when  wet  with  dew  or  rain,  or  in  the 
middle  of  a  very  hot  day,  and  must  not  lie  long  enough  in  the 
field  to  be  sunburned.  As  soon  as  it  is  sufificiently  wilted  so 
that  it  will  not  break  easily  when  handled,  it  should  be  drawn  to 
the  shed  or  barn  and  hung  up  to  cure.  Some  growers  merely 
load  tobacco  on  a  wagon  as  they  do  corn,  handling  carefully 
so 'as  not  to  tear  the  leaves,  and  take  it  to  the  barn  to  put  upon 
sticks,  while  others  get  it  on  the  sticks  in  the  field.  The  latter 
way  is  much  the  best. 

The  plants  should  be  hung  upon  lath.  They  are  put  on  by 
means  of  a  large  steel  needle,  with  a  socket  at  one  end,  which 
fits  on  the  end  of  the  stick.  The  lath  is  laid  upon  a  convenient 
"^  horse,"  or  one  end  is  placed  on  a  block  lying  on  the  ground, 
and  the  needle  slipped  on.  The  plant  is  then  taken  in  both 
hands  and  forced  upon  the  lath.  From  six  to  ten  plants  may  be 
put  upon  a  common  lath.    When  one  stick  is  filled,  it  is  laid  aside 


FARM  AND   FODDER    CROPS.  3g2 

and  plants  are  strung  upon  another.  These  sticks  are  carted  to 
the  barn  on  a  wagon  with  side  boards  arranged  for  the  purpose, 
and  there  laid  upon  rails  or  cross-beams  previously  arrano-ed  for 
their  reception.  This  method  is  a  vast  improvement  over  the 
old  way  of  tying  each  plant  to  a  rail  with  twine  and  the  some- 
what newer  plan,  which  many  growers  still  follow,  of  drivin<y  a 
peg  into  each  stalk  and  hanging  it  upon  a  pole. 

If  only  a  little  tobacco  is  grown,  it  can  be  hung  in  a  shed  or 
over  the  barn  floor.  But  when  grown  on  a  large  scale,  a  tobacco 
barn  will  be  required.  The  interior  of  this  building  is  composed 
of  beams  and  joists,  in  several  tiers,  arranged  to  receive  the  lath 
or  poles,  to  which  the  plants  are  secured.  Of  the  outside  cov- 
ering from  one-third  to  one -half  of  the  boards  should  be  hun^r 
on  hinges,  so  that  they  can  be  opened  for  the  admission  of  the 
light  and  air.  The  laths  upon  which  tobacco  has  been  huno- 
should  not  be  placed  nearer  together  than  eight  inches  in  a  well- 
ventilated  building.  If  hung  in  a  common  barn,  considerable 
more  room  must  be  given.  After  the  plants  are  hung,  the  doors 
should  be  kept  open  during  fine  weather  until  they  are  cured. 
In  rainy  weather  the  building  should  be  closed,  and  when  the 
curing  is  completed  the  doors  should  remain  closed  all  of  the 
time. 

When  warm,  wet  weather  comes  on  late  in  the  fall,  or  in  the 
winter,  the  tobacco  should  be  taken  down  and  stripped.  In 
order  to  keep  them  moist  the  plants  are  taken  from  the  sticks, 
and  put  in  small  piles  on  the  floor.  The  leaves  are  pulled  from 
the  stalks,  and  tied  up  with  one  of  the  leaves,  in  little  bundles 
of  three  or  four  ounces  each.  One  leaf  should  be  taken  ofl"  at 
a  time,  and  each  one  should  be  kept  straight.  The  leaves 
should  be  assorted  according  to  their  quality.  The  bunches  of 
bottom  leaves,  and  all  which  are  torn,  worm-eaten,  or  otherwise 
injured,  should  be  kept  by  themselves.  The  bright  and  nice 
leaves  should  be  bunched  together,  and  those  which  present  a 
dull,  dead  color  should  also  be  kept  separate.     As  the  manner 


3(32  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

of  sorting  differs  considerably  in  different  sections,  it  will  pay 
the  beginner  to  take  a  few  lessons  of  some  experienced  grower 
in  his  vicinity.  The  bunches  of  leaves  should  be  laid  in  piles 
on  the  floor.  The  butts  must  be.put  outside,  and  the  tips  should 
lap  about  one-third  of  their  length.  The  pile  should  be  neatly 
laid  and  pressed  down  by  treading,  or  by  laying  on  heavy 
weights.  It  must  be  kept  covered  with  blankets  in  order  to 
prevent  undue  drj'ing.  In  this  condition  it  can  be  sold  to 
buyers  who  will  put  it  in  cases,  or  it  may  be  cased  by  the 
grower. 

The  boxes  can  be  made  by  the  farmer,  but  it  is  much  better 
for  him  to  buy  them  of  the  manufacturers.  The  ordinary 
boxes  are  three  feet  and  a  half  long,  two  feet  and  a  half  wide, 
and  two  ieet  and  a  half  deep.  The  tobacco  should  be  packed 
by  a  man  in  the  box,  who  should  crowd  it  down  with  his  knees. 
When  full,  the  tobacco  should  be  placed  under  a  press,  or 
crowded  down  by  means  of  a  long  lever  which  presses  upon  a 
block,  laid  on  a  follower  which  will  just  go  inside  of  the  box. 
More  tobacco  can  then  be  put  in.  It  may  be  laid  about  six 
inches  higher  than  the  edges  of  the  box,  and  pressed  down  even 
with  them.  The  top  should  then  be  firmly  nailed.  A  box  of 
this  size,  filled  in  the  way  described,  will  hold  about  three 
hundred  pounds.  In  the  South,  and  some  parts  of  the  West, 
hogsheads  which  will  hold,  when  pressed,  from  fifteen  to 
eighteen  hundred  pounds  of  tobacco  are  used  for  this  purpose. 

Growers  who  raise  their  own  seed  usually  leave  from  one  to 
half  a  dozen  of  the  best  plants  without  topping.  Four  plants 
ought  to  yield  half  a  pint  of  seed — enough  to  stock  several 
acres.  From  the  seed-plants  the  worms  should  be  kept  off  the 
whole  season.  The  suckers  should  also  be  removed,  and  at 
cutting  time  most  of  the  leaves  should  be  taken  off  When  the 
pods  have  turned  black,  the  heads  should  be  cut  off  and  hung 
in  a  dr}'  place  to  cure.  When  thoroughly  drj',  the  seed  may  be 
shelled,  cleaned  in  a  fine  sieve,  put  into  a  bo.x,  and  laid  away 
until  it  is  needed  for  use. 


FARM  AND   FODDER    CROPS.  363 

The  tobacco  crop  needs  constant  care,  and  is  liable  to  various 
injuries.  Many  fine  crops  which  were  almost  ready  to  harvest 
have  been  utterly  spoiled  by  a  hail-storm  of  a  few  minutes 
duration.  From  the  time  the  plants  are  put  out  until  the 
tobacco  is  sold  there  is  a  great  deal  of  risk.  Worms,  or  hail, 
or  winds,  may  injure  or  destroy  it,  there  is  danger  of  burning 
while  wilting  in  the  field,  and  spoiling  while  curing  in  the  barn, 
and  even  after  it  was  packed  it  has  been  known  to  heat  and 
spoil.  Much  of  the  work  connected  with  the  growth  of  the 
crop  is  dirty  and  disagreeable.  It  is  also  unhealthy.  Tobacco 
is  a  very  exhausting  crop  for  the  land.  If  grown  often  upon 
the  same  fields  without  heavy  applications  of  manure,  they  will 
soon  be  ruined.  The  exhausted  tobacco  lands  of  Virginia 
show  what  its  constant  cultivation  will  accomplish.  In  New 
England  many  of  the  finest  farms  have  been  injured  by  its 
grov/th.  Almost  all  of  the  manure  made  on  the  farms  has  been 
put  on  the  small  tobacco  fields  in  order  to  get  them  rich  enough 
to  produce  this  crop.  As  a  consequence  a  small  part  of  the 
land  is  in  good  condition,  wdiile  most  of  it  has  been  exhausted 
by  repeatedly  cropping  it  without  manure.  The  small  field  has 
been  made  rich  at  the  expense  of  all  the  rest  of  the  farm. 
The  ordinary  farmer  does  not  have  manure  enough  to  grow 
tobacco  in  connection  with  other  farm  crops.  If  he  attempts  to 
do  it,  he  must  either  slight  and  starve  the  other  crops,  or  else 
grow  poor  tobacco.  If  he  buys  manure  in  order  to  carry  out 
both  the  farm  crops  and  the  tobacco,  he  will  incur  a  great 
expense,  and  run  the  risk  of  heavy  loss.  If  he  buys  manure 
and  makes  tobacco-growing  a  specialty,  he  takes  a  still  greater 
risk.  His  expenses  for  fertilizers  and  labor  must  be  met  from 
the  income  of  the  farm.  If  the  tobacco  is  good,  and  finds  a 
ready  market,  there  will  be  no  great  difficulty  in  these  respects ; 
but  if  the  crop  is  poor,  or  cannot  be  sold,  the  farmer  will  sustain 
a  very  heavy  loss.  On  the  whole,  viewed  merely  in  a  business 
light,  tobacco-growing  carries   too   much  risk  for  the   ordinary 


364  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 

farmer  to  safely  incur.  We  have  seen  many  good  farms  impover- 
ished, and  their  owners  financially  ruined  by  a  train  of  circum- 
stances in  which  tobacco-growing  was  the  leading  influence. 
When  to  the  risk  which  the  farmer  is  obliged  to  take  in  its  pro- 
duction is  added  the  moral  evil,  which  identifies  itself  with  the 
use  of  tobacco,  we  certainly  have  sufficient  reasons  why  the  culti- 
vation of  this  crop  should  not  be  continued.  There  are  a  large 
number  of  crops  which  the  farmer  can  produce  with  profit  to 
himself  and  benefit  to  the  world.  Such  crops  should  be  largely 
grown,  while  those  which  are  pernicious,  as  tobacco  is  (even  by 
those  who  use  it)  almost  universally  acknowledged  to  be,  should 
be  let  entirely  alone. 

The  Yam. — This  is  an  esculent  tuber  which  is  extensively 
grown  in  the  East  and  West  Indies  and  other  tropical  coun- 
tries. There  are  several  varieties,  some  of  which  are  more 
hardy  than  others.  Those  which  are  grown  in  the  warmest 
countries  form  a  staple  article  of  food  for  the  inhabitants.  A 
variety  growing  in  China  and  Japan  has  been  introduced  into 
this  country.  It  goes  by  the  common  name  of  Chinese  Yam, 
and,  at  intervals,  for  many  years  efforts  have  been  made  by  par- 
ties acquainted  with  its  merits  to  secure  its  general  cultivation. 
But  it  has  never  become  a  popular  plant  in  the  United  States, 
and  we  hardly  think  that  it  will  ever  be  grown  here  to  any  great 
extent. 

The  Chinese  yam  is  similar  in  appearance,  though  smaller  in 
size,  to  the  yams  produced  in  the  Indies,  and  can  be  used  in 
the  same  manner.  It  is  a  climbing  plant,  sending  up  a  slender, 
twining,  vine  with  heart-shaped  leaves.  The  vine  forms  a  very 
good  covering  for  screens.  During  the  summer  it  puts  out  clus- 
ters of  very  small  white  flowers.  It  is  propagated  by  bulblets 
which  grow  upon  the  vines,  or  by  planting  small  roots.  From 
the  roots  a  crop  can  be  obtained  the  first  season,  but  when  the 
bulblets  are  planted  two  seasons  will  be  needed  to  secure  roots 
of  suitable  size  for  cooking  purposes.     The  land  in  which  yams 


FARM  AND   FODDER    CROPS.  365 

are  to  be  grown  should  be  moderately  rich  and  plowed  as 
deeply  as  possible.  The  bulblets  may  be  planted  eight  inches 
apart.  If  roots  are  used,  more  room  should  be  given.  Weeds 
should  be  kept  down,  and  an  occasional  hoeing  will  be  bene- 
ficial. The  vines  may  be  made  to  climb  some  long  poles,  like 
beans,  or  allowed  to  creep  over  the  ground.  The  roots  are  not 
destroyed  by  frost,  but  will  live,  unprotected,  through  a  New 
England  winter  and  grow  vigorously  the  next  spring.  A  plan- 
tation once  started  can  be  kept  along  with  very  little  trouble. 
By  digging  the  large  roots  and  leaving  the  small  ones,  a  supply 
for  family  use  can  be  secured  from  a  small  plot  of  ground  and 
the  stock  kept  constantly  good. 

The  great  difficulty  with  this  crop  is  to  get  the  roots.  They 
grow  two  or  three  feet  in  length  and  the  large  end  is  always 
down.  Consequently,  a  great  deal  of  digging  is  required  to 
loosen  them.  They  might  be  plowed  out,  with  a  large  plow  and 
a  strong  team,  but  this  would  destroy  the  permanence  of  the 
plantation  and  make  it  necessary  to  put  out  a  new  stock  each 
spring. 

Concerning  the  quality  of  these  tubers  there  is  a  great  differ- 
ence of  opinion.  Some  people  consider  them  very  fine,  while 
others  do  not  like  them.  The  flesh  is  extremely  white,  and, 
when  boiled,  or  roasted,  tastes  very  much  like  rice.  In  the 
Indies  these  tubers  are  ground  into  flour  and  made  into  bread 
and  puddings,  as  well  as  used  in  simpler  forms.  There  is  no 
doubt  that  for  those  who  like  it  the  yam  is  a  healthful  and  nutri- 
tious food.  We  have  never  grown  it  largely,  and,  while  we 
recognize  its  merits,  we  have  no  desire  to  increase  the  area 
which  we  at  first  assigned  to  it  in  our  garden. 

The  crops  grown  especially  for  Forage  are  but  few  in  num- 
ber, though  of  great  importance  to  the  farmer  and  absolutely 
necessary  to  the  maintenance  of  his  live-stock.  Grass  is  the 
leading  crop  in  this  class  and  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  all 
the  plants  grown  upon  the  farm.     There  are  a  large  number  of 


366  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

different  varieties,  possessing  different  characteristics,  and  it  is 
easy  to  find  several  sorts  which  are  adapted  to  each  of  the 
various  kinds  of  soil.  With  the  exception  of  those  which  are 
utterly  barren,  grass  is  a  natural  product  of  all  fields  and  will 
grow  upon  them  of  its  own  accord.  While  other  plants  must 
be  got  into  the  land  by  the  agency  of  man,  and  need  cultivation 
in  order  to  make  them  profitable,  grass  will  take  possession  of 
the  soil  without  even  an  invitation  and  grow  freely  if  it  is  let 
entirely  alone.  Consequently,  it  is  one  of  the  easiest  of  all  crops 
for  the  farmer  to  produce.  By  means  of  a  careful  selection  of 
varieties,  and  judicious  cultivation,  he  can  improve  the  quality 
and  increase  the  quantity  of  grass  which  will  grow  on  a  given 
area  of  land.  Nature  will  do  much  to  help  him,  and  he  ought, 
with  so  many  favoring  circumstances  and  so  muchf  help  from 
natural  influences,  to  make  this  crop  the  source  of  a  generous 
profit. 

The  cultivation  of  the  grass  crop  has  long  been  regarded  at 
the  North  as  the  basis  of  all  successful  farming,  and  this  idea 
is  now  being  quite  generally  embraced  by  the  leading  farmers 
of  the  South.  In  the  latter  section,  on  account  of  the  extreme 
heat  of  the  summer  months,  it  is  more  difficult  to  grow  this  crop 
in  perfection  than  it  is  at  the  North.  But  even  at  the  extreme 
South  grass,  of  excellent  varieties,  can  be  produced,  and  we  arc 
confident  that  its  general  introduction  as  a  standard  crop  would 
ver}'  greatly  increase  the  profits  of  the  Southern  farmer.  One- 
quarter  of  the  care  and  skill  which  the  Northern  farmer  gives 
to  the  corn  crop,  and  the  Southern  farmer  gives  to  his  cotton, 
would  insure  a  high  degree  of  success. 

One  of  the  important  conditions  of  the  successful  culture  of 
the  grass  crop  is  a  proper  selection  of  varieties.  There  are 
thousands  of  kinds  known  to  botanists,  and  two  hundred  va- 
rieties are  cultivated  in  Engl.\nd,  but  only  about  thirty  sorts 
are  recognized  as  valuable  for  extensive  dissemination  in  this 
countr\-.     Of  these  we  will  mention  and  describe  'Only  a  few  of 


FARM  AND   FODDER    CROFS.  3(}7 

the  leading  sorts,  as  we  consider  a  statement  of  the  principles  of 
cultivation  much  more  valuable  and  useful  for  the  farmer  than 
a  catalogue  of  the  names  of  all  the  varieties  grown  in  the 
country. 

Timothy. — This  we  consider  the  very  best  grass  for  hay  which 
can  be  produced.  It  flourishes  throughout  the  North  and  on 
the  drained  lowlands  of  the  South.  It  is  very  productive  and 
highly  nutritious.  In  the  Southern  city  markets  hay  made 
from  this  grass  commands  the  very  highest  price,  while  in  other 
sections  it  is  always  a  standard.  It  is  a  perennial  plant,  but  land 
which  produces  it  usually  needs  reseeding  in  from  three  to  six 
years.  It  does  not  do  its  best  in  a  wet  soil,  or  on  very  dry  and 
sandy  land.  Still,  fair  crops  are  often  grown  on  very  moist  land, 
and  also  on  gravel  knolls.  It  ripens  rather  late,  and  on  this 
account  does  not  yield  much  aftermath.  As  a  pasture  grass  it 
is  very  good.  At  the  North  it  is  often  grown  with  clover  for 
hay,  but  as  the  two  plants  do  not  ripen  at  the  same  time  one  of 
them  must  be  used  at  a  disadvantage.  It  makes  splendid  hay 
when  grown  alone,  and  can  be  profitably  cultivated  in  this  way. 
Red  Top  is  sometimes  grown  with  it.  We  consider  this  mixture 
a  decided  disadvantage  as  far  as  the  hay  is  concerned,  but  it  makes 
a  more  permanent  crop  for  moist  land  than  the  Timothy  alone. 
The  Timothy  should  be  cut  when  in  blossom.  It  will  increase 
in  weight  if  it  is  allowed  to  ripen,  and  horses  will  eat  it  well  in 
this  state,  but  when  mature  it  is  rather  too  hard  and  woody  for 
cows.  If  used  alone,  from  twelve  to  twenty-four  quarts  of  seed 
per  acre  should  be  sown. 

Red  Top. — This  is  a  tall,  hardy,  luxuriant,  perennial  grass, 
which  flourishes  in  moist  soils  and  grows  in  dry  ones.  Some 
writers  consider  it  very  valuable,  while  others  assert  that  the 
hay  is  of  poor  quality.  Mr.  Howard,  in  his  work  on  Forage 
Plants  at  the  .bouTH,  ranks  it  next  to  Timothy  and  recom- 
mends sowing  the  two  together.  When  grown  by  itself,  from 
twelve  to  sixteen  quarts  of  seed  per  acre  should  be  used.     We 


368  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 

like  it  vcr>'  much  for  permanent  pastures,  especially  for  those 
which  are  moist,  but,  on  account  of  the  difficulty  with  whjch  it 
can  be  subdued,  we  do  not  like  to  sow  it  in  cultivated  fields. 
This  grass  is  known  in  the  Middle  and  Southern  States  by  the 
name  of  Herds  Grass — a  title  which  in  the  New  England  States 
is  often  given  to  Timothy. 

Orchard  Grass. — This  grass  flourishes  throughout  the  whole 
country.  It  grows  readily  in  the  shade,  and  endures  drought 
remarkably  well.  It  ripens  at  the  same  time  as  clover.  For  hay 
it  should  be  cut  before  the  seed  is  formed,  and  is  better  for  an 
admixture  of  meadow  oat-grass  and  clover.  It  springs  up 
quickly  after  being  cut,  and  yields  a  good  crop  of  rowen.  It  is 
also  valuable  for  pasture  and  may  be  quite  closely  fed.  The 
seed  is  extremely  light  and  chaffy.  From  one  to  two  bushels 
are  used  when  this  grass  is  grown  separately,  but  as  it  grows  in 
tufts  some  other  kind  should  be  mixed  with  it  in  order  to  cover 
the  whole  of  the  land. 

Oat  Grass. — This  is  a  large-growing  variety  which  starts 
early  in  the  spring  and  is  very  good  for  either  hay  or  pasture. 
It  is  quite  permanent.  The  seed  is  light  and  two  buohels  per 
acre  should  be  used.  The  seed  ripens  while  the  stalk  is  yet 
green,  and  a  crop  of  seed  can  be  secured  in  connection  with  a 
very  good  quality  of  hay.  This  grass  grows  in  bunches  and 
needs  thick  sowing  in  order  to,  as  far  as  possible,  counteract  this 
tendency.  It  is  well  adapted  to  rich  land,  and  will  give  two 
good  crops  per  year.  For  furnishing  winter  pastures  at  the 
South,  this  is  one  of  the  very  best  of  plants. 

Blue  Grass. — This  grass  flourishes  on  rich  uplands,  and, 
where  soil  and  climate  are  favorable,  gives  excellent  hay  and 
permanent  pastures.  By  some  writers  the  June  grass  of  New 
England  and  the  Middle  States  is  said  to  be  the  same  as  blue 
grass,  but  others  deny  its  identity.  If  the  same,  it  does  not 
reach  that  degree  of  perfection  in  other  localities  whigh  \\ 
attains  in  the  limestone  soils  of  Kentucky.     It  is  liable  to  be 


FARM  AND   FODDER    CROPS.  369 

aflfected  by  severe  drought,  but  otherwfse  endures  vicissitudes 
of  climate  as  well  as  other  grasses.  It  should  not  be  grown 
upon  land  which  is  often  plowed.  It  starts  very  slowly  and 
needs  four  years  in  which  to  become  fully  developed.  The  first 
year  after  seeding  but  little  of  it  will  appear,  and  that  will  be 
very  small  and  fine.  The  next  season  there  will  be  a  little  more, 
the  third  year  a  great  deal  more,  while  during  the  fourth  season 
it  will  make  a  luxuriant  growth.  On  account  of  this  slow 
development  orchard  grass  seed  and  clover,  or  oat  grass,  should 
be  sowed  with  the  blue  grass.  The  other  grasses  will  keep 
down  the  weeds  and  give  abundant  shade.  The  blue  grass 
will,  in  time,  overpower  the  other  varieties  and  take  full  pos- 
session of  the  soil.  Only  four  quarts  of  seed  is  required  for 
an  acre.  Before  sowing,  the  land  should  be  made  very  rich 
and  the  surface  should  be  finely  pulverized.  This  grass  is 
one  of  the  very  best  for  pastures  and  ought  to  be  more  gener- 
ally used. 

Meadow  Fescue. — This  is  an  early  grass  which  thrives  on 
wet  land,  and.  gives  a  good  quality  of  hay  as  well  as  excellent 
pasturage.     Mr.  Flint  highly  recommends  it. 

Fowl  Meadow. — This  is  a  valuable  grass  for  moist  soils.  It 
is  very  early,  but,  unlike  almost  all  other  varieties,  it  remains 
good  for  several  weeks.  If  grown  on  rich  land,  two  crops  per 
year  can  be  obtained.     The  quality  of  the  hay  is  very  fine. 

Sweet  Scented  Vernal  Gr.\ss  contains  an  immense  amount 
of  water  and  is  not  desirable  for  mowing-lots.  It  is  very  sweet, 
starts  early  in  the  spring,  and  makes  a  steady  growth.  On 
these  accounts  it  is  well  liked  in  pastures.  A  little  of  the  seed 
may  be  mixed  with  that  of  other  kinds  when  pastures  are  laid 
down,  but  it  will  not  pay  to  sow  it  too  liberally,  as  most  of  the 
room  which  it  would  require  can  be  used  to  much  better 
advantage. 

Bermuda  Grass. — Concerning  this  grass  there  is  a  great 
difference  of  opinion.     It  was  introduced  from  the  West  Indies 


370  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

and  has  become  thoroughly  acclimated  throughout  the  South. 
To  the  cotton-planter  it  has  made  an  immense  amount  of 
trouble,  and  until  quite  recently  it  has  been  pretty  generally 
condemned.  But  at  the  present  time  many  writers,  among 
whom  is  Mr.  Howard,  consider  it  a  valuable  plant.  It  is  pre- 
eminently a  pcrmanetit  plant.  Once  in  the  soil  it  resists  all 
ordinary  efforts  for  its  eradication.  Cattle  like  it,  and  will 
thrive  when  kept  upon  it.  It  is  said  to  make  a  fair  quality  of 
hay.  It  produces  a  very  heavy  sod,  which  is  valuable  to  turn 
in  as  a  fertilizer  for  other  crops.  In  connection  with  clover 
and  blue  grass,  which  are  fresh  when  the  Bermuda  dies  down^  it 
makes  an  excellent  pasture,  which  will  keep  fresh  at  the  South 
during  the  whole  year.  Notwithstanding  that  many  writers  in 
the  papers  seem  to  fear  its  introduction,  and  wish  that  it  could 
be  utterly  destroyed,  we  think  that  it  will  pay  the  farmers  of  the 
South  to  experiment  with  it,  on  a  small  scale  at  first,  and  fully 
test  its  character.  It  may  prove  one  of  the  most  useful  plants 
which  can  be  obtained. 

In  addition  to  the  kinds  which  have  been  named  there  are 
many  others  which  arc  of  different  degrees  of  value.  There  are 
marsh  grasses  which  grow  only  in  very  wet  soils,  prairie  grasses 
which  grow  wild  at  the  West,  and  several  native  grasses  which 
appear  at  the  South.  As  a  general  rule  the  native  grasses  are 
of  inferior  quality,  and  should  be  superseded  by  the  finer  culti- 
vated varieties.  It  never  pays  to  grow  a  poor  kind  of  grass 
where  a  much  better  one  can  easily  be  produced. 

We  will  now  consider  some  of  the  general  principles  upon 
which  the  culture  of  the  grass  crop  should  be  conducted.  The 
Preparation  of  the  Soil  is  a  very  important  matter — one 
which  lies  at  the  very  foundation  of  the  whole  system.  Prob- 
ably the  great  majority  of  farmers  throughout  the  country  sow 
nearly  all  of  their  grass  seed  in  connection  with  grain.  They  fit 
their  land  for  the  grain  crop,  and,  with  the  exception  of 
covering  it,  do  nothing  more  to  the  land  than  they  would  if  the 


FARM  AND  FODDER    CROPS.  37X 

grass  seed  had  not  been  put  in.  That  it  is  not  as  well  to  seed 
land  with  a  crop  of  rye,  or  oats,  or  corn,  as  it  would  be  to  sow 
grass  seed  alone,  no  argument  is  required  to  prove.  Common - 
sense,  science  and  experience  all  go  to  show  that  it  is  better 
when  grass  is  to  be  grown  to  give  it  a  fair  start,  than  it  is  to  put 
with  it  a  stronger  crop  to  choke  it  and  keep  it  down.  The 
grass  suffers  a  double  injur}^  The  grain  crop  takes  possession 
of  the  land,  and  appropriates  the  elements  of  fertility  which  arc 
within  easy  reach,  and  which  the  little  grass  plants  ought  to 
secure.  Then  the  plants  are  injured  by  the  trampling  to  which 
they  are  subjected  when  the  grain  is  cut  and  carted  off,  and, 
having  been  shaded  so  long,  they  are  badly  injured  by  the 
burning  rays  of  the  sun  after  the  grain  which  furnished  the 
shade  has  been  removed.  Nearly  all  farmers  admit  that  sowing 
grass  with  grain  is  an  evil,  but  most  who  follow  this  method 
consider  it  a  sort  of  necessity  and  can  see  no  better  way  in 
which  to  proceed.  If  they  had  plenty  of  manure,  they  would 
follow  a  different  course.  But  they  want  to  get  all  they  can 
*  from  the  land  with  the  least  possible  outlay  of  labor,  and  the 
smallest  possible  quantity  of  manure.  Therefore,  the  present 
system  of  seeding  with  grain  will  probably  continue  in  common 
use.  When  it  is  followed,  the  land  should  be  made  quite  fertile, 
and  the  surface  should  be  well  prepared  to  receive  the  seed. 

When  grass  seed  is  used  alone,  it  may  be  sowed  either  in 
the  spring  or  late  in  the  summer.  As  far  as  the  grass  is  con- 
cerned, the  former  may  be  considered  the  best  time,  as  it  gives 
the  plants  a  longer  period  in  which  to  develop  before  they  are 
cut  and  enables  them  to  obtain  a  stronger  hold  upon  life.  But 
this  requires  the  use  of  the  land  two  seasons  in  order  to  obtain 
the  crop  which  should  be  produced  in  one.  Consequently, 
later  seeding,  which  permits  the  removal  of  a  crop  the  first  year, 
is  usually  preferred.  The  best  time  for  this  work  is  during  the 
month  of  August  at  the  North  and  September  farther  South. 
Sod  land  is  often  turned  over  for  reseeding.  The  land  should 
24 


372  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

be  plowed  to  a  medium  depth,  a  fair  coating  of  manure  should 
be  spread  upon  the  plowed  surface,  or  guano  or  gr^s's  fertilizer 
should  be  sowed  broadcast  upon  it,  and  a  wheel-harrow,  or 
some  9ther  very  efficient  pulverizer,  should  be  used  until  the 
surface  soil  is  extremely  fine.  The  seed  may  then  be  sowed, 
covered  with  a  bush-harrow,  and  the  land  thoroughly  rolled. 
As  a  general  rule,  to  which  the  culture  of  Timothy  is  the  promi- 
nent exception,  it  is  much  better  to  mix  several  kinds  of  grass 
seed  than  it  is  to  sow  any  one  of  them  alone. 

The  quantity  of  seed  required  will  depend  upon  the  varieties 
to  be  grown,  and  the  purposes  for  which  the  grass  is  designed. 
Light  seeding  makes  large,  coarse  stalks,  and  invites  a  growth 
of  weeds.  Heavy  seeding  makes  finer  stalks,  and  nicer  hay  for 
cows  or  sheep.  There  are  extremes  in  both  directions,  and 
both  should  be  avoided.  For  pastures,  we  favor  sowing  several 
different  kinds  and  using  seed  with  a  liberal  hand.  This  is 
much  more  important  with  pastures  than  with  grass  which  is 
grown  for  hay.  The  pasture  remains  long  in  grass,  and  it  is 
desirable  that  it  should  produce  as  large  a  quantity  as  possible. 
This  is  aided  by  the  use  of  several  varieties  of  seed.  One  kind 
alone  will  not  furnish  as  many  plants  or  make  as  vigorous 
•growth  as  a  mixture  of  different  sorts.  Besides,  some  kinds  ripen 
•earlier  than  others,  and  by  sowing  several  a  succession  may  be 
secured,  and  the  pastures  be  kept  green  much  longer  than  they 
otherwise  could.  Add  to  these  reasons  the  fact  that  cattle  like 
a  variety  of  food  better  than  any  single  kind,  and  thrive  better 
when  furnished  with  many  sorts  than  they  do  on  one  alone,  and 
no  further  evidence  will  be  needed  that  it  is  not  wise  to  seed 
pasture-land  with  only  one  kind  of  grass.  In  mowing-lots  a 
larger  quantity  of  hay  can  be  secured  and  the  fields  will  remain 
longer  in  grass,  if  several  kinds  of  seed  are  used.  But  in  using 
these  different  kinds,  a  wise  selection  should  be  made  in  order 
to  secure  a  good  qua;lity  as  well  as  a  large  quantity  of  hay. 
The  varieties  which  are  sowed  should  ripen  at  the  same  time, 


FARM  AND  FODDER   CROPS.  373 

and  be  grown  in  suitable  proportions.  For  feeding  to  horses, 
for  at  least  half  of  the  time,  we  like  Timothy  which  is  grown 
without  admixture  of  any  kind,  but  for  cows  and  sheep  a  variety 
is  to  be  preferred.  The  following  mixtures,  with  slight  changes, 
are  highly  recommended  by  various  agricultural  authorities. 
Each  mixture  is  designed  for  one  acre  of  land. 

For  Mowing-Lots. 

Orchard  Grass 6  lbs.         Timothy 61bs. 

Red  Clover 10  ««  Red  Top 4  " 

Rye  Grass 5  lbs. 

For  Permaneitt  Pastures. 

Meadow  Foxtail 2  lbs.         Rye  Grass 4  lbs. 

Orchard  Grass 6  "  Timothy 4  « 

White  Clover 5  "  Blue  Grass 4  " 

Red  Clover 4  «  Meadow  Fescue 4  «« 

Rough  Stalked  Meadow  Grass  4  "  Red  Top 4  « 

Hay  and  Pasture  Combined. 

Timothy 6  lbs.         Wood  Meadow  Grass 4  lbs. 

June  Grass 4  «  White  Clover 4  « 

Orchard  Grass   4  "  Perennial  Clover 2  " 

Rye  Grass 4  "  Rough  Stalked  Meadow  Grass  2  " 

Sweet  Scented  Vernal  Grass 2  lbs. 

For  the  South  Mr.  Howard  recommends  the  following : 
For  Rotation  and  Improving  the  Soil. 

Red  Clover 4  qts.         Orchard  Grass I  bu. 

Meadow  Oat  Grass i  bu. 

For  Meadow  Land. 

Timothy i  pk.         Herds  Grass 4  qts. 

White  Clover 4  qts. 

Add  4  quarts  of  Red  Clover,  if  immediate  results  are  desired. 

For  Summer  Pastures. 

Bermuda  Grass.  Crab  Grass.  Red  Clover. 

Herds  Grass.  Natural  Grasses. 

For  Winter  Pastures. 

Meadow  Oat  Grass i  bu.         Blue  Grass 4  qts. 

Orchard  Grass I    «  Red  Clover 4  " 

Wild  Rye  Grass I    «  White  Clover 4" 

Not  to  be  grazed  later  than  June  or  earlier  than  Christmas. 

For  mowings  at  the  North  we  favor  a  much  more  liberal  use 
of  Timothy  than  any  of  the  tables  given  above  require.      In 


374  FARMING   FOR  PROFIT. 

connection  with  Red  Top  and  Meadow  Fescue  for  moist  land, 
and  with  Orchard  Grass  and  Clover  for  early  cutting  on  dry  soils, 
we  consider  it  almost  invaluable.  It  has  been  asserted  that  this 
grass  will  not  thrive  on  dry  uplands,  but  our  experience  with  it 
upon  these  soils  has  been  quite  satisfactory.  It  has  a  bulbous 
root,  and,  on  this  account,  is  more  liable  than  some  grasses  to 
be  injured  by  extremely  dry  weather  if  it  comes  immediately 
after  the  hay  crop  is  removed.  We  do  not  favor  cutting  this 
grass  as  close  to  the  ground  as  is  sometimes  done.  Neither 
should  it  be  allowed  to  ripen  its  seed  unless  the  land  is  soon  to 
be  plowed.  When  cut  in  the  blossom  and  properly  cured  it 
makes  splendid  hay,  and  we  have  no  hesitation  in  recommending 
it  for  extensive  cultivation. 

The  care  of  permanent  grass  fields,  or  fields  which  for  several 
years  are  to  be  kept  in  grass,  is  very  simple.  It  is  one  of  the 
great  merits  of  the  grass  crop  that  it  can  be  grown  with  but  very 
slight  expense  for  labor,  and  with  only  a  moderate  quantity  of 
manure.  The  main  things  to  be  done  are  to  give  suitable 
protection,  avoid  too  close  cutting,  and  provide  a  reasonable 
quantity  of  plant-food.  Mowing-lots  ought  never  to  be  grazed. 
To  neglect  of  this  rule  a  large  part  of  the  partial  failures  with 
the  grass  crop  are  due.  In  New  England  it  is  a  very  common 
practice  to  mow  the  grass  as  soon  as  ripe;  a  few  weeks  later,  if 
there  is  enough  to  make  it  an  object  to  do  so,  the  rowen  is  cut 
very  close  to  the  ground,  and  early  in  the  fall  the  cattle  are 
turned  into  the  fields  and  allowed  to  gnaw  the  grass  to  the 
roots  until  the  ground  is  either  frozen  or  else  covered  with  snow. 
Thus  the  grass  roots  must  endure  the  rigors  of  a  Northern 
winter  without  other  protection  than  the  snow.  This  frequently 
does  not  fall  until  after  the  ground  has  been  severely  frozen  and 
the  roots  seriously  injured.  No  other  crop  could  endure  a  tenth 
of  the  exposure,  neglect,  and  abuse  which  the  grass  receives, 
and  maintain  its  hold  upon  life.  Yet  farmers  expect  their 
gjrass  to  not  only  live,  but  also  to  yield  them  a  large  profit.     It 


FARM  AND.  FODDER   CROPS.  37^ 

ought  not  to  be  a  matter  for  surprise  that  when  treated  in  this 
manner  grass  lots  do  not  long  yield  good  crops.  It  is  a  wonder 
that  they  prove  so  permanent  when  subjected  to  such  adverse 
influences.  Then,  too,  the  average  farmer  robs  his  grass  land  to 
feed  his  hoed  crops.  The  hay  is  fed  out  on  the  farm  in  order 
that  it  may  furnish  a  supply  of  manure.  But  when  the  manure 
is  obtained  it  is  not  returned  to  the  grass  fields  from  whence  it 
came,  but  almost  all  of  it  is  used  on  the  hoed  crops.  Year 
after  year  the  drain  goes  on.  It  is  true  that  after  the  hoed  crops 
are  removed  grass  is  grown  on  the  land  to  which  the  manure 
Was  applied,  but  the  hoed  crops  have  taken  nearly  all  of  it,  some- 
times every  particle  of  it,  from  the  soil.  In  some  cases  the  grass 
obtains  a  degree  of  benefit  from  the  manure,  while  in  others  the 
land  is  not  in  as  good  condition  for  the  production  of  this  crop 
.as  it  would  have  been  if  no  manure  had  been  used  and  no  other 
crops  grown.  It  sometimes  happens  that  a  little  manure  is  left 
after  the  other  crops  are  provided  for.  When  this  is  the  case 
the  surplus  is  spread  upon  the  grass.  Frequently  the  poorest 
manure  is  used  for  this  purpose,  and  only  a  very  slight  coating 
is  applied.  Such  is  the  too  common  custom  of  farmers  at  the 
North.  There  are  many  in  all,  but  few  comparatively,  who 
pursue  a  much  more  liberal  policy. 

It  is  very  true  that  grass  obtains  much  of  its  material  from 
the  air.  But  this  is  also  true  of  corn  and  other  hoed  crops. 
All  good  farmers  know  that  it  is  not  wise  to  grow  corn  without 
manure.  For  the  same  reasons  which  apply  to  the  production 
of  corn,  the  grass  crop  should  not  be  grown  without  the  use 
of  fertilizers.  Both  mowing-lots  and  pastures  should  be 
occasionally  manured.  If  the  latter  can  be  plowed  and 
occasionally  seeded,  it  will  be  a  great  benefit  except  in  cases  of 
the  fields,  which  are  occasionally  seen,  in  which  the  best  qualities 
of  grass  are  productive  and  permanent,  and  which  would  be 
injured  instead  of  improved  by  reseeding.  On  all  pastures  which 
it  is  not  desirable  to  plow,  manure  of  some  kind  (generally  com- 


376  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

mercial  fertilizers,  such  as  the  special  manures  made  for  this  crop, 
guano,  plaster,  and  ashes)  should  be  occasionally  used.  If  these 
are  applied  when  the  cattle  are  in  the  fields,  care  must  be  taken 
to  use  those  which  will  not  prove  injurious  if  eaten.  In  England 
some  very--  fine  cattle  have  been  poisoned  by  fertilizers  used  in 
the  pastures.  If  there  is  any  doubt  about  this  matter  it  will  be 
wise  to  sow  the  fertilizers  in  the  fall,  after  the  cattle  have  been 


FIG.    39. — BUCKEYE  MOWER. 

taken  out  for  the  winter,  or  to  use  only  small  quantities  at  a 
time  and  apply  just  before  a  heavy'  rain,  keeping  the  cattle  off 
until  the  rain  has  dissolved,  and  carried  down  the  fertilizers  to 
the  roots  of  the  plants. 

Upon  mowing-lots  the  manure  can  be  applied  late  in  the  fall 
or  early  in  the  spring.  We  consider  the  former  decidedly  the 
best  time  for  using  yard-manure.  The  frost  will  crumble  the 
lumps,  if  there  are  any,  and  the  manure  will  prove  a  protection 


FARM  AND  FODDER   CROPS. 


Til 


to  the  roots.  The  dissolving  snow  will  carry  it  down  to  the 
roots  very  early  in  the  season — just  when  it  is  needed  to  make 
a  quick  and  vigorous  growth.  If  the  manuring  is  delayed  until 
spring,  the  land  is  usually  soft  and  is  badly  tracked  by  the  teams 
and  cut  by  the  wheels.  There  is  danger  that  it  will  not  be 
attended  to  early  enough  to  give  the  best  results,  and  the  press- 
ure of  work  is  so  great  that  the  manure  will  be  more  likely  to 
be  left  in  lumps  than  it  will  if  the  less  hurrying  time  of  autumn 
is  chosen.  With  commercial  fertilizers  we  think  it  makes  less 
difference,  but  prefer  using  them  late  in  the  fall  upon  all  lands 
not  liable  to  be  washed.  It  is  better  to  use  manure  in  moderate 
quantities  quite  often  than  it  is  to  make  larger  applications  at 
long  intervals.  If  the 
grass  fails  to  return 
large  crops  when  it  is 
well  manured  the  land 
should  be  plowed  at 
once  and  reseeded. 
Grubs  may  be .  eating 
off  the  roots,  or  it 
may     have      become 

turf-bound.    In  either  fig.  40.— eureka  mower. 

case  a  fresh  seeding  is  desirable. 

Extremely  close  cutting  of  the  grass  crop  should  be  avoided. 
On  dry  land,  and  particularly  in  a  dry  season,  Timothy  should 
be  cut  rather  high.  The  rowen  crop  is  often  shaved  close  to 
the  ground.  Such  close  cutting  late  in  the  season,  when  the 
plant  has  been  struggling  for  life  since  the  first  crop  was  taken 
off,  is  very  injurious.  It  need  not  be  cut  extremely  high,  but  it 
ought  never  to  be  cut  very  close  to  the  ground. 

Pasturing,  mowings  in  the  fall  is  a  ruinous  practice.  A  little 
grass  is  obtained  and  the  cattle  are  kept  along  upon  it  for  a  few 
weeks  when  they  would,  but  for  this,  have  to  be  fed  at  the  barn. 
But  by  this  means  the  roots  of  the   grass  are  left  unprotected 


378  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

through  the  winter  and  many  of  the  plants  arc  destroyed. 
Others  arc  enfeebled  so  that  they  can  produce  only  a  small 
quantity  of  grass  the  succeeding  year.  The  late  growth  ought 
to  be  allowed  to  remain,  fall  down,  and  cover  the  roots.  It  is 
a  protection  which  nature  designed  and  which  ought  always  to 
be  given.  It  is  much  better  for  the  farmer  to  grow  an  extra 
quantity  of  fodder  crops,  to  be  used  both  green  and  dry,  and 
keep  his  cattle  out  of  the  mowings,  than  it  is  to  turn  his  grass 
land  into  pasture  in  the  fall.  That  this  can  be  done  easily  and 
orofitably  some  of  our  best  farmers  have  proved  by  many  prac- 
tical tests.  Mr.  Cheever,  of  the  New  England  Farmer,  has 
not  allowed  cattle  in  his  meadows  for  twenty  years.  Many 
other  farmers,  in  different  sections,  have  tried  the  plan  for  less 
time  but  with  uniformly  good  results. 

A  few  words  concerning  the  cutting  and  curing  of  the  hay 
crop  should  find  a  place  in  this'  connection.  Except  when 
grown  specially  for  seed,  grass  should  be  cut  before  the  seed 
has  matured.  As  a  general  rule,  grass  is  at  its  best  when  in  the 
blossom.  If  cut  much  sooner  it  is  very  watery  and  innutritions. 
If  allowed  to  stand  much  longer  it  becomes  woody  and  much 
of  it  is  indigestible.  Ripening  the  seed  is  also  a  severe  drain 
upon  the  energies  of  the  plant,  and  proves  fully  as  exhausting 
as  all  of  its  previous  growth.  For  this  reason  land  upon  which 
grass  stands  very  late  often  fails  to  produce  good  crops  for  sev- 
eral successive  seasons.  The  only  hope  of  securing  permanence 
on  fields  which  are  treated  in  this  way  is  to  keep  them  very 
rich  and  allow  considerable  of  the  seed  which  is  formed  to  shell 
upon  the  ground.  At  the  North  there  has  been  a  great  change 
in  the  time  of  cutting  the  hay  crop.  Twenty  years  ago  but  ver>' 
little  grass  was  cut  until  after  the  fourth  of  July.  Now  large 
quantities  are  cut  in  June,  and  some  farmers  get  in  nearly  their 
whole  crop  in  this  month. 

Fine  weather  is  one  of  the  great  essentials  of  success  in  curing 
the  hay  crop.     Too  many  farmers  work  in  cloudy  weather  the 


FARM  AND  FODDER   CROPS.  379 

same  as  when  it  is  fair.  It  is  much  better  to  work  in  the  corn 
fields  or  attend  to  some  other  crop.  In  cloudy  weather  hay- 
dries  very  slowly  and  is  likely  to  be  got  in  without  sufficient 
curing.  There  is  also  liability  of  rain,  which  is  always  injurious 
to  grass  which  is  partially  dry.  As  a  help  in  deciding  upon  the 
weather,  the  farmer  should  have  a  barometer  and  thermometer, 
and  should  be  a  careful  observer  of  the  sky  and  clouds.  It  is 
to  be  hoped  that  the    Government  will  also  establish  signal 


FIG.   41. — THE   BULLARD   HAY-TEDDER. 

Stations  in  the  great  agricultural  districts  (similar  to  those  for 
navigators  on  the  great  lakes  and  the  ocean),  which,  during  the 
harvest  seasons,  may  furnish  the  farmers  with  the  results  of 
scientific  observation. 

.  It  is  not  well  to  attempt  too  much  at  a  time.  Cut  only  what 
can  be  properly  managed.  Upon  Saturday  attempt  less  than 
upon  other  days,  so  that  the  work  may  all  be  finished  in  good 
season.     For  cutting  the   grass   use  a  good   mowing-machine. 


380  FARMING   FOR   rROIlT. 

Figure  39  represents  the  Buckeye  Mower  manufactured  by 
Ariance,  Piatt  &  Co.,  of  New  York  city.  This  machine  is 
simple,  safe,  strong,  and  very  durable.  It  draws  easily  and  does 
perfect  work.  Figure  40  shows  the  Eureka  Mower,  made  by 
the  Eureka  Mower  Co.,  Towanda,  Pa.  This  is  a  "  direct  draft " 
machine,  the  cutting  apparatus  as  well  as  the  gears  being  directly 
behind  the  team.  It  cuts  a  wide  swath,  docs  good  work,  and 
is  very  highly  commended  by  those  who  have  given  it  a  prac- 
tical test. 

Grass  dries  much  more  rapidly  if  cut  after  the  dew  is  off  than 
it  will  if  it  is  wet  when  the  mowing  is  done.  During  the  first 
part  of  the  season  two  days  will  be  needed  for  properly  curing 
heavy  grass.  Later,  when  the  grass  is  nearly  ripe,  it  can  be 
cured  in  one. 

In  order  to  obtain  the  best  quality  of  hay,  rapid  drying  will 
be  an  absolute  necessity.  In  order  to  secure  this  a  good 
Tedder  will  be  found  indispensable.  Figure  41  represents  the 
Bullard  Hay-Tedder,  made  by  the  Belcher  &  Taylor  Agricul- 
tural Tool  Co.,  of  Chicopee  Falls,  Mass.  We  have  used  this 
machine  many  years,  and  found  it  a  splendid  implement.  It 
fully  deserves  the  many  medals  which  have  been  awarded  at 
State  and  other  trials. 

After  the  hay  is  dry,  a  horse-rake  will  be  needed  for  gathering 
the  hay.  Figure  42  represents  one  of  the  best  of  the  whcel- 
rakes.  It  has  the  best  of  wire-teeth,  can  be  operated  by  hand 
or  foot,  is  simple  and  strong,  and  can  be  managed  by  any  boy 
who  can  drive  a  horse.  It  is  made  by  B.  C.  Taylor,  Dayton, 
Ohio.  Figure  43  represents  a  cheaper  form  of  rake.  It  :s 
harder  to  operate  than  the  wheel-rakes,  but  will  do  good  work 
on  land  that  is  reasonably  smooth.  It  is  made  by  the  Sterling 
Manufacturing  Co.,  Sterling,  Illinois. 

On  large  farms  a  hay-loader  will  be  very  serviceable.  Figure 
44  represents  a  machine  of  this  description,  which  is  made 
by  Stratton  &  Cullum,  Meadville,  Pa.      With  this  implement, 


(381) 


382 


FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 


which  is  attached  to  the  rear  of  the  wagon,  a  ton  of  hay  can 
be  pitched  from  the  windrow  in  from  three  to  five  minutes. 
By  it?  use  a  great  saving  of  hard  labor  is  effected,  and  in 
showery  weather  the  farmer  is  often  enabled  to  secure  hay 
which  under  the  old  system  of  gathering  by  hand  would  be 
damaged  by  rain.  A  horse-fork  for  unloading  hay  at  the  barn 
or  stack  will  also  prove  a  very  useful  implement 

The  degree  of  drying  which  it  receives  will  greatly  modify 
the  quality  of  the  hay.  We  can  remember  when  hay  was 
dried  nearly  twice  as  much  as  it  is  now.  We  think  the  change 
which  has  been  made  is  a  great  improvement.  But  we  do  not 
believe  in  getting  in  hay,  or  rather  grass,  without  any  drying. 
Too  little  drying  is  worse  than  an  excess,  as  it  will  cause  the 


FIG.    43. — STERLING    REVOLVING-RAKE. 

hay  to  "  smoke,"  and  it  may  heat  so  much  as  to  be  utterly 
ruined.  It  is  best  to  dry  just  enough  so  that  the  hay  will  keep 
well,  and  come  out  bright"  and  nice  in  the  spring.  All  the 
drying  which  is  given  after  this  pcJint  has  been  reached  is  a 
decided  injury. 

We  think  barns  should  always  be  provided  in  which  to  store 
the  hay,  though  a  good  workman  can  stack  it  so  that  it  will 
receive  but  little  injury  from  the  weather.  For  stacking  employ 
a  skilful  workman,  and  put  up  quite  a  quantity  at  a  time. 
Instead  of  drawing  from  the  lot  each  day,  the  hay,  when  nearly 
dry,  may  be  put  into  the  cock,  and  allowed  to  remain  until 
quite  a  quantity  is  ready.  Then,  during  a  fine  day,  turn  over 
the  cocks  so  that  the  dampness  in  the  hay  which  was  near  the 
ground  will  dry  out,  and  draw  to  the  place  where  the  stack  is 


FARM  AND  FODDER   CROPS 


383 


to  be  located.  When  finished,  the  top  of  the  stack  must  be  well 
covered  with  straw,  which  should  be  very  carefully  put  on. 
Although  hay  will  keep  well  if  properly  stacked,  we  should 
much  prefer,  if  we  could  not  afford  to  put  up  a  large  one,  to 
build  a  small  barn,  and  by  the  use  of  a  hay-press  get  the  whole 
crop  under  rover. 

Growing  grass  for  seed  is  a  very  simple  operation.  Many 
farmers  who  raise  their  own  grass  seed  do  nothing  more  to  the 
land  or  crop  than  the  extra  work  of  harvesting.     But  it  is  much 


FIG.  44.^FOUST'b    HAY- LOADER. 

better  to  take  special  pains  to  keep  the  land  free  from  other 
grasses  than  the  kind  of  which  seed  is  wanted,  and  also  to  keep 
it  liberally  manured. 

When  the  seed  is  ripe,  which  may  be  easily  known  by  the 
changed  appearance  of  the  plant,  and  especially  of  the  heads, 
the  grass  should  be  cut.  The  cutting  may  be  done  Avith  a  grain- 
cradle  or  a  reaper.  It  should  be  done  in  the  morning  while  the 
dew  is  on,  in  order  to  prevent  a  waste  of  the  seed  by  shelling 
in  the  field.      After  moderate  drying,  it  may  be  put  up  in  small 


384  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

stocks,  and  allowed  to  remain  until  perfectly  cured.  Or  it  can 
remain  unbound  until  the  curing  process  is  complete.  In  all 
the  operations  with  this  crop,  care  should  be  used  in  order 
to  prevent  shelling  of  the  seed.  It  can  be  threshed  with  flails, 
or  shelled  with  a  thresher,  and  the  seed  cleaned  in  a  common 
fanning-miil  with  a  fine  screen.  The  seed  is  sometimes  spoiled 
by  stacking  the  .grass  while  the  stalks  are  too  green.  The  mass 
heats  enough  to  destroy  the  vitality  of  the  seed,  though  it  does 
not  always  seriously  injure  its  appearance  or  prevent  its  sale. 
The  stalks  which  have  yielded  a  crop  of  seed  are  often  fed 
to  horses.  As  they  are  tough  and  woody,  they  should  not 
be  used  alone,  but  fed  in  connection  with  better  hay  and  grain. 
When  the  tops  are  cut  with  a  cradle,  the  stubble  may  be  cut 
with  a  mower,  and  used  the  same  as  the  tops  of  the  stalks. 

Bromus. — Every  little  while  somebody  recommends  some 
member  of  the  bromus  family  as  a  forage  plant,  and  sells  the 
seed  for  high  prices.  There  are  several  varieties,  but  none  of 
them  are  worthy  of  cultivation,  while  some  of  them  are  to  be 
opposed  with  as  much  vigor  as  the  worst  weeds  with  which  the 
farmer  is  obliged  to  contend.  Of  the  latter,  the  common  chess, 
or  "  cheat,"  as  it  is  usually  called,  is  one  of  the  principal  sorts. 
It  is  a  "cheat"  in  the  full  sense  of  the  term.  Many  farmers 
think  that  wheat  sometimes  turns  to  cheat.  This  we  think  is 
a  mistake.  It  is  true  that  tinder  certain  unfavorable  conditions 
the  fields  which  the  farmer  has  sowed  with  wheat  produce  noth- 
ing but  cheat.  But  it  by  no  means  follows  that  the  cheat  was 
grown  from  the  seed  which  he  sowed.  He  did  not  sow  the 
seeds  of  other  weeds  which  appeared  in  his  grain  fields,  and  he 
is  confident  that  they  did  not  come  from  the  wheat  which  he 
used  for  seed.  He  might  safely  have  the  same  confidence  con- 
cerning the  cheat.  A  standing  offer  of  quite  a  sum  of  money 
has  been  made  for  many  years  to  any  one  who  would  produce  a 
quantity  of  cheat  with  proof  that  it  was  grown  from  wheat,  but 
the  prize  has  never  been  awarded  for  want  of  evidence  that  such 


FARM  AND  FODDER   CROPS.  385 

a  change  has  occurred.  Men  have  been  able  to  produce  cheat 
upon  land  sowed  with  wheat,  but  they  have  not  been  able  to 
prove  that  it  was  produced  from  the  seed  of  the  wheat.  When 
an  oak  forest  is  removed,  a  vigorous  growth  of  pine  trees  often 
appears.  No  one  sows  the  seed  of  the  pine,  and  no  pine  tree 
has  grown  upon  the  land  for  generations.  Probably  the  seed 
had  been  lying  dormant  in  the  soil  for  a  long  period,  merely 
waiting  for  a  favorable  opportunity  to  grow.  In  some  such  way 
cheat  is  doubtless  produced.  That  it  can  be  grown  from  wheat 
we  consider  an  impossibility.  If  the  farmer  will  drain  his  land., 
feed  his  crops,  give  good  culture,  and  always  sow  good  seed,  we 
think  he  will  never  reap  a  crop  of  cheat. 

As  a  forage  crop  the  bromus  will  make  quite  passable  green 
fodder,  considerable  hay,  and  a  fair  pasture.  But  once  on  the 
farm  it  will  be  almost  sure  to  mix  with  the  wheat  and  spoil  it, 
and  will  greatly  interfere  with  other  crops.  It  should  never  be 
allowed  a  place  upon  a  cultivated  field,  and  we  should  not  want 
it  in  a  pasture.  There  are  plenty  of  other  plants  which  are 
better  for  all  purposes,  and  v/hich  are  free  from  the  objections 
which  lie  against  this  one.  Consequently,  whether  it  is  recom- 
mended under  the  head  of  chess,  or  cheat,  or  rescue  grass,  or 
any  other  grass  or  weed,  it:  will  be  well  to  let  each  and  every 
form  of  this  plant  entirely  alone.  The  seed  has  often  been  sold 
for  high  prices  and  will,  probably,  be  kept  in  the  •  market  by 
interested  parties.  Doubtless  there  are  also  many  farmers  who 
have  recommended  this  plant,  in  the  honest  belief  that  it  was  a 
valuable  addition  to  the  list  of  our  forage  crops.  Longer  ac- 
quaintance will  dispel  the  illusion.  Mr.  Flint,  whose  work  on 
grass  is  a  standard,  declares  that  "  Not  one  of  the  brome  grasses 
is  worthy  of  a  moment's  attention  as  a  cultivated  agricultural 
grass,  and  the  cleaner  the  farmer  keeps  his  fields  of  them,  the 
better."  All  members  of  this  family  should  be  ranked  as 
weeds  to  be  destroyed,  and  never  treated  as  plants  whose  growth 
is  to  be  encouraged. 


386  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

Clover. — This  is  one  of  our  most  valuable  agricultural  plants. 
It  is  usually  called  grass,  but  is  a  leguminous  plant,  unlike  grass 
in  its  appearance  and  its  manner  of  growth.  There  are  a  large 
number  of  varieties,  of  which  the  Red,  White,  and  Alsike  are 
of  the  greatest  value  to  the  farmers  of  this  country.  The  red 
clover  is  the  most  extensively  grown  and  is  regarded  as  the 
standard.  Although  grown  from  a  small  seed,  and  at  first  quite 
tender,  it  soon  becomes  a  hardy,  vigorous  plant  which  sends  its 
long  roots  down  into  the  subsoil,  and  spreads  its  still  longer 
braches  above  the  surface  of  the  land.  The  seed  can  be  sowed 
upon  the  snow  in  the  spring  and  be  allowed  to  work  its  w.iy 
into  the  soil — with  grain  in  the  spring  or  the  fall — or  alone, 
or  with  other  grass  in  August.  It  is  important  that  there  should 
be  considerable  moisture  in  the  surface  soil  at  the  time  of  sow- 
ing, and  that  some  protection  should  be  afforded  from  the  heat 
of  the  summer  sun  when  the  plants  are  small.  It  often  happens 
that  clover  sowed  in  the  spring  with  grain  succeeds  better  than 
that  which  is  sowed  alone.  The  grain  grows  quickly  and  shades 
the  tender  plants  from  the  sun.  Dr.  Harlan  recommends  sow- 
ing buckwheat  with  clover  when  it  is  desired  to  grow  only  the 
latter.  The  buckwheat  will  afford  shade  while  the  clover  is 
feeble,  and  if  cut  when  in  the  blossom  and  allowed  to  remain  on 
the  land,  will  also  mulch  the  clover  and  prove  of  great  advantage 
to  the  crop. 

The  quantity  of  seed  to  be  used  depends  upon  the  soil  and 
the  purpose  for  which  the  crop  is  to  be  grown.  From  eight  to 
sixteen  pounds  may  be  considered  as  the  extremes.  The  more 
seed  the  finer  the  stalks,  and  the  better  the  quality  of  the  hay 
which  can  be  made  from  them. 

The  preparation  of  the  land  must  be  as  fine  as  was  recom- 
mended  for  grass  seed.  Upon  this  being  thoroughly  done,  suc- 
cess will  in  a  great  measure  depend. 

For  fertilizing  this  crop,  both  lime  and  plaster  seem  to  be 
specifics  and  to  have  a  wonderful    effect      Lime    should   be 


FARM  AND   FODDER    CROPS.  387 

applied  to  the  land  as  for  other  crops.  The  plaster  should  be 
sowed  upon  the  plants  in  the  spring  when  they  are  a  few  inches 
high. 

Clover  is  a  biennial,  and  although,  by  means  of  seeds  which 
shell  upon  the  land,  it  often  attains  a  more  permanent  character, 
it  is  best  to  plow  land  which  is  wholly  devoted  to  this  crop 
once  every  two  years.  The  soil  is  then  well  filled  with  roots 
and  is  in  a  good  condition  to  be  used  for  the  production  of  grain. 

Clover  is  better  suited  to  dry  land  than  to  that  which  is  wet. 
Its  long  roots  enable  it  to  resist  the  influence  of  drought  to  a 
high  degree.  On  land  which  heaves  badly  in  the  spring  clover 
cannot  well  be  grown,  as  the  roots  will  be  either  thrown  out  of 
the  soil  or  else  injured  so  that  they  will  not  produce  a  good  crop. 
Draining  will  prove  an  efficient  remedy  for  this  difficulty. 

Clover  should  not  be  pastured  when  very  young.  The  cut- 
ting of  a  crop  for  hay  should  be  done  when  the  heads  begin  to 
turn  brown,  but  while  most  of  them  are  green.  After  the  hay 
is  removed,  plaster  may  be  sowed  upon  the  land  and  thus  a 
heavy  second  growth  may  be  induced.  This  crop  will  bear 
much  closer  cutting  than  Timothy.  Curing  for  hay  is  better 
accomplished  in  the  cock  than  by  spreading  in  the  sun.  If  dried 
in  the  ordinary  way  for  other  crops,  many  of  the  leaves  will  fall 
off  and  its  value  will  be  greatly  reduced.  After  the  mowing  has 
been  done  the  clover  should  lie  long  enough  to  get  well  wilted, 
be  turned  once,  in  order  to  wilt  the  lower  side  of  the  swaths, 
and  then  put  into  small  cocks  which  can  stand  several  days. 
The  curing  will  thus  be  effected  gradually  and  a  valuable  quality 
of  fodder  will  be  secured.  The  day  upon  which  the  clover  is  to  be 
drawn  to  the  barn  the  cocks  should  be  turned  over,  so  that  the 
dampness  may  dry  from  that  which  was  close  to  the  ground. 
After  remaining  in  the  sun  a  few  hours  in  this  inverted  position, 
the  clover  can  be  safely  put  into  the  barn.  In  order  to  prevent 
injury  to  this  crop  by  untimely  rains,  the  farmer  should  provide 

a  quantity  of  hay  caps  with  which  to  protect  the  clover  during 
25 


388 


FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 


bad  weather  which  may  occur  while  it  is  standing  in  the  cock. 
These  caps  will  also  prove  useful  in  protecting  the  hay  crop. 

When  clover  seed  is  to  be  grown,  the  first  crop  should  be  cut 
quite  early,  and  no  plaster  should  be  used  upon  the  land  after  its 
removal.  When  two-thirds  of  the  heads  of  the  second  growth 
are  brown  the  crop  should  be  harvested.  This  can  be  effected 
with  a  machine  for  the  purpose  which  simply  removes  the  heads, 
or  the  cutting  can  be  done  the  same  as  it  is  with  the  grass  crop. 
It  should  be  cured  as  soon  as  possible,  without  much  stirring, 
and  then  taken  to  the  barn.  The  threshing  can  be  done  with 
flails,  but  a  threshing-machine — especially  a  clover  hullcr  and 


FIO.    45. 

separator — is  very  much  better.  Figure  45  represents  a  standard 
machine  for  this  purpose.  It  is  made  by  the  Birdsell  Manufac- 
turing Co.,  South  Bend,  Indiana. 

Of  the  value  of  this  crop  for  a  fertilizer  we  have  already 
spoken.  But  comparatively  few  farmers  yet  realize  its  immense 
importance  for  this  purpose  or  have  even  a  faint  conception  of 
the  ease  with  which  they  might  by  its  aid  enrich  their  land. 
That  it  is  destined  to  become  extremely  popular  we  have  not 
the  slightest  doubt.  Farmers  who  have  neglected  it  thus  far 
should  lose  no  more  time  in  testing  its  efficacy  and  proving  its 
value. 

The  white  clover  is  quite  useful  at  the  South  for  cutting  and 


FARM  AND  FODDER    CROPS.  389 

curing.  Either  alone  or  mixed  with  various  kinds  of  grass  it 
will  yield  quite  a  quantity  of  excellent  hay.  At  the  North  it 
is  chiefly  valuable  as  a  pasture  plant,  though  in  connection  with 
grass  it  is  often  used  for  hay.  The  quality  of  grass  and  hay 
afforded  by  it  is  superior  to  that  of  red  clover.  The  white 
clover  pastures  are  among  the  most  valuable  which  can  be 
found.  Upon  dairj'  farms  they  are  especially  prized,  while  for 
sheep  and  lambs  they  have  no  superior. 

The  Alsike  clover  is  a  perennial  plant  which  was  introduced 
from  Sweden  into  this  countrj^  and  from  which  much  was 
hoped.  But  the  expectations  of  its  friends  do  not  seem  to  have 
been  realized.  Although  it  succeeds  well  in  some  localities,  it 
has  not  become  generally  popular,  and  probably  will  always 
hold  an  inferior  position.  It  seems  to  be  an  intermediate  variety 
between  the  red  and  the  white  clover,  and  was  supposed  io  be 
very  hardy  and  also  to  be  well  adapted  to  wet  soils.  We  have 
tried  it  only  on  a  small  scale  and  have  not  been  successful  in  its 
cultivation  upon  cither  dry  or  wet  land.  It  will  be  well  to  try 
it  as  an  experiment,  but  we  do  not  recommend  any  one  to 
attempt  its  cultivation  on  a  large  scale  without  first  testing  it  on 
a  small  one.  If  it  does  well  in  a  small  field  it  can  then  be 
sowed  in  a  large  one.  If  it  does  not  thrive,  the  small  field  will 
be  large  enough.  Still,  it  may  be  best  to  try  it  more  than  one 
season,  as  it  may,  on  account  of  some  peculiarity  of  the  weather, 
fail  sometimes  in  localities  where  it  will  usually  prove  very 
successful. 

Grain  Crops. — Several  of  the  crops  which  are  usually  grown 
for  their  grain  are  often  sowed  for  the  fodder  which  they  will 
produce.  The  value  of  corn  as  a  fodder  crop  we  have  already 
considered.  Rye  and  oats  are  extensively  grown  for  this  pur- 
pose. Rye  is  usually  fed  green  and  furnishes  an  excellent  .sub- 
stitute for  grass.  It  should  be  used  before  the  ht.-ad-  appear. 
A  constant  supply  through  the  growing  season  may  be  obtained 
by  sowing  in  the  fall  for  early  spring  feeding,  and  in  the  spring, 


390  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

at  various  times,  for  summer  use.  Oats  make  excellent  fodder 
if  cut  when  in  blossom  and  cured  like  hay.  Peas  are  also  good 
for  feeding  green  or  curing  for  winter  fodder.  The  preparation 
of  the  land  for  these  crops  should  be  the  same  as  when  grown 
for  their  seeds.  As  a  general  rule,  a  larger  quantity  of  seed 
should  be  sowed,  and  the  crop  must  always  be  harvested  earlier 
in  the  season.  The  great  objection  to  these  crops  for  feeding 
purposes  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  the  plants  are  annuals, 
and,  consequently,  the  seeds  must  be  sown  every  year,  while 
considerable  preparation  of  the  land  must  be  made  before  the 
sowing  can  be  done. 

Lucerne. — This  is  a  perennial  plant  which  flourishes  in  warm 
climates  and  rich,  deep  soils.  The  roots  grow  long  and  large, 
and  when  once  started  in  a  favorable  location  the  plants  will 
produce  an  immense  amount  of  fodder  for  many  successive 
years.  Under  the  various  names  of  Lucerne,  French  Clover, 
Brazilian  Clover,  and  Alfalfa,  this  plant  has  been  introduced  into 
this  country  from  foreign  lands.  In  California  and  the  South 
it  gives  splendid  results.-  Mr.  Howard  considers  it  "  veiy  far 
superior  to  all  others  "  as  a  forage  plant  in  the  Southern  States. 
At  the  North,  Lucerne  docs  not  always  succeed.  The  climate 
is  not  adapted  to  its  culture.  Still,  it  has  been  grown  in  Maine, 
and  with  sufficient  care  it  can,  probably,  be  produced  in  nearly 
all  the  States.  But  the  disadvantages  under  which  it  labors  at 
the  North  arc  too  great  to  justify  an  effort  for  its  extensive 
cultivation.     At  the  South  it  should  be  largely  grown. 

Lucerne  may  be  fed  either  green  or  in  the  form  of  hay. 
When  used  green  it  ought  always  to  be  cut  a  day  or  two  before 
it  is  wanted  in  order  that  it  may  ha\'e  time  to  wilt.  It  is  very 
nutritious.  Horses,  cattle,  and  even  hogs  thrive  when  fed  upon 
it  in  its  green  state,  and  all  animals  that  eat  hay  not  only  like  it 
but  do  well  when  fed  upon  it  after  it  has  been  dried. 

For  this  crop  the  land  should  be  well  prepared.  It  is  best 
during  the  year  preceding  the  sowing  of  Lucerne  to  grow  some 


FARM  AND   FODDEK    CROPS.  391 

crop  which  requires  clean  culture.  This  in  order  that  the 
weeds  and  grass  already  in  the  land  may  be  eradicated.  The 
soil  should  be  reasonably  dry  and  the  ground  deeply  plowed. 
If  sub-soiled  it  will  be  all  the  better.  A  heavy  coating  of  well- 
rotted  yard-manure,  or  a  liberal  application  of  bone-dust,  gyp- 
sum, or  ashes  should  be  harrowed  in  and  the  surface  soil  should 
be  made  very  fine.  Rich  land  and  thorough  preparation  are 
essential  to  success. 

The  seed  should  be  sowed  in  Februarj'-  at  the  South,  and  as 
late  as  May  if  an  attempt  is  made  to  cultivate  this  crop  at  the 
North.  It  may  be  scattered  broadcast  or  sowed  in  drills.  As 
it  is  a  feeble  plant  when  small  it  is  better,  unless  the  land  is  very 
free  from  weeds  and  grass,  to  put  it  in  drills  about  a  foot  apart. 
If  in  drills  it  can  receive  cultivation  whenever  needed.  If  sown  in 
this  way,  from  eight  to  ten  pounds  of  seed  should  be  used.  If 
sown  broadcast,  from  twelve  to  sixteen  pounds  will  be  required. 
It  should  be  lightly  covered  with  a  roller  or  a  bush-harrow.  If 
put  in  with  a  good  seed-sower,  or  drill,  the  machine  will  cover 
it  sufficiently.  If  weeds  or  grass  appear  they  should  be  removed, 
and  it  will  pay  to  stir  the  soil,  occasionally,  between  the  drills. 
Manure  should  be  applied  every  third  year.  It  can  be  worked 
in  with  a  small  plow  if  the  plant  is  grown  in  drills.  If  the  land 
remains  mellow  the  fertilizer  may  be  left  on  top  of  the  soil  where 
the  sowing  was  broadcast,  but  if  the  surface  becomes  hard  a  har- 
row should  be  used  for  covering  the  manure. 

The  cutting  should  always  be  done  as  soon  as  the  plant 
blossoms.  If  longer  delayed,  the  quantity  of  fodder  will  be 
increased,  but  the  quality  will  be  badly  impaired.  If  at  any  time 
the  tops  turn  yellow,  the  cutting  should  be  done  at  once.  The 
curing  of  Lucerne  for  hay  is  to  be  done  as  directed  for  clover. 
Long  exposure  to  the  sunlight  is  injurious  to  its  quality,  and 
will  cause  the  loss  of  a  large  proportion  of  the  leaves. 

This  plant  requires  three  years  in  which  to  attain  its  full 
development,  but  yields  exceedingly  large  crops  the  first  season. 


392  FAR  MING  FOR   PROFIT. 

When  well  established,  on  rich  land  and  with  good  culture,  its 
yield  is  enormous.  It  should  never  be  pastured,  as  cattle  and 
horses  will  destroy  the  plants,  but  should  be  kept  to  furnish 
either  green  fodder,  or  hay,  to  be  used  at  the  barn  or  the  feeding 
yards. 

Millet. — Of  this  plant  there  are  several  varieties.  Of  these 
the  one  commonly  called  Hungarian  Grass  has  been  the  most 
extenaively  grown  in  this  country.  It  is  a  rapid  and  rank- 
growing  annual,  producing  large  quantities  of  green  food,  hay, 
or  seed.  We  have  only  grown  it  for  hay.  The  Golden  millet  is 
recommended  as  greatly  superior,  while  the  newer  introduction 
under  the  names  of  Egyptian,  East  Indian,  or  Pearl,  millet 
promises  to  be  still  better.  It  may  be  sowed  in  drills,  or  broad- 
cast. The  land  should  be  rich,  well  fertilized,  and  the  surface 
should  be  made  very  fine  and  mellow.  The  sowing  should  not 
be  done  until  the  nights  are  warm.  At  the  North  the  last  of 
June  is  generally  a  favorable  time.  If  sowed  broadcast  from  a 
bushel  to  a  bushel  and  a  half  of  seed  should  be  used.  This  will 
give  a  better  quality  of  fodder  than  can  be  obtained  from  thin 
seeding.  The  Egyptian  millet,  however,  is  said  to  tiller 
extensively.  This  should  be  sowed  in  drills.  Only  two  or 
three  quarts  of  seed  will  be  required  per  acre.  The  common 
millet  will  be  ready  for  cutting  in  from  four  to  six  weeks  after 
the  seed  is  sowed.  It  can  be  cut  with  a  mowing-machine  and 
dried  the  same  as  common  hay.  Horses  like  the  hay  made 
from  this  plant,  and  will  fatten  rapidly  when  kept  upon  it.  But  it 
is  very  rich  food,  and  growers  generally  prefer  to  mi.x  it  with 
common  hay.  This  is  especially  true  after  it  has  gone  to  seed. 
Tlien  it  should  be  fed  in  only  small  quantities,  as  a  large  amount 
will  be  as  injurious  as  so  much  unthreshed  wheat.  It  should  be 
cut  before  the  seed  is  ripe,  but  not  until  the  heads  are  well 
formed.  For  green  food  it  can  be  cut  during  its  various  stages 
of  growth.  While  the  sowing  should  not  be  done  until  the 
weather  is   quite  warm  (both   during  the  day  and  at  night)  it 


FARM  AND   FODDER    CROPS.  393 

must  not  be  so  long  delayed  as  to  expose  the  crop  to  the 
influence  of  the  early  autumn  frosts.  As  it  produces  a  heavy 
yield  this  crop  should  be  harvested  while  the  days  are  warm 
and  long.  We  not  only  esteem  this  plant  for  its  value  as  forage, 
both  for  horses  and  cattle,  but  also  on  account  of  the  time  of 
the  year  at  which  it  may  be  sown.  If  for  any  reason  the  hay 
crop  comes  in  light,  the  farmer  can  turn  over  a  few  acres  of  sod, 
make  the  surface  mellow,  apply  fertilizers,  and  by  means  of 
sowing  this  crop  he  can  fill  his  barns  to  overflowing  with  an 
excellent  quality  of  dry  fodder.  By  this  method  he  can  always 
grow  fodder  enough  to  keep  his  stock  through  the  winter. 
While  nearly  all  other  crops  must  be  put  in  early,  with  this  one 
the  farmer  can  wait  until  he  knows  the  amount  of  his  hay  crop, 
and  he  can  then  sow  much  or  little  according  as  the  yield  of 
the  ordinary  grass  shall  be  light  Or  heavy. 

The  principal  objections  to  this  plant  are,  that,  being  an  annual, 
the  ground  must  be  prepared,  and  the  seed  must  be  sowed  each 
year,  and  the  danger  attending  the  feeding  of  large  quantities 
after  the  seeds  are  ripe.  But  these  objections  will  weigh  very 
lightly  with  a  farmer  who  has  once  grown  this  crop.  Its  great 
value  will  far  more  than  repay  all  the  labor  required,  and 
the  danger  may  all  be  avoided  by  cutting  before  the  seeds  are 
ripe,  or  by  feeding  but  small  quantities  at  a  time.  For 
Northern  farmers  we  recommend  this  plant  as  worthy  of 
extensive  cultivation. 

Prickly  Comfrey. — Of  this  claimant  of  popular  favor  as  a 
forage  plant  we  have  but  little  to  say.  Our  own  efforts  to  grow 
it  resulted  in  complete  failure,  as  the  cuttings  appear  to  have 
lost  their  vitality  before  they  were  planted.  This  variety  of  the 
comfrey  i's  "a  hardy  perennial  of  gigantic  growth,"  and  was 
introduced  into  England,  from  Caucasus,  as  an  ornamental 
plant.  After  a  while  it  engaged  the  attention  of  agricultural 
writers,- and  was  grown  to  some  extent  for  the  purposes  of  forage. 
It  was  introduced  into  this  country,  and  for  the  past  four  years 


S94  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

has  been  extensively  advertised.  That  it  will  produce  an  ini- 
mense  amount  of  fodder  per  acre,  take  full  possession  of  the 
land,  survive  extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  drought  and  mois- 
ture, and  resist  the  encroachments  of  all  other  plants,  there 
is  no  doubt.  It  comes  early  in  the  season  and  remains  very 
late.  It  is  propagated  from  the  roots,  which  can  be  cut  in  small 
pieces  and  planted  like  corn,  at  any  time  except  during  cold 
weather.  It  should  be  grown  in  rows,  three  feet  and  a  half 
apart,  with  the  plants  about  three  feet  apart  in  the  row.  About 
four  thousand  plants  per  acre  will  thus  be  furnished,  and  will 
produce,  on  good  land,  from  eighty  to  one  hundred  and  twenty 
tons  of  green  fodder  per  year.  Parties  interested  in  its  sale 
assert  that  the  leaves  are  very  valuable  for  feeding  purposes,  both 
for  increasing  the  milk  of  cows  and  fattening  stock.  Some  who 
have  tried  its  merits  speak  favorably  of  it,  but  many  have 
complained  that  their  cows  would  not  eat  the  leaves  as  long  as 
they  could  find  anything  else  to  eat,  and  that  when  eaten  the 
plants  seemed  to  do  no  good.  Probably  after  the  leaves  get  very 
large  they  are  not  as  palatable  as  they  arc  when  they  are  small. 
There  are  certain  objections  to  this  plant.  Once  in  the  land 
it  remains  like  so  much  dock.  It  costs  considerable  to  start  a 
field,  and  it  is  only  with  great  difficulty  that  it  can  be  eradicated 
if  the  land  is  ever  needed  for  any  other  purpose.  But  it  will 
afford  several  cuttings  each  season,  and  in  dry  years  it  will 
prove  of  special  value  for  furnishing  an  abundance  of  green  food. 
If  the  cattle  will  not  eat  it,  there  will  of  course  be  no  benefit 
from  growing  the  crop.  We  think  that  most  cattle  will  soon 
learn  to  eat  it,  but  there  may  be  instances  in  which  the  dislike  is 
too  strong  to  be  overcome.  Whether  it  will  pay  the  farmer 
to  grow  this  crop  will  depend  upon  the  character  of  his  land, 
and  also  upon  the  other  resources  for  green  fodder  which  he 
can  command.  If  cattle  will  eat  the  leaves,  there  are  sections 
in  which  this  plant  will  prove  of  great  value.  In  all  cases,  if 
tried  at  all,  it  should  be  tried  upon  a  small  scale.      If  the  first 


FARM  AND   FODDER   CROPS.  305 

experiment  proves  successful,  a  larger  area  of  land  can  soon  be 
devoted  to  the  crop.  But  if  the  cattle  do  not  like  the  plants, 
there  will  be  little  inducement  for  extending  its  cultivation. 

Root  Crops. — These  are  among  the  "  main  stays "  of  the 
English  farmers,  and  are  gradually  winning  their  way  into  the 
confidence  of  farmers  in  our  own  land.  For  farmers,  wherever 
located,  who  are  largely  interested  in  stock-growing,  these  crops 
are  of  special  value.  It  is  not  safe  to  argue  that  because  the 
English  find  root  crops  indispensable,  therefore  they  must  be 
grown  by  American  farmers  who  desire  to  be  successful.  Our 
climate  and  soil  are  so  different  from  theirs,  that  what  will  be 
the  best  crops  for  English  farmers  may  not  be  the  best  for 
formers  here.  The  argument  for  the  production  of  root  crops 
must  be  based  upon  different  grounds  than  the  fact  that  they 
are  very  successfully  grown  in  other  countries.  But  there  are 
plenty  of  reasons  why  our  farmers  should  devote  more  attention 
to  these  crops  than  they  have  done  in  past  years.  For  use  as 
an  exclusive,  or  even  as  a  principal,  article  of  diet  for  animals, 
roots  are  not  recommended.  But  our  long  winters  make  it 
highly  important  that  a  certain  proportion  of  green  food  shoulcj 
be  given.  For  fattening  animals  roots  are  not  as  good  as  corn, 
and  it  is  very  probable  that  the  English  farmers  would  not 
devote  as  much  attention  to  the  growth  of  roots  as  they  now  do 
if  they  were  able  to  grow  corn.  In  this  country  hogs  have  been 
fed  too  exclusively  on  corn,  and  cows  and  steers  have  been  lim- 
ited too  closely  to  hay  and  meal.  Experiments  have  proved, 
what  the  physiologists  have  long  asserted,  that  the  fattening 
effects  of  farinaceous  food  are  much  greater  when  it  is  used  in 
connection  with  a  liberal  proportion  of  succulent  material 
than  they  are  when  this  food  is  used  alone.  Dairymen  have 
found  that  they  can  make  more  and  better  butter  in  winter 
when  they  feed  roots  to  their  cows  than  they  can  when  only 
hay,  meal  and  bran  are  used.  The  color  of  the  butter  is  also 
greatly  improved  by  the  addition  of  roots  to  the  diet  of  the 
cows. 


396  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

Roots  take  the  place  of  grass  to  a  great  extent,  and  by  their 
use  cows  can  be  kept  very  productive  during  the  cold  weather. 
The  constipation  which  so  often  attends  the  long-continued  use 
of  dry  hay  is  wholly  avoided  by  the  addition  of  roots  to  the 
diet.  The  health  of  animals  is  promoted  by  the  use  of  roots  in 
connection  with  hay,  and  for  this  reason  alone,  if  there  were  no 
other,  stock-owners  would  find  it  for  their  interest  to  grow 
them.  This,  in  connection  with  the  facts  that  immense 
quantities  can  be  grown  on  small  areas  of  land,  and  that  roots 
contain  a  fair  proportion  of  fat  and  flesh  formers,  furnishes  an 
unanswerable  argument  in  favor  of  the  production  of  these 
crops  upon  each  and  every  farm.  The  amount  of  land  which 
should  be  given  to  root  crops  will  depend  upon  the  amount  of 
stock  which  is  kept,  the  character  of  the  land,  and  the  circum- 
stances of  the  farmer ;  but  there  are  very  few  men  who  culti- 
vate the  soil  who  cannot  profitably  devote  part  of  their  time  and 
land  to  the  growth  of  roots.  These  crops  can  be  grown  so  as 
to  improve  the  cattle  to  which  they  are  fed,  increase  the  value 
of  the  land  upon  which  they  are  grown,  and  also  promote  the 
financial  interests  of  the  farmer.  The  crops  belonging  to  this 
class  which  can  be  successfully  grown  in  this  country  are  not 
many  in  number,  though  they  are  of  great  importance.  The 
leading  ones  we  will  briefly  consider. 

Artichoke. — This  crop  is  u.sed  both  for  its  roots,  or  tubers, 
and  also  for  its  stalks,  though  it  is  for  the  former  that  it  is 
principally  grown.  The  quality  of  the  roots  is  somewhat  lower 
than  that  of  some  of  the  other  crops  of  this  class,  but  the 
immense  yield  of  the  artichoke  makes  it  a  very  profitable  one 
to  produce.  Still  the  analysis  of  this  root  shows  that  it  con- 
tains considerable  nutritive  matter.  And  the  fact  that  all  kinds 
of  stock  do  well  when  they  are  furnished  with  a  reasonable 
quantity  of  artichokes  fully  sustains  the  conclusion  which 
has  been  drawn  from  the  analysis.  An  immense  amount  of 
food  may  be  grown  upon  an  acre  of  land.     And  with  this  crop 


FARM  AND  FODDER    CROPS.  397 

there  is  one  advantage  which  most  others  do  not  possess :  it  can 
be  harvested  by  the  hogs,  and  thus  considerable  labor  may  be 
saved. 

For  this  crop  the  land  should  be  deeply  plowed  and  well 
harrowed.  It  should  be  marked  with  a  small  plow,  in  rows 
four  feet  apart.  The  hills  may  be  from  two  to  four  feet  apart. 
Manure  may  be  spread  broadcast  and  harrowed  in  before  .the 
marking  is  done,  or  it  may  be  put  in  the  hills.  Still  the  arti- 
choke will  thrive,  and  is  very  often  grown,  without  the  use  of 
fertilizers  of  any  kind.  Only  a  small  quantity  of  seed  will  be 
required.  Three  bushels  per  acre  will  be  sufficient.  The  roots 
should  be  cut  into  small  pieces,  and  not  more  than  two  of  these 
should  be  put  in  a  hill.  The  covering  may  be  done  with  a 
light  plow,  or  with  a  hand-hoe,  and  need  not  be  very  deep. 
The  planting  should  be  done  early — as  soon  as  the  ground  is 
warm.  When  the  plants  are  a  few  inches  high,  they  should  be 
either  plowed  or  cultivated,  and  hoed.  During  the  season  three 
or  four  more  plowings  should  be  given.  In  August  the  plants 
blossom,  and  very  soon  afterwards  the  tubers  begin  to  form. 
The  growth  is  very  rapid,  and  continues  until  frost  kills  the 
stalks  or  they  are  cut  down. 

The  stalks  are  sometimes  cured  and  used  for  fodder,  but  are 
generally  cut  and  burned.  The  harvesting  of  the  roots  is  done 
easiest  with  a  plow,  which  should  run  deeply  and  turn  all  of  the 
land.  By  covering  with  earth  they  can  be  kept  during  the 
winter  in  a  common  cellar,  or  in  trenches.  When  grown 
specially  for  hogs  they  should  be  in  a  lot  which  is  enclosed,  into 
which  the  hogs  can  be  turned  and  allowed  to  do  their  own  har- 
vesting. Those  which  are  not  used  in  the  fall  will  be  good  in 
the  spring. 

It  is  the  best  way  to  plant  every  year,  though  many  growers 
start  a  plantation  and  allow  the  hogs  to  gather  what  they  choose. 
In  the  spring  a  large  number  of  plants  will  appear.     These  are' 
sometimes  allowed  to  grow  as  they  spring  up.     Some  growers 


398  FARMING   FOR    PROFIT. 

plow  through  the  fields  so  as  to  leave  the  plants  standing  in 
rows.  This  is  much  better  than  it  is  to  leave  them  all  over 
the  land. 

There  are  several  varieties.  Of  these  the  Jerusalem  is  largely 
grown,  though  it  is  an  inferior  sort.  The  best  kinds  are  the 
Red  Brazilian  and  the  Improved  White  French.  In  color 
and  general  appearance  the  former  closely  resembles  the 
Jerusalem,  but  is  much  better  in  quality  and  a  great  deal 
more  productive.  The  yield  varies  greatly,  but  on  good 
land  which  is  well  cultivated  is  always  large.  Eight  hundred 
bushels  per  acre  are  often  grown,  twelve  hundred  are  occa- 
sionally reported,  and  as  high  as  two  thousand  bushels  have 
been  claimed. 

When  fed  freely  with  artichokes,  hogs  will  both  grow  and 
fatten.  One  experiment  which  has  been  reported  claims  a  gain 
of  nearly  two  pounds  per  day  for  each  hog.  Milch  cows  and 
sheep  do  well  when  fed  upon  the  roots  and  stalks.  The  health 
of  all  animals  which  are  fed  upon  artichokes  seems  to  be  pro- 
moted by  their  use. 

It  is  sometimes  objected  to  this  crop  that  it  is  very  difficult  to 
eradicate.  But  this  need  not  prove  a  serious  matter.  If  the 
habits  of  the  plant  are  understood,  it  can  be  easily  destroyed. 
By  mowing  them  during  the  last  week  in  August,  most  of  the 
plants  will  be  killed.  Or  they  can  be  destroyed  by  plowing  the 
land  when  they  are  about  a  foot  high. 

Beet. — Of  this  vegetable  there  are  many  varieties  which  are 
excellent  for  the  table,  and  a  few  which  are  of  special  value  for 
feeding  to  stock.  Some  growers  prefer  the  former  to  the  latter 
kinds,  even  for  feeding  purposes.  The  fine  varieties  can  be 
grown,  it  is  said,  as  cheaply  as  potatoes,  and  the  same  area  of 
land  will  produce  four  times  as  many  bushels.  For  these  varie- 
ties, when  grown  for  cattle,  the  land  should  be  plowed  in  the 
fall,  in  order  that  the  surface  may  be  made  fine  by  the  frost.  In 
the  spring  some  fine  manure  should  be  spread,  in  liberal  quan^ 


FARM  AND    FODDER    CROPS.  399 

tides,  upon  the  surface  and  harrowed  in.  If  yard-manure  is  not 
to  be  had,  bone  dust,  superphosphate,  or  guano,  may  be  used  in 
its  stead.  The  surface  soil  must  be  made  extremely  fine.  About 
the  middle  of  May  the  seed  should  be  sown  in  rows  about  fif- 
teen inches  apart.  The  seed  ought  to  be  covered  to  a  depth  of 
one  and  a  half  or  two  inches.  Four  pounds  per  acre  will  be  a 
sufficient  quantity.  As  soon  as  the  plants  come  up,  the  wheel- 
hoe  should  be  run  between  the  rows,  and  weeds  close  to  the 
plants  must  be  removed  by  hand.  Early  weeding  is  important, 
and  when  they  are  small  the  plants  are  benefited  by  stirring  the 
ground.  When  a  few  inches  high  they  should  be  thinned  to 
from  four  to  six  inches  apart.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to  cut 
the  roots  or  injure  the  leaves. 

When  growing  in  large  quantities  the  preparation  of  the  land 
should  be  the  same  as  above  described,  unless  the  long  kinds 
are  produced.  In  this  case  the  manure  may  be  covered,  at  the 
second  plowing,  to  a  depth  of  four  or  five  inches,  and  the  rows 
may  be  from  eighteen  to  thirty  inches  apart.  At  the  latter  dis- 
tance horse-power  can  be  used  in  the  cultivation  of  the  crop. 
As  soon  as  the  beets  are  well  up,  the  cultivator  should  be  run 
between  the  rows  and  a  light  steel  hoe  should  be  used  to  loosen 
the  dirt  close  to  the  plants.  When  they  are  a  few  inches  high, 
the  thinning  should  be  performed  and  vacant  places  should 
be  filled  by  transplanting.  The  plants  should  be  left  only  ten  or 
twelve  inches  apart.  This  will  allow  the  production  of  only 
moderate-sized  specimens,  but  the  quality  will  be  far  superior  to 
that  of  very  large  roots.  Some  growers  recommend  the  sowing 
of  from  five  to  ten  bushels  of  salt  per  acre,  or  a  mixture  of  salt 
and  plaster,  when  the  fourth  leaf  appears.  Most  of  the  thinning 
can  be  done  with  a  hoe.  Until  the  leaves  get  quite  large,  fre- 
quent cultivation  should  be  given.  When  ripe,  or  there  is 
danger  of  frost,  the  crop  should  be  harvested.  The  leaves  fur- 
nish good  food  for  cows. 

Mangold  Wurtzel  is  a  variety  of  the  beet  which  is  largely 


400  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

grown  fcr  stock.  The  roots  grow  to  a  large  size  and  are 
"  coarse  in  structure,"  but  are  formed  of  the  same  materials  as 
ordinary  beets.  Whether  they  will  furnish  more  nutritive  matter 
per  acre  than  some  of  the  finer  varieties  of  the  beet  is  a  ques- 
tion which  is  in  dispute. 

When  harvested,  the  beets,  or  mangolds,  may  be  put  into  a 
cool  cellar,  in  piles  two  or  three  feet  in  depth,  and  lightly  cov- 
ered with  earth,  or  they  may  be  stored  in  pits  or  trenches,  as 
already  described  for  potatoes  and  sugar  beets. 

It  is  not  well  to  feed  mangolds  until  the  middle  of  winter,  as 
a  ripening  process  goes  on  until  "about  that  time,  and  the  starch 
which  they  contain  is  converted  into  sugar.  They  should  be 
fed  after  the  turnips  (if  any  are  grown)  are  used,  and  at  first  only 
small  quantities  should  be  given  at  a  time. 

CiiUFA. — This  plant  belongs  to  the  sedge  family  and  has  its 
home  near  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  It  is  cultivated  for  its 
"nut-like,  sweet-tasted"  tubers,  or  roots,  which  are  called  chufa. 
There  are  many  varieties.  Some  of  them  are  considered  per- 
nicious weeds,  as  they  multiply  rapidly  by  means  of  the  tubers. 
These  plants  are  hard  to  eradicate,  especially  from  the  sandy 
soil  of  the  South.  The  "coco  grass,"  which  is  there  common, 
and  also  detested,  belongs  to  this  class  of  plants.  The  best 
variety  (we  think  that  only  one  sort  is  extensively  grown  in  this 
country)  is  very  prolific,  is  easily  grown,  and  furnishes  a  good 
quality  of  food  for  hogs  or  poultry. 

The  land  should  be  well  plowed  and  harrowed.  The  tubers 
may  be  planted  in  rows  two  feet  apart,  and  one  foot  apart  in  the 
row.  One  tuber  should  be  placed  in  each  hill,  and  covered  two 
inches  deep.  The  planting  should  be  done  at  the  same  time  as 
it  is  for  corn.  When  small  the  weeds  must  be  kept  down,  and 
during  the  season  the  cultivator  should  be  run  between  the 
rows  several  times.  This  crop  thrives  best  at  the  South,  and 
is  not  at  all  to  be  recommended  for  Northern  cultivation. 
Carrot. — This   is  one   of  the  best  of  the  roots  which  are 


FARM  AND  FODDER    CROPS.  4Q1 

grown  for  feeding  to  stock.  When  young  the  plants  are  quite 
feeble,  but  they  are  liable  to  but  few  diseases,  and  can  be  grown 
without  great  difficulty.  The  roots  are  much  superior  to  the 
common  turnips,  and  better  than  the  ruta  baga.  If  the  land  is 
well  manured,  this  crop  can  be  grown  upon  the  same  field  for 
many  successive  years.  Carrots  are  of  great  value  for  feeding 
to  horses.  The  effect  of  these  roots  upon  the  digestive  organs 
is  excellent,  and  they  give  a  sleek  appearance  to  the  coat. 
They  promote  the  health  of  all  animals  to  which  they  are  fed. 
Their  laxative  properties  are  beneficial,  and  tend  to  counteract 
the  constipating  tendencies  of  exclusive  feeding  with  dr>^  hay. 
When  fed  to  cows  carrots  improve  the  quality  of  the  milk,  and 
increase  its  quantity.  The  color  of  the  butter  which  is  produced 
is  much  richer  than  that  v/hich  is  made  from  cows  which  are 
fed  with  dry  hay,  and,  when  other  things  are  favorable,  its 
quality  is  very  fine. 

Carrots  should  be  grown  upon  good  land  which  is  free  from 
stones,  and  which  is  neither  Avet  nor  x-ery  dry.  It  must  be 
made  quite  rich,  but  most  of  the  manure  should  be  applied  in 
the  fall.  The  plowing  should  be  very  deep,  but  the  manure 
ought  to  be  used  upon  the  surface.  Both  the  manure  and  the 
surface  soil  should  be  made  extremely  fine.  Bone-flour,  super- 
phosphate, or  guano,  may  be  applied  in  the  spring  in  addition 
to  the  yard-manure  which  is  used  in  the  fall,  or  may  be  used  in 
case  of  a  deficiency  in  the  quantity  of  that  material.  The  land 
should  be  plowed  early  in  the  spring,  and  plowed  again  just 
before  time  for  sowing  the  seed.  This  in  order  to  kill  the  weeds 
and  pulverize  the  soil. 

The  sowing  may  be  done  from  the  tenth  of  May  until  the 
tenth  of  June.  On  some  accounts  early  sowing  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred, while  on  others  it  is  better  to  sow  rather  late.  The 
plants  are  weak  when  they  first  come  up,  and  if  the  ground  is 
dry  and  the  sun  extremely  hot  they  are  liable  to  be  destroyed. 
But  if  the  seed  of  the  early  sorts  is  put  in  early  in  the  season, 


402  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

the  carrots  are  likely  to  ripen  too  soon,  and  to  decay  during  the 
winter.  The  rows  may  be  only  twelve  inches  apart  for  the 
small  kinds,  and  fifteen  for  the  large  varieties.  One  and  a  half 
pounds  of  seed,  if  it  is  fresh  and  good,  is  sufficient  for  an  acre. 
But  much  of  the  carrot  seed  which  is  sold  is  poor,  and  four 
pounds  per  acre  are  used  by  some  growers  of  this  crop. 

As  soon  as  the  plants  come  up,  the  wheel-hoe  should  be  run 
as  close  to  the  rows  as  possible,  and  all  necessary  weeding  must 
be  given.  During  the  season  frequent  hoeings  .and  weedings 
should  be  given  as  they  are  required.  When  the  plants  are 
small  they  should  be  thinned  to  three  or  four  inches  apart.  No 
weeds  should  be  allowed  to  get  a  start,  and  if  any  of  the  carrots 
show  a  disposition  to  go  to  seed,  the  stalks  should  either  be  cut 
off,  or  else  the  roots  must  be  pulled  and  thrown  away. 

There  are  several  varieties  possessing  very  different  qualities, 
and  ripening  at  different  periods.  Of  these  we  think  the 
following  are  the  best  for  cultivation  on  the  farm.  The  Early 
Short  Scarlet  Horn  is  very  early,  and  of  quite  good  quality. 
The  roots  are  short,  but  on  good  land  quite  a  yield  can  be 
secured.  The  Short  Horn  is  a  similar  variety,  but  a  little 
longer  and  later.  The  Long  Orange  is'  one  of  the  most  popular 
varieties  which  has  been  introduced.  It  has  long  been  a 
standard  sort.  Both  the  quality  and  color  are  very  good.  The 
greatest  trouble  is  with  the  length  of  the  roots.  Being  very 
long  the  labor  of  digging  is  much  greater  than  that  of  harvesting 
the  short  kinds.  The  Danvers  carrot  is  an  intermediate 
variety  which  has  been  established  by  the  large  growers  in 
Damvf.rs,  Mass.  It  is  longer  than  the  Short  Horns,  but  shorter 
than  the  Long  Orange.  The  roots  are  smooth  and  handsome, 
and  of  a  rich  orange  color.  From  twenty  to  forty  tons  per  acre 
can  be  grown.  This  is  destined  to  be  a  very  popular  variety. 
The  Large  White  Belgian  is  a  large  variety  which  is  grown 
exclusively  for  stock.  It  yields  largely,  but  the  quality  is  poor, 
r.nd  we  think  it  will  pay  much  better  to  grow  some  of  the  other 
varieties  which  have  been  named. 


FARM  AXD   FODDER    CROPS.  403 

The  harvesting  should  be  done  as  soon  as  the  tops  indicate 
that  the  plants  are  matured.  If  the  weather  is  cold  and  there 
is  danger  that  the  ground  will  freeze,  this  work  may  be  done 
before  the  roots  attain  their  full  growth.  The  tops  should  be 
cut  with  a  light,  sharp  hoe.  If  a  little  of  the  crown  is  removed, 
the  roots  will  keep  just  as  well  and  not  be  quite  as  likely  to 
sprout  in  the  winter.  They  may  be  dug  with  a  fork,  or  a  plow 
may  be  run  close  to  each  row  and  the  roots  pulled  by  hand. 
We  have  sometimes  pulled  the  Short  Horn  carrots  without 
either  digging  or  plowing. 

Carrots  should  be  stored  in  a  cellar  which  is  cool  and  dry,  in 
piles  not  more  than  two  and  a  half  feet  deep.  They  should  not 
be  placed  upon  the  damp  ground,  but  should  always  be  laid  in. 
b'ns  or  upon  a  floor.  Probably  they  can  be  kept  in  trenches 
in  the  ground  if  they  are  stored  in  only  small  quantities  and  arc 
fully  protected  from  the  damp  and  frost. 

When  seed  is  to  be  grown,  the  best  roots  should  be  selected 
— those  which  are  of  good  form  and  color — and  set  out  by  the 
middle  of  April  if  danger  from  freezing  is  past.  The  land  should 
be  deeply  plowed,  and,  if  the  roots  are  long,  holes  may  be  made 
for  them  with  an  iron  bar.  The  rows  should  be  three  and  a 
half  feet  apart,  and  the  roots  placed  a  foot  and  a  half  apart  in  the 
row.  The  roots  should  be  set  deep  enough  to  bring  the  crowns 
even  with  the  surface  of  the  ground.  During  the  season  they 
should  be  hoed  occasionally  and  all  weeds  should  be  kept  down. 
The  seed  ripens  unevenly  and  will  need  cutting  at  different 
times.  When  the  branches  become  dry,  and  the  seeds  turn 
brown,  the  heads  should  be  cut  with  shears  and  stored  in  a  cool, 
dry  room. 

Carrots  should  be  run  through  a  root-cutter  before  they  are 

fed,  and  should  always  be  put  in  the  mangers.     Cattle  will  eat 

them  if  they  are  cut  and  spread  upon  the  grass.     But  it  is  much 

better  to  put  cattle  into  the  stable  before  giving  them  roots  of 

any  kind.     If  the  roots  are  put  in  the  mangers,  cattle  will  eat 
26 


404  FARMING  J'OR   PROFIT. 

them  quietly  and  will  not  be  as  likely  to  get  choked  as  they  will 
if  fed  in  the  field. 

Parsnip. — This  crop  is  not  as  extensively  grown  as  it  should 
be  by  those  who  make  a  business  of  growing  roots.  It  is  excel- 
lent for  feeding  to  stock,  and  is  one  of  the  best  of  all  roots  to 
keep  late  in  the  spring.  The  parsnip  should  be  grown  on  good 
land  which  is  heavily  manured,  deeply  plowed,  and  thoroughly 
pulverized.  The  seed  may  be  sown  either  early  or  late  in  the 
season,  but  is  likely  to  fail  if  the  weather  is  very  hot  and  the 
ground  very  dry.  As  a  general  rule,  moderately  early  sowing 
will  give  the  best  results.  The  seeds  are  rather  weak,  and,  on 
this  account,  should  be  thickly  sown.  The  cultivation  should 
be  the  same  as  has  been  recommended  for  carrots.  The  har- 
vesting should  be  done  late  in  the  fall,  though  all  the  roots 
which  are  to  be  used  in  the  spring  may  remain  in  the  ground 
until  that  time. 

For  seed-growing  the  same  process  should  be  pursued  as 
is  taken  with  carrots.  Like  the  carrot,  parsnip  seed  ripens 
unevenly,  and  several  cuttings  will  be  needed.  Two  seeds  grow 
together.  When  they  separate  they  arc  ripe,  and  the  heads 
should  be  cut  and  spread  in  a  cool  loft  to  dry.  With  this  crop, 
irich  Jand  and  care  in  the  early  stages  of  the  growth  of  the 
plants  will  be  required  in  order  to  obtain  a  good  yield. 

Turnip. — This  is  the  most  extensively  grown  of  all  the  root 
crops,  and  is  very  popular  in  Europe  as  well  as  in  the  root- 
growing  sections  of  this  country.  Both  the  common  turnip  and 
the  ruta  baga  are  great  favorites  with  nearly  all  those  farmers 
who  grow  root  crops.  While  they  may  be  advantageou^^y 
grown,  we  do  not  think  that  they  should  be  produced  to  the 
exclusion  of  all  the  other  roots  which  have  been  named.  They 
are  of  special  value  for  feeding  to  sheep.  For  cows  and  horses 
carrots  are  much  better. 

It  is  best  to  plow  the  land  to  a  medium  depth  about  the  time 
of  plowing  <br  corn,  to  harrow  it  occasionally  in  order  to  destroy 


FARM  AND   FODDER   CROPS.  4Q5 

all  the  weeds,  and  then  plow  it  again  when  it  is  time  to  put  in 
the  seed.  Many  growers  omit  the  first  plowing,  but  it  ought 
to  be  given.  The  surface  should  be  made  very  fine  and  the 
seed  sowed  from  the  first  of  July  to  the  first  of  August.  It  is 
important  that  the  crop  should  be  grown  quite  rapidly.  Also 
that  no  green  stable-manure  should  be  used.  This  manure  will 
spoil  the  quality  of  the  roots  for  table  purposes  and  injure  the.m 
for  feeding  to  stock.  Besides,  they  will  be  more  likely  to  be 
eaten  by  worms  than  they  will  if  fertilizers  which  are  better 
adapted  to  their  wants  are  used.  Well-rotted  manure  will  give 
good  results  if  it  is  made  very  fine,  but  bone-flour,  or  super- 
phosphate, will  give  a  better  quality  of  roots. 

The  sowing  may  be  broadcast  or  in  drills.  We  like  the  latter 
method  much  the  best.  From  one  to  one  and  a  half  pounds  of 
seed  per  acre  should  be  used  if  put  in  drills,  and  from  one  to 
two  pounds  if  it  is  scattered  broadcast.  If  all  the  seeds  should 
grbw,  and  the  plants  do  well,  not  more  than  from  two  to  four 
ounces  would  be  needed.  But  the  seed  costs  but  little  and 
many  plants  are  liable  to  be  destroyed  by  the  turnip  fly  or  the 
scorching  of  the  sun.  GDnsequently,  it  is  best  to  use  a  liberal 
quantity  of  seed.  The  fly  attacks  the  plants  when  they  are  very 
small.  By  sprinkling  lime-dust  upon  them  early  in  the  morn- 
ing, while  the  dew  is  on,  the  fly  may  be  kept  off.  The  applica- 
tion will  be  needed  only  a  few  times. 

If  the  seed  is  sowed  broadcast,  no  cultivation  can  be  given. 
If  in  drills,  a  hand-cultivator  should  be  run  between  the  rows, 
and  a  sharp  hoe  should  be  used  to  cut  the  weeds  which  are  close 
to  the  plants,  and  also  to  loosen  the  soil.  When  the  second 
leaf  puts  out,  they  should  be  thinned  with  a  small  hoe.  The 
plants  which  are  left  should  remain  in  clumps  four  or  five  inches 
apart.  When  they  get  straightened  up  after  this  operation,  the 
surplus  plants  must  be  pulled  by  hand.  Cultivation  should  be 
given  at  several  times  during  the  season,  and  should  be  finished 
before  the  leaves  get  very  large. 


40G  FARMIXG   FOR   PROFIT. 

The  tops  should  be  cut  with  a  sharp  hoe  before  the  roots  are 
pulled.  If  a  little  of  the  crown  is  clipped  off,  it  will  be  no  dis- 
aJvantage.  The  roots  may  be  pulled  by  hand  or  with  a  chain- 
harrow.     The  tops  are  worth  something  for  feeding  to  stock. 

Turnips  may  be  preser\'ed  in  trenches  sixteen  inches  wide, 
two  feet  deep,  and  as  long  as  the  quantity  to  be  stored  requires. 
They  should  be  placed  only  a  foot  deep  in  these  trenches  and 
then  covered  with  the  earth  which  was  thrown  out.  If  the 
weather  becomes  extremely  cold,  a  quantity  of  stable-manure 
may  be  thrown  upon  the  top.  If  only,  a  small-  quantity  of  tur- 
nips is  grown,  the  storing  can  be  done  in  a  cool,  dark  cellar. 
They  can  be  put  in  bins  or  laid  upon  the  ground.  Only  a  few 
bushels  should  be  put  in  a  place,  and  a  thin  covering  of  earth 
will  be  beneficial. 

For  growing  seed  the  best  turnips  should  be  selected  in  the 
fall  and  placed  by  themselves.  The  tops  must  not  be  cut  very 
close.  Early  in  the  spring  the  roots  should  be  put  out,  in  good 
land,  which  has  been  plowed  and  harrowed.  They  should  be 
set  in  rows  three  feet  apart,  and  should  be  from  fifteen  to  eigh- 
teen inches  apart  in  the  rows.  A  place  should  be  made  for  the 
tap  root,  and  the  bulb  should  be  covered  with  earth,  but  the 
sprouts  must  be  left  above  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The 
plants  should  be  frequently  hoed,  and  when  the  blossoms  appear 
a  small  plow  may  be  run  between  the  rows,  and  the  earth  ridged 
up  around  the  stalks  in  order  to  give  them  needed  support. 
When  many  of  the  pods  become  dry,  the  heads  should  be  cut 
and  laid  m  some  safe  and  convenient  place.  It  is  best  to  do 
the  cutting  when  the  dew  is  on.  The  pods  will  break  open  if 
liandled  when  they  are  dr>',  and  thus  much  of  the  seed  will  be 
wasted.  The  different  varieties,  and  the  turnips  and  ruta  bagas, 
should  be  grown  quite  a  distance  apart.  Otherwise  the  seed 
will  be  quite  likely  to  mix  and  be  spoiled. 

The  Ruta  Baga,  or  "Swedish  Turnip,"  as  it  is  often  called,  is 
generally  classed  in  this  country  as  a  turnip,  and  may  be  grown 


FAJiAf  AND   FODDER    CROPS.  407 

in  nearly  the  same  manner  as  the  common  sorts.  The  plants 
should  be  left  from  six  to  eight  inches  apart,  if  grown  in  drills 
and  cultivated  with  a  horse,  or  from  twelve  to  fifteen  inches,  if 
grown  in  hills  and  hoed  in  the  same  way  as  corn.  The  latter 
way  will  give  much  the  largest  specimens,  but  they  will  not  be 
of  as  good  quality  as  the  smaller  ones  which  are  grown  by  the 
other  method.  Some  growers  sow  the  seeds  in  a  bed  and  put 
out  the  plants  m  h  n  they  are  of  a  suitable  size.  This  makes 
more  work  than  sowing  in  drills,  but  admits  of  more  thorough 
cultivation.  The  ruta  baga  is  larger  and  harder  than  the  ordi- 
nary turnip,  and  will  keep  much  later  in  the  season.  For  early 
feeding  it  is  not  as  good  as  the  flat  turnip,  but  it  is  greatly  su- 
perior for  use  in  the  spring.  Before  being  fed,  the  turnips,  of 
any  and  all  varieties,  should  be  run  through  a  root-cutter.  They 
should  be  put  in  the  mangers,  in  warm  stables,  and  cattle  should 
always  be  tied  while  eating  them. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  the  turnip.  For  feeding  purposes 
the  Early  Flat  Dutch  is.  good,  if  wanted  in  the  fall  and  early 
winter.  The  Amber  Globe  keeps  during  the  winter  and  is  first- 
rate.  The  Long  White  Cowhorn  and  the  Pomeranean  White 
Globe  are  both  good  for  winter  use.  For  feeding  late  in  the 
winter  and  during  the  spring,  and  also  for  table  use,  the  "  Blooms- 
dale  Ruta  Baga"  (obtained  by  a  careful  selection  of  the  seed  of 
the  purple  top  ruta  baga,  and  an  improvement  upon  that  variety) 
is  decidedly  the  best  which  we  have  ever  seen.  This  variety 
was  introduced  by  the  well-known  Phil.\delphia  seedsmen,  D. 
Landretii  &  Son,  who  have  done  more  than  any  and  all  other 
parties  to  make  turnip-growing  popular  in  this  country.  The 
roots  of  this  variety  are  well  shaped,  of  good  color,  smooth 
skin,  and  have  but  very  few  leaves.  The  American  ruta  baga  is 
also  a  popular  sort  Of  this  there  are  two  sub-varieties,  the 
purple  top  and  the  green  top.  The  former  looks  the  best  and  is 
generally  preferred. 


408  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 

^QrHIS  consists  in  the  removal  of  surplus  water  from  the 
^^Ijl  land.  Various  plans  are  adopted  to  secure  tiic  desired 
i^^  result.  Each  method  has  its  advocates  and  each  is  open 
^^3  to  some  objection,  either  in  respect  to  its  efficiency,  dura- 
bility, or  expense.  The  cheap  methods  are  not  first-rate,  and 
the  best  ones  are  somewhat  expensive. 

Probably  the  majority  of  farmers  who  attempt  to  drain  their 
land  merely  cut  some  ditches  for  carrying  off  the  water.  These 
answer  a  good  purpose  for  a  few  years,  but  are  liable  to  become 
filled  with  the  mud  which  is  washed  from  the  soil,  by  the  caving 
of  the  banks,  and  by  the  trampling  of  cattle  through  and  ovef 
them.  They  are  also  objectionable  in  that  they  require  a  great  deal 
of  land.  As  a  team  cannot  safely  be  driven  close  to  them,  quite 
a  strip  must  be  left  upon  each  side  of  every  one  of  these  ditches 
without  plowing.  It  is  also  necessary  to  provide  bridges  upon 
which  they  can  be  crossed  when  the  teams  are  driven  from  one 
part  of  the  field  to  another.  In  this  way  considerable  expense 
is  incurred,  or  else  the  owner  will  be  put  to  a  great  deal  of 
inconvenience  by  having  but  a  few  places  where  he  can  cross 
the  ditches.  For  making  these  channels  considerable  time  and 
labor  are  required.  Yet,  while  they  involve  considerable  direct 
expense  and  prevent  the  cultivation  of  part  of  the  land,  these 
ditches  prove  ver)'  useful  in  wet  fields.  The  land  which  can  be 
cultivated  after  they  are  made  is  rendered  much  more  produc- 
tive, and  the  labor  of  growing  and  securing  crops  is  greatly  de- 
creased. In  some  fields  the  soil  which  is  removed  from  these 
drains  is  valuable  for  mixing  with  manure  and  for  use  as  bed- 
ding in  the  stables  and  hog  pens.  In  such  cases  the  value  of 
the  material  will  do  much  toward  paying  for  the  labor  of  secur- 
ing it.  But  where  the  material  which  is  thrown  out  cannot  be 
utilized,  this  method  of  draining  wet  land  will  almost  invariably 
pay  well  for  all  the  time  and  labor  required.     Still,  in  many 


*  DRAINING.  ^QQ 

cases  it  will  not  be  the  best  way  which  can  be  devised  for  secur- 
ing the  benefits  of  draining. 

A  simpler  method  is  to  dig  large,  open  ditches  merely  for  the 
purpose  of  holding  the  water.  This  plan  accomplishes  some 
good  as  far  as  the  draining  of  the  land  is  concerned,  but  is 
open  to  the  objections  of  keeping  considerable  quantities  of 
stagnant  water  exposed  to  the  air,  of  generating  certain  forms 
of  disease,  and  of  making  the  places  in  which  they  are  located 
quite  unhealthy. 

The  cultivat.on  of  land  in  ridges  is  another  method  by  which 
a  moderate  degree  of  draining  is  practically  effected.  By  plow- 
ing into  narrow  lands  with  wide,  open  furrows  between,  or  by 
turning  two  furrows  together  from  opposite  directions  and 
leavmg  a  large,  open  space  or  water-furrow  between  each  two 
ridges,  and  planting  directly  upon  the  top  of  each  ridge,  some 
of  the  advantages  of  draining  can  be  secured.  But  in  such  cases 
they  must  be  obtained  at  the  expense  of  extra  work  in  preparing 
the  soil  and  cultivating  the  crop.  They  also  require  the  use  of 
a  larger  area  of  land  than  would  otherwise  be  needed.  It  is  not 
a  very  efficient  method,  and  should  only  be  used  when  land 
is  very  cheap  or  more  thorough  systems  cannot  be  employed. 

Parties  in  the  East  who  are  interested  in  the  "  driven  well " 
(a  well  formed  by  driving  down  an  iron  pipe  until  it  strikes  a 
spring  or  reaches  a  wet  strata  in  the  soil)  have  proposed  to 
drain  wet  fields  by  means  of  this  invention.  But  the  owners  of 
the  land  are  doubtful  concerning  the  workings  of  the  plan,  and 
the  managers  of  the  patent  do  not  seem  inclined  to  warrant 
their  work  to  be  effectual.  Consequently,  no  practical  test,  that 
^e  know  of,  has  yet  been  made. 

Anothei,  and  by  far  the  best,  method  for  removing  the  water 
from  land  is  by  underdraining.  The  drains  are  covered  so  that 
all  the  land  can  be  cultivated,  and  teams  can  pass  over  them  at 
any  point  When  properly  laid,  there  is  no  caving  of  the 
banks  and  no  filling  of  the  channel  with  mud.     They  can  be 


410 


FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 


laid  so  that  they  will  last  for  generations,  and  the  expense  of 
putting  them  down  will  not  be  much  greater  than  that  of  the 
makeshifts  which  are  too  frequently  constructed.  For  this  pur- 
pose various  materials  are  employed.  Some  farmers  fill  the 
trench  with  brush.  This  should  seldom  be  used.  When  an 
underdrain  is  made  it  should  be  made  m  a  permanent  manner. 
Turf  is  sometimes  used  for  a  covering  of  the  top  of  drains.  The 
sides  of  the  trench  are  made  very  slanting,  and  a  piece  of  turf  is 
cut  of  such  size  and  shape  that  it  will  go  to  within  a  few  inches 
of  the  bottom,  and  there  wedge  against  the  sides  strongly 
enough  to  allow  the  trench  above  to  be  filled  without  settling 
into  the  channel.     This  form   is  not  at  all  to  be  commended. 


FIG.  46. 


STONE    DRAINS. 


FIG.   47. 


Boards  or  planks  are  often  used.  If  well  laid,  they  will  prove 
effective  drains,  and  will  last  many  years ;  but  the  material  is  of 
too  perishable  a  nature,  and  should  not  be  generally  employed. 

The  two  leading  materials  in  use  are  stones  and  tiles.  Of 
these,  the  former  are  often  ver\'  abundant  on  farms  which  need 
draining,  while  the  latter  must  be  either  bought  or  else  manu- 
factured on  the  place.  Stone  drains  can  be  made  so  that  they 
will  be  very  durable,  and  answer  all  the  requirements  of  first- 
class  structures.  But,  in  order  to  be  good,  they  must  be  very 
carefully  made.  There  are  several  different  forms  in  use.  The 
particular  one  to  be  laid  in  any  special  instance  must  depend 
upon  the  shape  of  the  stones  of  which  the  drain  is  composed. 


DRAINING.  411 

It  is  very  desirable  to  have  flat  stones  to  lay  upon  the  top  and 
form  the  roof  of  the  drain.  These  answer  the  double  purpose 
of  keeping  out  dirt  and  preventing  the  entrance  of  vermin.  For 
the  same  reasons  flat  stones  at  the  sides  are  of  great  value. 
Stone  drains  are  very  liable  to  become  choked  with  sand  and 
fine  earth.  The  water  passes  through  these  drains  very  slowly, 
and  there  is  not  strength  of  current  enough  to  wash  obstruc- 
tions along.  Frost  is  more  likely  to  interfere  with  stone  than 
with  tile  drains,  and  there  are  various  other  reasons  why  tiles 
are  very  much  the  best.  Men  who  have  had  practical  experi- 
ence with  both  kinds  almost  invariably  prefer  the  tiles.  Mr. 
Waring  declares  that  tiles  are  vmcJi  cJicapcr  than  stones,  and 
likely  to  be  much  more  durable.  He  has  shown,  and  many 
others  have  done  the  same,  that  when  there  is  an  abundance  of 
stones  on  the  farm,  the  owner  will  almost  always  find  it  for  his 
interest  to  use  tiles.  The  amount  of  time  and  labor  required  to 
get  the  stones  together  and  select  them  for  use  is  very  great. 
The  cost  of  digging  the  trench  for  stone  drains  is  greatly  in 
excess  of  that  of  making  one  for  tiles.  This  because  it  must 
be  very  much  larger,  and  it  is  also  much  slower  filling  with 
stones  than  it  is  to  lay  the  tiles.  But  if  the  reverse  were  true, 
and  it  could  be  proved  that  the  first  cost  of  tile  drains  would  be 
considerable  more  than  that  of  those  made  of  stones,  we  should 
strongly  favor  tiles  on  the  ground  of  their  permanence.  Still,  a 
farmer  may  be  so  situated  as  to  make  it  necessary  for  him  to 
have  stone  drains  if  he  has  any.  In  these  cases  the  stones 
should  be  used  as  the  best  material  which  is  available.  But  as 
a  general  rule  tiles  will  be  both  cheaper  and  better. 

Figure  46  represents  a  common  form  of  stone  drain.  A 
much  better  one  is  shown  in  Figure  47.  Figures  48  and  49 
show  the  best  form  of  tiles  for  ordinary  drains.  They  are 
made  of  many  different  sizes.  Figure  50  represents  the  "*  Y  " 
form  of  the  sole  tile.  This  is  to  be  used  when  two  drains  come 
together  at  an  angle,  and  is  a  great  improvement  on  the  ordinary 


412 


FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 


style  which  must  be  fitted  as  it  is  used.  The  common  tiles  can 
be  fitted,  but  with  the  tools  which  the  farmer  usually  has  the 
operation  is  a  somewhat  difficult  one  to  perform.  The  "  Y"  and 
every  other  desirable  form  is  made  by  the  Moorhead  Clay 
Works,  of  Philadelphia.  This  Company  received  the  Centen- 
nial award  for  tiles  and  all  other  articles  made  of  clay  or  its 
compounds. 

Upon  the  principle  of  expediency  merely,  there  are  some 
farmers  who  can  make  use  of  the  Mole-Plow  for  underdraining^ 
with  manifest  advantage.  This  implement  is  not  at  all  adapted  to 
general  use,  as  it  will  only  do  good  work  in  strong  clay  soils, 
and  in  some  of  these  it  is  not  very  successful.     Por  a  man  who 


FIG.    48. — ROLNU  TILK   AND   COLLAR. 


FIG.   49. 


FIG.    50. — SOLE  '*  Y  "  TILES. 


can  do  no  better  this  plow  will  be  a  useful  implement,  but  it 
should  not  be  used  with  a  view  of  obtaining  permanent  results. 
Where  it  works  well,  the  drains  keep  open  a  few  years  and 
remove  the  surplus  water  from  the  land.  But  they  are  very 
liable  to  cave  in  from  the  top  and  sides,  and  thus  become 
useless.  In  some  parts  of  Ohio  these  drains  have  been  quite 
successful,  and  they  have  been  used  with  varying  results  in 
England  and  in  different  clay  soils  in  this  country.  For  a  poor 
man  to  use  as  a  makeshift  until  he  can  obtain  something  of 
greater  permanence  they  may  be  recommended,  but  they  should 
never  be  used  when  tiles  can  be  afforded. 

There  is  a  great  deal  more  land  in  this  country  which  needs 
draining  than  many  people  suppose.     Not  only  the  extremely 


DRAINING.  413 

wet,  swampy  fields,  but  many  tracts  which  are  only  occasionally 
too  wet  would  be  greatly  improved  by  a  thorough  system  of 
drainage.  Fields  containing  many  springs,  sandy  or  other 
porous  soils  with  clay,  or  other  hard  and  impervious  sub-soil, 
and  all  clay  soils  may  be  said  to  need  thorough  draining.  That 
swamps,  and  land  full  of  springs,  need  draining  is  too  evident  to 
require  an  argument  to  support  the  assertion.  Soils  which  are 
only  occasionally  too  wet  need  draining  in  order  to  insure  the 
regular  production  of  good  crops.  In  dry  seasons  they  may  do 
well,  but  in  wet  years  the  yield  is  usually  very  light  and  the 
quality  is  inferior.  It  often  happens  that  the  heaviest  rain-fall 
comes  at  a  time  when  the  farmer  is  in  a  hurry  «to  work  the  land, 
and  that  great  loss  is  occasioned  by  the  delay  which  is  thus 
necessitated.  Planting  is  often  delayed  ten  days,  or  longer,  by 
this  cause,  and  the  crop  much  diminished  in  consequence. 
Sometimes  the  rain  comes  just  as  the  farmer  wants  to  cultivate 
his  crop.  Then  the  work  must  be  put  off,  haying  soon  comes 
on,  and  the  crop  suffers  greatly  from  neglect.  These  heavy 
rains  also  keep  the  soil  very  cold — a  condition  highly  unfavor- 
able to  the  growth  of  plants. 

The  average  rain-fall  in  the  United  States  is  about  three 
inches  per  month.  In  some  States  (and  some  which  have  a  very 
compact  and  retentive  soil)  it  averages  about  three  and  one- 
third  inches.  A  large  proportion  of  this  immense  amount  of 
water  must  leave  the  soil  either  by  drainage  or  evaporation. 
In  order  to  be  in  a  good  condition  for  crops,  the  land  must  be 
moist  but  not  wet.  Therefore  there  is  a  great  deal  of  water  to 
dispose  of  If  the  soil  is  retentive  and  the  land  is  level,  almost 
all  of  this  water  must  be  evaporated.  If  the  soil  is  porous,  but 
the  sub-soil  is  impervious,  a  large  part  of  the  work  of  removal 
must  be  done  in  the  same  manner.  Let  us  consider  for  a  moment 
what  the  removal  of  this  water  by  evapor-.tion  involves. 

Evaporation  consists  in  the  conversion  of  water  into  vapor. 
From   undrained  land  the  water  must  be  removed,  in  this  way, 


414  FARMING   FOR  PROFIT. 

by  the  heat  of  the  sun.  To  convert  water  into  vapor  requires 
about  four  times  as  much  heat  as  is  needed  to  bring  it  to  the 
boiUng  point  from  a  temperature  only  just  above  the  freezing 
point.  An  inch  of  rain,  equal  to  three  hundred  and  sixty 
hogsheads  of  water,  frequently  falls  upon  an  acre  of  land  in 
a  single  shower.  If  this  land  is  not  drainecf,  there  must  be  heat 
enough  from  the  sun  to  bring  nearly  fifteen  hundred  hogsheads 
of  water  from  a  freezing  to  a  boiling  point,  in  order  to  remove 
the  surplus  water  furnished  by  this  one  shower.  Take  the 
average  autumn  and  spring  rains  at  ten  inches  e^ch,  and  the 
winter  rains  and  snows  at  eight  inches,  and  consider  the  immense 
amount  of  heat  »equired  to  fit  an  undrained  soil  for  planting. 
But  a  small  proportion  of  the  autumn  rains  can  be  evaporated 
when  they  fall,  because  the  weather  is  so  cold.  The  same  is  true 
of  the  rains  and  snows  of  winter.  Therefore  in  the  spring  this 
vast  accumulation  of  moisture  must  be  removed.  Instead  of 
warming  the  land,  as  it  would  if  the  soil  were  reasonably  dry, 
the  heat  of  the  sun  must  be  used  for  evaporating  the  water,  and 
the  undrained  fields  will  be  cold  and  wet  long  after  those  which 
are  drained  are  warm  and  dry. 

Thus  draining  the  land  enables  the  farmer  to  do  his  planting 
early  in  the  season,  and  cultivate  his  crops  at  the  proper  time. 
It  also  makes  the  land  so  much  warmer  that  the  autumn  frosts 
will  be  delayed,  and  more  time  will  be  given  for  the  corn  to 
ripen,  the  rowen  to  grow,  and  other  crops  to  mature.  Draining 
also  acts  as  a  powerful  agent  in  preventing  injury  to  crops  in 
time  of  drought.  A  well-drained  soil  is  not  only  drier  in  a  wet 
time,  but  contains  more  moisture  than  an  undrained  one 
when  the  rain-fall  is  insuflficient.  The  draining  loosens  and 
deepens  the  soil,  and  allows  it  to  condense  and  absorb  a  much 
larger  quantity  of  moisture  from  the  air  and  dews  than  an 
undrained  soil.  The  roots  of  plants  are  also  able  to  penetrate 
to  a  much  greater  depth,  go  nearer  the  point  of  constant  mois- 
ture, and   present  a  much  larger  surface  to  the  action  of  the 


DRAINING.  415 

earth  and  air.  It  has  often  been  noticed  that  land  which  has 
been  deeply  plowed  withstands  the  drought  much  better  than 
the  same  kind  of  soil  which  has  been  cultivated  shallow.  What 
deep  plowing  does  in  this  respect  can  be  accomplished  by 
thorough  underdraining.  When  they  go  together  the  very  best 
results  are  obtained,  and  by  their  aid  injury  from  any  ordinary 
drought  may  be  wholly  prevented.  During  a  severe  drought  in 
New  Jersey,  in  1855,  the  fences  on  the  land  of  Prof.  Mapes 
were  found  to  be  the  boundaries  of  its  influence.  The  land  all 
around  this  farm  was  parched,  and  the  crops  were  being  spoiled, 
while  the  land  inside  the  fences  was  unaffected,  and  the  crops 
were  in  splendid  condition.  This  was  not  caused  by  any 
difference  in  the  natural  character  of  the  soils,  but  by  the 
thorough  drainage  and  deep  culture  of  the  farm  belonging  to 
Prof.  Mapes. 

Draining  makes  a  damp  location  much  more  healthful  for 
men  and  animals,  as  well  as  for  crops.  It  prevents  the  accumu- 
lation of  surface  water,  which  soon  stagnates  and  becomes  a 
prolific  source  of  disease.  Drainage  of  wet  districts  in  cities 
has  greatly  reduced  the  annual  death-rate,  and  decreased  the 
amount  of  sickness  which  is  not  fatal.  In  the  country  attacks 
of  malarial  diseases  are  much  more  frequent  and  severe  in  wet 
locations  than  they  are  in  dry  ones.  Veterinarians  have  called 
the  attention  of  farmers  to  the  fact  that  many  diseases  of  sheep 
and  cattle  are  either  directly  caused  or  greatly  aggravated  by 
wet  pastures.  This  fact  furnishes  a  strong  argument  in  favor  of 
draining  pastures,  although  the  increase  in  quantity,  and 
improvement  in  quality  of  the  grass  which  it  will  produce, 
would  seem  to  be  a  sufficient  inducement  for  the  owners  of  the 
stock  to  undertake  the  work.  We  have  already  alluded  to  the 
fact  that  our  cultivated  plants  will  not  make  a  healthy  growth 
in  standing  water.  If  much  water  stands  upon  the  surface  of 
the  land  the  plants  will  die.  If  there  are  a  few  inches  of 
stagnant  water  under  the  surface,  resting  upon  an  impervious 


416  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

subsoil,  the  roots  will  go  to  this  water-line  and  stop.  The 
plants  will  present  a  yellow  and  sickly  appearance,  and  will 
yield  either  a  light  harvest  or  none  at  all.  But  if  the  land  is 
drained,  the  plants  will  make  a  strong  and  vigorous  growth,  the 
soil  will  be  so  open  that  the  rains  will  carry  down  the  soluble 
elements  of  plant-food  to  the  roots,  leaving  the  land  moist 
without  flooding  it,  and  the  crops  will  be  comparativc'y  free 
from  the  diseases  which  are  likely  to  attack  plants  which  grow 
in  wet  localities. 

Draining  also  prevents  the  winter-killing  which  often  proves 
so  injurious  to  wheat  and  rye.  When  the  subsoil  is  impervious, 
the  autumn  rains  make  the  surface  soil  very  wet.  In  the  winter 
the  water  in  this  soil  freezes  and  thaws,  causing  the  land  to 
"  heave,"  and  breaking  and  uncovering  the  roots  of  the  grain. 
If  this  process  is  often  repeated  it  proves  very  destructive. 
Many  a  field  of  wheat  which  looked  finely  in  the  fall  has  been 
utterly  ruined  by  this  cause.  If  the  water  is  not  allowed  to 
accumulate,  as  it  will  not  be  on  well-drained  land,  there  will  be 
but  very  little  trouble  from  this  source.  The  grain  will  not  only 
look  nicely  in  the  fall,  but  will  go  through  the  winter  without 
injury,  and  be  ready  to  grow  rapidly  in  the  spring.  Since 
draining  has  become  general  in  England,  the  average  wheat 
yield  has  more  than  doubled.  This  increase  has  not  been  so 
much  in  the  direction  of  excessively  large  crops,  as  it  has  in  the 
line  of  making  it  more  certain  that  a  crop  shall  be  produced. 
Failures,  which  before  were  quite  common,  are  now  very  rare, 
and  almo.st  all  the  land  devoted  to  the  production  of  this  crop 
adds  something  to  the  amount  of  grain  which  is  actually  grown. 
If  every  acre  devoted  to  wheat  in  this  country  could  be  made  to 
produce  merely  a  medium  yield,  the  total  amount  grown  would 
be  immensely  increased.  For  there  are  now  thousands  of  acres 
which  produce  only  a  very  little,  which  count  in  the  report  of 
acres,  but  produce  so  few  bushels  of  wheat  as  to  make  scarcely 
an    addition   to   the  figures    representing  the    quantity   grown 


DRAINING.  /^Yl 

In  this  way  the  average  production  is  brought  very  low. 
Thorough  draining  would  make  most  of  these  fields  productive, 
and  thus  largely  increase  the  yield  of  grain,  and  the  profits  of 
growing  it. 

Another  effect  of  thorough  draining  is  to  greatly  increase  the 
eflficacy  of  the  fertilizers  which  are  applied  to  the  land.  This 
end  is  accomplished  in  various  ways.  The  drained  soil  absorbs 
the  fertilizing  elements  which  the  water  contains  or  which  may 
have  been  washed  from  manures.  But  in  the  undrained  soil 
much  of  this  fertilizing  material  is  lost.  Water  flows  from  the 
land,  and,  being  so  completely  saturated,  the  soil  cannot  absorb 
anything  from  it.  It  is  supposed  that  plants  receive  their  food 
in  a  state  of  solution — dissolved  in  water.  If  this  is  the  case  it 
is  easy  to  see  why  an  excess  of  moisture  is  detrimental  to  crops. 
Their  food  is  so  diluted  that  they  can  obtain  but  a  very  little. 
A  plant  can  take  only  a  certain  quantity.  If  the  food  which 
should  be  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  water  is  spread  through  a  quart, 
twice  the  time  which  ought  to  be  sufficient  will  be  required  for 
the  plant  to  obtain  its  supply  A  calf  that  was  obliged  to  drink 
a  barrel  of  water  to  obtain  a  pail  of  milk  which  had  been  stirred 
therein  would  grow  very  slowly.  Every  one  knows  better  than 
to  feed  a  calf  in  this  way.  But  when  the  farmer  attempts  to 
grow  his  crops  in  a  wet,  undrained  soil,  he  tries  to  feed  his  plants 
upon  the  same  principle.  It  is  plain  that  no  great  success  can 
attend  such  efforts. 

In  very  dry  seasons,  manures  which  are  used  upon  undrained 
lands  are  not  as  efficient  as  they  are  upon  drained  soils  of  the 
same  nature.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  former  are  very 
compact  and  do  not  allow  the  small  quantity  of  rain  which  falls 
to  pass  freely  through  them,  while  the  latter  are  mellow  and 
porous  and  allow  the  rain  to  wash  down  the  elements  of  fertility 
to  the  roots  of  the  plants.  In  a  wet  season,  manures  applied  to 
wet  land  do  not  prove  of  much  benefit  because  the  presence  of 
an  excess  of  water  prevents  the  decomposition  without  which 


418  FARMING   FOR    PROFIT. 

manure  cannot  be  made  available  for  the  use  of  crops.  The  fact 
that  there  is  much  less  waste  of  feitilizing  elements  from  a  well- 
drained  soil  than  from  one  which  is  full  of  water  also  accounts 
for  the  increased  permanence  in  the  effect  of  manures  which  has 
so  often  been  observed. 

The  cost  of  draining  will  vary  greatly  with  the  character  of 
the  soil,  the  kind  of  drains,  the  depth  at  which  they  are  placed, 
the  cost  of  labor,  expense  of  materials,  and  various  other  items 
which  in  different  sections  command  different  prices.  We  have 
already  indicated  our  preference  for  tile  drains.  We  consider 
them  altogether  the  best,  and  believe  that  in  those  sections 
where  land  is  valuable  most  farmers  who  can  afford  to  drain 
their  land  at  all  can  afford  to  use  tiles,  and  that,  when  per- 
manence and  efficiency  are  considered,  they  will  find  tiles  much 
cheaper  than  either  stone  or  wood.  But  where  land  is  too 
cheap,  or  the  owner  cannot  afford  tiles,  let  him  use  the  best 
material  which  he  can  secure.  Even  brush  drains  are  a  great 
deal  better  than  none.  The  same  may  be  said  of  turf  drains 
and  open  ditches.  Because  a  farmer  cannot  have  the  best  is  no 
reason  why  he  should  do  without  drains.  If  he  cannot  afford 
tiles,  let  him  commence  draining  in  an  inexpensive  manner,  and 
the  profits  of  his  business  may  soon  increase  so  that  he  can  use 
better  materials. 

The  subject  is  one  in  which  farmers  throughout  the  country 
are  deeply  interested.  To  those  of  the  South  it  may  be  said  to 
have  a  special  importance.  Prof.  Pendleton  has  called  atten- 
tion to  the  fact  that  much  of  the  hilly  land  in  some  of  the  best 
farming  sections  has  become  impoverished  by  a  bad  system  of 
culture,  and  by  continual  washings  away  of  the  soil  and  manure 
which  have  been  swept  into  the  valleys  which  are  now  too  wet  to 
be  serviceable.  He  says  that  many  valuable  bottoms  have  been 
lost  to  cultivation,  and  malarial  fevers  have  become  much  more 
prevalent  than  they  formerly  were.  These  lands,  if  well  under- 
drained,  would  become  the  most  profitable  of  any  in  the  SoUTH. 


THE    WATER  SUPPLY.  419 

"  The  uplands  need  an  annual  outlay  of  money  for  manures, 
more  than  the  ditching  would  cost."  When  once  done  as  it 
should  be,  the  underdraining  will  last  an  age,  and  the  land  will 
long  be  productive  without  requiring  an  excessive  outlay  for 
fertilizers.  Here  seems  to  be  an  opportunity  to  make  a  per- 
manent improvement  and  still  save  money  by  the  operation.  If 
part  of  the  money  now  paid  for  fertilizers  to  be  used  on  the 
uplands  were  to  be  invested  in  draining  the  lowlands,  which  are 
already  rich,  they  would  immediately  become  more  productive 
than  the  other  fields,  larger  crops  would  be  obtained  at  a 
reduced  cost,  and  the  cash  value  of  the  farms  would  be  'greatly 
increased. 

Unlike  some  permanent  improvements  draining  makes  an  im- 
mediate return.  Upon  heavy  clay  soils  the  best  effects  will  not 
be  observed  until  the  second  year,  but  much  benefit  will  be 
obtained  the  first  season.  When  once  thoroughly  done,  if  the 
land  is  valuable,  draining  pays  a  large  percentage  upon  the  cost 
of  its  performance.  This  work  is  not  done  merely  for  the  pres- 
ent, but  also  for  the  future.  It  makes  returns  immediately  and 
will  continue  to  make  them  every  season  for  an  indefinite  time. 
In  many  cases  the  draining  of  his  wet  land -will  be  one  of  the 
safest  and  best  paying  improvements  which  the  owner  can  make 
on  his  farm. 


THE  irmTEH  SIJFFX.^'F, 

OTH  the  comfort  and  the  health  of  the  farmer  and  his 
family,  and  the  thrift  of  his  domestic  animals,  will  de- 
s(5)  penc,  in  no  small  degree,  upon  the  quantity  and  quality 
^  of  the  water  which  is  furnished  on  the  farm.  To  be 
without  an  adequate  supply  of  water,  even  for  a  short  time,  at 
any  season  of  the  year,  causes  a  great  deal  of  suffering"  and 
involves  losses  and  injuries  of  various  kinds.  When  the  quan- 
tity is  abundant  but  the  quality  is  poor,  the  evil  is  greatly 
27 


420  FARAfING   FOR   PROFIT. 

increased.  The  danger  is  constant,  and  though  the  results  of 
exposure  are  not  always  at  once  apparent,  they  are  pretty  cer- 
tain to  become  manifested  sooner  or  later  and  to  bring  a  great 
deal  of  sufiering  in  their  train.  For  while  it  is  impossible  to 
live  without  water,  and  very  unpleasant  to  be  obliged  to  get 
along  with  an  insufficient  quantity,  it  is  absolutely  dangerous  to 
use  water  which  is  very  impure.  Too  many  farmers  regard  the 
water  supply  as  merely  a  convenience.  They  are  glad  if  they 
have  good  water,  and  sorry  if  they  have  poor,  but  they  do  not 
appreciate  the  one  nor  realize  the  danger  involved  in  the  use  of 
the  other.  Probably  nine  out  of  ten  farmers  who  have  only  a 
poor  quality  of  water  on  their  farms  regard  it  as  merely  an 
inconvenience,  and  think  of  a  supply  of  good  water  as  they  do 
of  a  silver-plated  harness — a  good  thing  to  have,  but  one  which 
the  average  farmer  can  get  along  well  enough  without.  The 
idea  that  it  would  pay,  not  merely  in  convenience  and  comfort, 
but  in  dollars  and  cents,  to  make  an  effort  to  obtain  good  water, 
has  never  entered  their  minds.  They  will  probably  be  inclined 
to  doubt  our  assertion  that  it  will  pay — an  assertion  which  we 
do  not  hesitate  to  make — until  they  have  given  the  matter  a 
little  careful  thought.  Then  they  will  be  thoroughly  convinced 
that  it  is  just  as  important  to  invest  money,  if  need  be,  to 
secure  good  water,  as  it  is  to  be  at  great  expense  to  obtain 
houses  and  barns. 

The  sources  of  supply  of  water  for  the  farm  are  but  few  in 
number,  and  upon  most  farms  but  one  or  two  are  in  practical 
operation.  A  verj^  few  farms  are  so  situated  as  to  have  running 
water  at  the  house  and  barn,  or  at  either  one  of  these  buildings. 
When  this  water  flows  from  a  good  spring,  through  a  good  con- 
ductor, and  care  is  taken  to  divert  the  waste  from  the  buildings, 
all  the  advantages  of  a  water  supply  may  be  secured  and  its 
dangers  can  be  almost  wholly  avoided.  When  the  spring  is 
impure,  the  water  must  be  bad.  When  it  is  taken  from  a  small, 
stagnant,  dirty  frog-pond,  the  water    becomes   an  element  of 


THE   WATER   SUPPLY.  421 

danger.  Water  flowing  through  a  lead  pipe,  even  though  the 
water  at  the  spring  riiay  be  first-rate,  often  brings  poison  into 
the  house  and  undermines  the  health  of  the  inmates.  This  is 
especially  true  of  water  which  acts  strongly  upon  lead,  and  of 
those  cases  in  which  the  water  runs  quite  a  distance  and  with 
considerable  rapidity.  Not  only  are  the  inmates  of  the  "farm- 
house poisoned  by  water  which  has  become  impregnated  with 
lead  by  flowing  through  a  pipe  of  that  material,  but  the  cattle 
often  sustain  severe  injury  from  the  same  cause.  Many  cases 
have  been  observed  in  which  cattle  failed  to  do  well,  and  the  cause 
was  traced  to  the  use  of  water  passing  through  lead  pipe.  That 
water  flowing  through  lead  pipes  is  dangerous  to  the  health  of 
both  man  and  beast  there  is  an  abundance  of  medical  and  chem- 
ical evidence  which  we  have  not  space  to  present,  but  which 
ought  to  be  sufficient  to  prevent  the  use  of  this  material  for  con- 
veying water  which  is  to  be  used  for  drinking  purposes.  Careful 
observation  of  the  health  of  families  and  animals  using  water 
which  flows  in  lead  pipes  should  be  a  means  of  inducing  others 
to  let  such  water  alone.  The  slow  but  certain  accumulation 
of  poison  in  the  system  must  work  the  greatest  injury  to  the 
health. 

We  should  never  favor  the  use  of  lead  for  conducting  water 
which  is  to  be  drank  by  man  or  beast.  Wood  is  not  as  con- 
venient or  as  durable,  but  is  usually  cheaper  than  lead,  and  has 
the  immense  advantage  of  being  safe.  Iron  is  often  used,  and 
generally  gives  satisfaction.  Other  materials  are  sometimes 
employed.  But  for  ordinary  farm-use  we  prefer  wooden  pipes, 
made  of  good  material,  and  carefully  laid. 

The  advantages  of  good  running  water  to  the  house  and  barn 
are  much  greater  than  are  generally  supposed — but  water  should 
never  be  taken  from  a  poor  spring  to  be  used  about  the  buildings. 
The  farmer  who  has  a  never-failing  spring  of  good  water 
conveniently  located  has  a  treasure  which  is  worth  far  more  than 
it  is  usually  estimated  by  owners  or  their  neighbors.     Such  a 


422  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

spring  should  be  utilized,  and,  if  possible,  the  water  should 
b'e  made  to  flow  to  both  house  and  bam.  If  the  spring  is 
situated  higher  than  the  buildings,  this  can  easily  be  done,  for 
the  water  will  be  ready  enough  to  flow  down  hill.  If  the 
buildings  are  on  higher  land  than  the  spring,  the  water  can 
be  forced  up  by  a  hydraulic  ram.  This,  unless  the  distance 
is  great,  will  not  involve  a  very  great  expense.  The  water 
may  first  flow  to  a  tank,  or  reser\oir,  in  the  house  from  which 
the  waste-pipe  leads  directly  to  a  tank  at  the  barn.  If  the  barn 
is  on  higher  land  than  the  house,  the  water  can  come  part  way 
from  the  spring  in  one  pipe ;  but  at  some  point  higher  than  the 
tank  at  either  building  another  should  be  added  so  that  there 
will  be  a  separate  pipe  at  each  tank.  If  the  supply  of  water  is 
small,  a  reservoir  may  be  needed  at  this  point ;  but  if  there  is 
plenty  of  water,  this  will  not  be  necessary. 

Wherever  water  is  taken  from  a  spring,  a  great  deal  of  care 
should  be  used  to  keep  it  as  clean  and  pure  as  possible.  A  fine 
grate  should  be  placed  over  the  end  of  the  pipe,  the  water 
should  flow  into  a  small  box  or  tank  close  by,  from  which  the 
pipes  to  the  building  should  proceed,  and  a  strong,  tight  fence 
should  be  built  around  the  spring  to  keep  cattle  and  other 
animals  from  getting  to  it  The  spring  should  be  frequently 
examined,  and  constantly  kept  in  a  wholesome  condition. 
When  there  is  no  spring  of  this  description  upon  the  farm,  but 
there  is  one  near  by  which  can  be  bought  for  a  reasonable 
price,  \i  ir.ay  be  wise  to  make  the  purchase.  It  will  certainly 
pay  if  the  home  supply  of  water  is  of  poor  qualit)''  or  deficient  in 
quantity.  In  buying  such  property  care  should  be  taken  to 
secure  a  perfect  title,  and  a  good  lawyer  should  be  employed  to 
write  the  deed.  This  course  may  save  a  vast  amount  of  trouble, 
and  some  bitter  quarrels  in  the  future.  As  the  advantages  of 
having  good,  pure,  running  water  constantly  at  the  house  and 
bam  are  very  great^  the  man  who  is  buying  a  spring  which  will 
answer  all  his  requirements  should  be  willing  to  pay  a  fair  price 


THE    WATER   SUPPLY.  ^.y^ 

for  its  possession.  The  farmer  who  has  such  a  spring  on  his 
own  land  is  very  fortunate.  He  has  one  of  the  finest  sources  of 
supply  in  all  the  world,  and  ought  to  use  and  be  thankful  for 
the  same. 

Another  source  of  supply— one  upon  which  but  comparatively 
iQsv  farmers  depend— is  the  rain-water  which  falls  upon'the  roofs 
of  their  buildings,  and  is  collected  in  a  cistern  for  use  as  it  may 
be  required.     When  properly  filtered  this  water  is  pure  enough 
for  all  practical  purposes,  but  it  is  not  usually  as  pleasant  for 
drinking  as  good  spring  water.     Being  "soft  "  it  is  excellent  for 
washing  and  for  various  hous.ehold  purposes— very  much  better 
than  "  hard  "  water  from  wells  or  springs.     With  this  water  the 
labor  of  washing  is  very  much  reduced,  and  not  nearly  as  much 
soap  is  required  as  is  needed  when  "  hard  "  water  is  used.     On 
this  account,  and  also  because  it  is  much  better  than  it  is  to 
have  the  water  running  into  the  cellar  or  around  the  buildings, 
it  is  well  for  farmers  who  do  not  have  from  other  sources  good 
water  for  washing,  to  provide  cisterns  in  which  the  rain-water 
can  be  preserved  until  it  is  wanted  for  use.     Such  a  cistern  may 
be  made  of  brick,  of  any  size  or  shape  desired,  and  should  be 
cemented    on   the    bottom    and    sides.      The   bottom   can   be 
covered    with,    and   the  walls    made    of,    small   stones,  but   we 
should  much  prefer  to  use  brick.     A  circular  form  seems  to  us 
the  most  desirable.     The  size  which  will  be  needed  will  depend 
upon  the  amount  of  surface  of  the  roof  upon  which  the  rain  is 
to  fall,  and  upon  the  regularity  with  which  the  water  is   used. 
If  a  cistern  is  used  merely  to  supply  water  when  the  wells  have 
failed  from  drought,  it  must  be  much  larger  than  will  be  wanted 
for  common  use.     If  it  is  only  used  to  furnish  water  for  washing- 
days,  it  will  not  be  necessary  to  have  as  large  a  one  as  would  be 
wanted  if  it  were  to  hold  water  for  all  household  purposes  and 
also  a  supply  tor  the  cattle. 

For  each  ten  inches  in  depth  a  circular  cistern  five  and  one- 
half  feet  in  diameter  Will   hold  a  little   more  than  one   hundred 


424  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

and  forty-eight  and  one-half  gallons.     Mr.  Waring  gives  the 
average  amount  of  rain  in  the  Northern  States  at  about  three 
feet  per  year,  equal  to  three  inches  per  month,  and  says  that 
"  every  inch  in  depth  that  falls  upon  a  roof  yields  two  barrels 
for  each  ten   feet  square,  and  seventy-two  barrels  a  year  are 
yielded  by  three  feet  of  rain."     With  this  rain-fall  a  barn  thirty 
by  forty  feet  will  supply  an  average  of  more  than  two  barrels  of 
water  per  day  during  the  entire  year.     Mr.  Waring  gives  the 
size  of  a  circular  cistern  adapted  to  such  a  roof  as  the  above  as 
thirteen  feet  in  diameter  and  eight  and  one-third  feet  deep,  pro- 
vided it  is  used  to  furnish  a  daily  supply  of  water.     This  would 
hold  what  water  would  fall  in  the  two  wettest  months  of  any 
ordinary  year.     When  the  cistern  is  designed  to  hold  water  to 
be  used  in  time  of  drought,  it  should  be  made  to  contain  about 
three  times  as  much  as  one  of  the  size  given  above.     It  seems 
to  us  that  this  size  is  much  larger  than  will  be  needed  by  any 
ordinary  family — certainly  larger  than   will   be   wanted   if  the 
family  use  considerable  well,  or  sprmg,  water — but  the  cost  of 
making  one  of  the  above  dimensions  will   not  be  very  much 
greater  than  that  of  one  holding  only  half  as  much,  and  it  is 
better  to  have  one  larger  than  is  needed  than  it  is  not  to  have  it 
large  enough.     When  the  water  from  the  cistern  is  to  be  used 
for  cooking  and  drinking  it  should  be  filtered.     It  is  better  for 
any  purpose  to  have  it  purified  in  this  manner.     A  very  simple 
and   very   perfect    filter   is   thus    described    by    Mr.    Waring: 
"  Divide  the  cistern  into  two  equal  compartments  by  a  wall  of 
brick  or  stone,  open  at  the  bottom  to  the  height  of  about  six 
inches,  and  water-tight  thence  to  the  top.     Let  one  compart- 
ment be  for  receiving  the  water,  and  the  other  for  containing  it 
when  filtered  and  ready  for  use.     Put  alternate  layers,  six  inches 
deep,  of  gravel,  sand,  and  pounded   charcoal  at  the  bottom  of 
the   former,  and  sand  and   gravel  at  the  bottom  of  the  latter. 
The  former  will  receive  the  water  from  the  pipe,  and  it  will  rise 
filtered  in  the  latter."     The  pipe  from  the  roof  should  enter  one 


THE    WATER  SUPPLY.  425 

of  these  compartments  and  the  pipe  from  the  pump  the  other. 
The  cistern  should  be  arched  over  with  brick,  and  a  sohd, 
closely-fitting  trap-door  should  be  provided  at  the  top  large 
enough  to  allow  a  man  to  enter  when  it  is  necessary  to  clean 
the  interior.  This  door  should  be  kept  closed.  An  uncovered 
cistern  is  an  abominable  nuisance,  dangerous  to  man  and  beast, 
and  a  perfect  death-trap  for  children.  If  something  cheaper 
than  the  cistern  described  above  is  wanted,  a  square  one  can  be 
dug,  walled,  and  cemented,  and  a  flat  plank  cover  closely  fitted 
over  the  top.  A  really  good  one  need  not  be  very  expensive 
and  will  more  than  pay  for  its  cost  every  season.  If  a  cheap 
one  is  well  made  it  will  prove  very  useful  and  give  good  satis- 
faction. We  hope  these  strength  and  labor-saving  conveniences 
will  become  much  more  common  than  they  have  been  as  yet  in 
all  the  "  hard  "  water  districts  of  the  country. 

Another,  and  the  principal  source  of  supply,  is  to  be  found  in 
the  ordinary  well.  By  far  the  larger  part  of  the  farmers  in  this 
country  are  unable  to  obtain  running  water,  very  many  are 
unable  and  many  more  make  no  effort  to  save  the  rain-water 
which  falls  so  abundantly,  and  so  it  comes  to  pass  that  nearly 
all  rely  upon  wells  for  supplying  water.  These,  if  properly 
made  and  fed  by  living  springs,  answer  the  purpose  for  which 
they  were  designed.  But  when  badly  made,  or  when  the  springs 
are  intermittent,  they  often  fail.  They  fail,  too,  at  just  those 
times  when  they  are  most  needed.  When  there  is  water  enough 
everywhere  else  these  wells  yield  an  abundant  supply.  But  let 
a  dry  time  come,  so  that  the  wells  are  really  needed,  and  they 
will  very  soon  fail.  It  is  a  very  common  fault  with  wells  that 
they  are  not  sunk  deep  enough.  It  is  considerable  work  to  dig 
a  well,  and  the  farmer  does  not  want  to  do  any  more  of  it  than 
is  necessary.  For  this  he  cannot  be  blamed,  but  he  should 
remember  that  while  digging  a  well  is  the  time  in  which  all  the 
work  should  be  done.  It  is  not  nearly  as  expensive  going  to  a 
great  depth  then  as  it  is  after  the  well  has  been  tried  and  found 


42G  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

too  shallow.  Wc  have  known  some  cases  in  which  wells  have 
been  lowered  after  haviny;  been  in  use  for  years.  It  is  better  to 
sink  them  deeper  if  they  fail  in  dry  seasons  than  to  try  to  get 
along  with  them  as  they  arc,  but  it  is  far  the  best  way  to  make 
them  right  at  first.  A  very  dry  time  should  be  selected  in  which 
to  dig  a  well.  When  the  ground  is  full  of  water  the  labor  of 
digging  is  greatly  increased,  and  there  is  but  little  hope  of  secur- 
ing a  good  well.  If  weak  springs  are  struck  they  should  be  dis- 
regarded and  the  well  sunk  to  where  a  strong  and  constant  flow 
of  water  can  be  obtained.  Another  very  common  fault  with 
wells  is  that  they  are  made  too  small.  It  is  less  work  to  dig  a 
small  well  than  it  is  a  large  one,  but  it  is  not  nearly  as  good 
after  it  is  dug.  A  small  well  is  difficult  to  clean  when  it  needs 
such  an  operation,  and  it  will  not  hold  nearly  as  much  water  as 
a  large  one.  Very  few  farmers  are  aware  of  the  difterence  in 
the  capacity  of  large  and  small  wells.  A  well  three  and  a  half 
feet  in  diameter  will  hold  fifty-nine  and  nine  hundred  and  eighty 
one-thousandths  gallons  of  water  for  every  ten  inches  in  depth, 
while  a  well  six  feet  in  diameter  will  hold  one  hundred  and 
seventy-six  and  two  hundred  and  fifty-three  one-thousandths  gal- 
lons for  the  same  depth.  Most  wells  fill  up  considerably  in 
spring  and  fall,  but  by  constant  use  the  water  is  gradually  with- 
drawn until  it  gets  very  low,  or  is  entirely  exhausted.  If  the 
wells  were  larger  they  would  hold  enough  to  furnish  a  constant 
supply.  Besides,  it  is  very  much  easier  drawing  the  water  when 
it  is  near  the  top  than  it  is  to  get  it  from  a  depth  of  twenty  or 
thirty  feet.  Large  wells,  sunk  deep  enough  to  gain  one  or  more 
strong  and  living  springs,  are  very  desirable,  and  should  be 
found  on  every  farm  which  is  not  amply  provided  with  water 
from  one  or  both  of  the  other  sources  which  have  been  con- 
sidered. As  a  general  rule,  there  should  be  one  well  for  the 
house  and  another  for  the  barn.  A  well  should  never  be  located 
in,  or  close  to,  a  cellar,  nor  in  a  low  spot  of  ground  which 
receives  the  drainage  from  the  surface  of  the  surrounding  land. 


THE    WATER   SUPPLY.  427 

No  sink  drain,  or  any  other  drain,  should  be  allowed  to  pass 
near  a  well,  and  closets  and  vaults  should  be  placed  at  such  a 
distance  as  to  make  it  utterly  impossible  for  the  wells  to  be 
affected  by  their  drainage.  These  vaults  slioidd  be  cemented, 
but  many  of  them  are  not,  and  their  contents  soak  into  the  sur- 
rounding soil.  Upon  some  farms  the  well  at  which  water  for 
the  house  is  obtained  is  situated  on  much  lower  land  than  the 
barn-yard.  The  latter  is  often  very  wet,  and  water  runs  from  it 
into  the  well.  Such  cases  are  altogether  too  common.  Some- 
times the  well  and  cellar  are  connected  by  a  system  of  natural 
drainage. 

One  of  our  neighbors  who  had  an  undrained  cellar  and  a  well, 
from  which  the  drinking  water  was  obtained,  close  by,  found 
that  in  a  wet  time  the  water  would  flow  from  the  well  into  the 
cellar,  and  when  by  constant  use  the  quantity  in  the  well  was 
diminished  so  that  it  reached  a  lower  point  than  the  bottom  of 
the  cellar,  there  would  be  a  current  from  the  cellar  into  the  well. 
There  are  many,  other  ways  in  which  the  water  in  farm-wells 
becomes  contaminated.  Organic  matter  in  large  quantities  is 
washed  into  the  wells,  and  slowly  decays.  By  the  presence  of 
this  matter  the  water  is  poisoned,  and  becomes  a  source  of 
disease  to  those  who  use  it.  Poisonous  matters  are  carried  in 
this  way  a  much  greater  distance  than  people  generally  suppose. 
And  the  poison  maybe  so  subtle  fhat  the  water  looks  and  tastes 
as  well  as  ever,  although  it  holds  in  solution  elements  which  are 
dangerous  to  the  health  of  those  who  drink  it.  The  greatest 
care  should  be  taken  to  keep  the  water,  both  for  the  house  and 
barn,  perfectly  pure.  The  water  in  wells  is  sometimes  contam- 
inated by  having  a  lead  pipe  constantly  in  the  water,  the  pump 
in  the  house,  and  the  top  of  the  well  closely  covered  from  the 
air.  In  this  way  there  is  no  method  by  which  the  air  in  the 
well  can  be  changed,  or  the  water  stirred.  We  have  already 
alluded  to  the  bad  effects  resulting  from  the  use  of  lead  pipes  to 
conduct   water    from    springs.      When    the   pipe    is   placed    in 


428  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

standing  water,  and  is  kept  constantly  full,  the  danger  from 
poison  must  be  very  great.  We  would  never  allow  a  lead  pipe 
in  a  well  from  which  we  used  the  water.  Wood  or  iron  is  much 
to  be  preferred.  When  the  pump  is  in  the  kitchen,  as  it  always 
should  be,  wooden  pipes,  though  not  as  convenient,  can  be  used 
without  a  great  deal  of  trouble  or  expense.  The  old-fashioned 
bucket  and  sweep  is  a  slow  and  hard  method  of  drawing  water. 

The  common  suction-pump  is  easier  and  better.  The 
"  chain  "  pump  has  the  great  advantage  of  stirring  the  water 
and  ventilating  the  well,  but  it  wears  out  too  soon.  An 
improvement,  consisting  of  the  use  of  rubber  instead  of  metal 
buckets  on  an  endless  chain,  has  lately  been  patented.  We 
have  seen  only  one  of  these  pumps  in  operation.  It  worked 
well,  and  we  see  no  reason  why  it  will  not  be  durable,  and 
answer  all  the  purposes  for  which  a  pump  on  the  farm  is  desired. 
Wells  should  never  be  left  uncovered  unless  high  and  strong 
curbs  are  erected  around  them.  Even  when  there  is  no  pump  it 
is  better  that  there  should  be  a  curb  than  to  have  the  well 
covered  with  planks.  The  latter  will  decay,  and  may  break 
under  the  weight  of  a  man,  or  even  a  child.  Animals  are  also 
in  danger  of  falling  into  these  neglected  wells.  Heavy,  flat 
stones  are  better  than  planks,  but  a  good  curb  is  to  be 
preferred. 

The  only  remaining  source  of  supply  which  is  in  anything 
like  common  use,  and  the  use  of  which,  though  not  general,  is 
altogether  too  common,  is  found  in  ponds  and  brooks  which  are 
located  upon,  or  flow  through  the  farms  to  which  they  furnish 
water.  As  an  almost  invariable  rule  the  former  arc  among  the 
most  miserable  of  all  sources  froTi  which  water  is  obtained. 
The  ordinary  pond  is  full  of  water  in  a  wet  time,  and  nearly  dry 
in  a  time  of  drought.  This  water  is  heavily  loaded  with 
organic  matter,  and  in  hot  weather,  when  a  large  proportion  of 
what  the  pond  has  contained  has  been  evaporated  and  what  is 
left  is  strongly  concentrated,  it  is  fit  for  neither  man  nor  beast 


THE    WATER   SUPPLY.  429 

The  pond  which  the  poet  describes,  full  of  clear  water,  with 
grassy  bank,  and  clean,  pebbly  bed,  is  not  the  kind  of  pond 
which  is  usually  found  on  the  farm.  The  genuine  pond  is  a 
dirty,  muddy  hole,  partly  full  of  stagnant  water,  which  is 
chiefly  useful  in  furnishing  a  breeding-place  for  mosquitoes  and 
a  home  for  frogs.  The  brooks  furnish  a  far  better  quality  of 
water  than  ponds,  but  they  are  usually  so  located  as  to  be 
practically  unavailable.  Besides,  as  the  water  is  liable  to  be 
contaminated  in  various  ways,  this  source  is  not  sufficiently 
pure  to  render  it  safe  for  family  use.  It  ought  to  be  too  far 
away  to  admit  of  profitable  use,  even  if  it  were  desired,  for  no 
house  should  be  built  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  a  brook. 
The  habit  of  turning  cattle  into  the  fields  in  winter  to  get  water 
from  the  brooks  has  involved  loss  enough  to  the  farmers  who 
have  practised  it  for  any  length  of  time  to  have  enabled  them 
to  have  dug  splendid  wells,  and  furnished  them  with  the  best 
pumps  in  the  market.  When  cattle  are  driven  out  in  this  way 
they  will  not  drink  as  often  as  they  ought  to  ;  they  will  drink  too 
much  at  a  time,  and  be  badly  chilled  in  consequence ;  they  will 
be  liable  to  accidents  from  slipping  on  the  ice  or  down  the 
banks;  their  health  will  be  injured,  they  will  not  thrive,  and 
there  will  be  a  great  and  inevitable  waste  of  manure.  No 
farmer,  however  poor,  can  afford  to  follow  such  a  wasteful 
practice.  He  had  better  dig  a  well  or  else  give  up  keeping 
stock.  A  clean  and  never-failing  brook  in  a  summer  pasture 
will  do  nicely,  but  even  this  is  not  suitable  for  family  use  or  for 
a  winter  supply  for  cattle.  And  these  clean  brooks  are  not  very 
common.  Consequently  but  comparatively  few  farmers  can 
have  the  advantages  of  them  even  in  summer.  The  majority 
should  rely  upon  wells.  These  should  be  provided  in  pastures, 
as  a  constant  supply  of  pure  water  cannot  be  otherwise 
obtained.'  Where  much  stock  is  kept,  a  wind-mill,  with  an 
automatic  arrangement  for  regulating  the  quantity  of  water  to 
be  pumped  at  any  given  time,  should  be  provided. 


430  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

In  small  pastures  which  are  near  the  house  the  pumping  may 
be  done  by  hand.  In  some  localities  the  "  driven  well,"  which 
is  now  being  introduced  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  may  be 
used  to  good  advantage.  It  will  furnish  a  plentiful  supply  of 
water  and  its  cost  is  very  small.  But  it  is  not  wise  to  place  too 
much  dependence  upon  wells  of  this  kind.  They  often  prove 
entire  failures.  Several  have  been  put  down  in  this  neighbor- 
hood. So  far  as  we  know,  not  one  of  them  is  strictly  first-class, 
while  most  of  them  are  useless.  In  some  places  they  do  better, 
and  where  they  do  succeed  they  furnish  water  at  a  low  cost. 
But  in  arranging  for  one  of  these  wells  the  farmer  should 
insist  upon  having  a  good  supply  of  water,  or  else  having  the 
well  free  of  expense.  In  this  vicinity  the  agents  are  ready  to 
take  the  risk.  They  ought  to  everywhere.  For  the  farmer  can 
hire  a  well  dug  which  will  be  sure  to  furnish  water.  If  he  is  to 
pay  anything  for  a  driven  well  he  should  have  the  same  cer- 
tainty. We  think  these  wells  are  better  adapted  for  use  in 
pastures  during  the  warm  weather  than  they  are  for  constant 
use  at  a  house  or  barn. 

This  subject  of  a  water  supply  on  the  farm  is  one  of  very 
great  importance.  It  has  a  direct  bearing  upon  the  health  and 
happiness  of  man  and  beast,  and  exerts  a  powerful  influence 
upon  the  financial  standing  of  the  farmer.  If  any  of  our  readers 
think  we  have  dwelt  too  much  upon  the  convenience  of 
having  a  supply  of  good  water,  and  have  not  paid  enough 
attention  to  the  profit  which  it  will  add  to  the  business  of  the 
farmer,  let  them  remember  that  in  the  convenience  and  comfort 
of  which  we  have  spoken  a  high  degree  of  financial  success  is 
comprehended.  But  it  may  be  well  to  put  the  matter  a  little 
more  strongly  in  the  light  of  dollars  and  cents.  Take  a  couple 
of  illustrations.  On  one  farm  there  is  one  good  v/ell  at  a  house, 
another  at  the  barn,  and  a  clear  brook,  or  else  a  good  well  in 
the  summer  pastures.  The  inmates  of  the  house  enjoy  good 
health,  the  cattle  arc  thrifty,  and  the  farming  pays.     On  another 


HOME    PRODUCTION.  431 

farm  the  sink-drain  passes  near  the  well  from  which  water  is 
taken  for  household  purposes,  the  barn-yard  and  the  vault  are 
on  higher  land  and  are  altogether  too  near  this  well,  the  well  at 
the  barn  is  an  uncertain  source  of  supply,  is  dry  part  of  the  time, 
and  receives  part  of  the  leachings  of  the  yard  when  it  is  wet, 
while  in  the  pasture  the  cattle  are  obliged  to  get  water  from  a 
stagnant  pond.  The  farmer  and  his  family  are  afflicted  with 
various  forms  of  disease  which  obstinately  resist  medical  treat- 
ment, though  they  involve  a  great  expense  for  doctor's  visits  and 
medicines.  The  cattle  which  are  kept  here  do  not  thrive,  the 
young  stock  is  poor  and  grows  very  slowly,  cows  lose  their 
calves,  milk  taints  easily,  the  butter  made  from  it  is  poor,  much 
of  the  manure  is  wasted  while  the  cattle  are  running  around 
after  water,  and  so  the  land  grows  poor,  the  crops  are  light,  and 
the  farming  does  not  prove  a  paying  business.  Such  are  some 
of  the  items  of  difference  caused  by  a  good  or  a  poor  supply 
of  water  on  the  farm.  In  the  light  of  these,  and  of  similar 
things  which  might  be  mentioned  if  time  and  space  would 
permit,  every  farmer  must  see  that  his  financial  interests  are  at 
stake,  and  that  it  will  make  a  great  difference  with  the  results 
of  his  work  whether  he  has  plenty  of  pure  water  on  his  farm  or 
attempts  to  get  along  with  water  which  it  is  neither  safe  nor 
pleasant  for  men  or  animals  to  use.  The  cost  of  furnishing  good 
water  on  a  farm  will  be  very  soon  saved  in  cash,  and  the  comfort 
which  it  brings  will  be  free  from  all  expense. 


*  *is^&^  » 


^^1  N    home    production    we    have    one    of    the    foundation 
)\       principles    of   successful    farming.       By   accepting    its 
guidance  many  a  man  who  was  not  only  ignorant  of 
science  in  its  application  to  agriculture,  but  who  also 
Worked  at  an  immense  disadvantage  on  account  of  his  want  of 


432  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

skill  in  managing  his  aflfairs,  has  been  enabled  to  win  a  very  fair 
degree  of  success,  while  many  other  men,  of  good  education  and 
superior  ability,  have  neglected  this  point  while  attending  to 
many  others  and  have  not  been  able  to  succeed. 

There  are  theories  which  have  been  very  nicely  elaborated 
and  which  prove,  as  far  as  theories  can,  that  an  enlightened  and 
strictly  first-class  style  of  farming  demands  the  cultivation  of 
only  a  few  kinds  of  crops  by  the  individual  farmer.  We  have 
been  very  often  told  that  scientific  farming  requires  ^a  man  to 
find  what  crops  his  land  is  the  best  fitted  to  produce,  and  then 
devote  himself  with  all  possible  zeal  to  the  growth  of  those  par- 
ticular products,  A  great  many  farmers  have  been  carried  away 
with  the  idea,  and  are  now  growing  their  "  specialties"  with  very 
indifferent  success.  The  theory  which  looked  so  plausible  on 
paper  docs  not  give  as  good  practical  results  as  were  both  ex- 
pected and  desired.  There  are  certain  places  where  it  works  very 
well,  and  if  there  were  a  good  market  for  everything  at  every 
man's  door  there  would  be  no  difficulty  in  its  general  acceptance. 
But  such  markets  do  not  exist  and  cannot  be  made.  We  are 
obliged  to  take  things  as  they  are,  without  regard  to  what  they 
ought  to  be,  or  to  what  they  might  be  under  different  circum- 
stances. Wisdom  requires  us  to  deal  with  facts  to  a  much 
greater  extent  than  we  do  with  theories.  Of  all  the  facts  which 
have  a  direct  bearing  upon  the  business  of  the  farmer,  few  are 
more  clearly  set  forth  by  the  experience  of  the  past  than  that, 
as  a  rule  applicable  to  all  sections,  home  production  of  articles 
needed  for  home  consumption  is  the  surest  way  in  which  to  win 
success.  Where  one  man  has  succeeded  in  the  cultivation  of 
special  crops,  probably  ten  men  have  been  successful  in  following 
a  course  of  mixed  husbandr)^  The  latter  run  much  less  risk 
and  average  much  higher  profits  than  the  former.  In  times  of 
general  business  depression  the  man  who  produces  a  large 
proportion  of  his  own  household  necessities  has  an  immense 
advantage  over  his  neighbor  who  grows  but  a  few  crops  and  is 


HOME   PRODUCTION.  433 

obliged  to  buy  nearly  everything  which  is  used  In  his  family. 
•  At  such  times  the  difference  between  the  results  obtained  by 
these  methods  appears  greater  than  it  does  when  all  kinds  of 
business  are  good,  but  at  all  times  the  man  who  is  obliged  to 
buy  but  little,  even  though  he  has  but  little  to  sell,  is  the  one 
who  is  on  the  direct  road  to  success. 

This  principle  of  home  production  is  the  only  one  upon  which 
farmers  can  act  with  the  assurance  of  becoming  really  indepen- 
dent.    We  read  and  hear  a  great  deal  about  the  privations  of 
the  pioneer  settlers,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  they  are  obliged 
to  give  up  many  things  which  would  make  them  more  comfort- 
able and  happy.     At  the  same  time  there  is  abundant  proof  that 
these  settlers,  who  have  to  fight  their  way  with  nature,  who  have 
but  few  tools  and  but  little  to  do  with  though  they  have  many 
obstacles  to   overcome,   are  very  likely  to  succeed  in  securino- 
homes  and  obtaining  property.    There  is  no  secret  \p.  the  way  in 
which   they  secure  their  desired  ends.     They  work  hard,  it  is 
true,  but  this  can  also  be  said  of  most  of  the  farmers  in  the 
older  settled  portions  of  the  country.    They  are  economical,  and 
so  are  a  multitude  of.  farmers  who  do  not  get  along  in  the  world. 
The  main   difference    between    the  pioneer   and  the  man  who 
has  always  lived  in  a  thickly  settled  region  is  to  be  found  in  the 
fact  that  the  former  grows  upon  his  own  land  almost  ever>'.thing 
which  himself  or  his  family  consumes,  while  the  latter  is  constantly 
buying  of  others  things  which  he  needs,  and  which  he  ought  to, 
but  does  not,  grow  for  himself     It  is  true  that  the  man  living  in 
a  community  is  obliged  to  incur  some  expenses  which  the  pio- 
neer does  not  have  to  meet.     He  cannot,  and  he  ought  not  to 
try  to  live  just  as  the  pioneer  does.     With  the  progress  of  civil- 
ization the  expenses  of  living  will,  for  a  while,  increase.     But 
with  these  extra  expenses  come  many  compensations  of  both  a 
moral  and  a  pecuniary  nature,  and  every  one  should  rejoice  in 
the  progress  which  has  been  made.     Viewed  in  a  moral  light 
it  is  of  immense  importance,  both  to  the  individual  and  the 


434  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

community,  that  the  benefits  of  churches,  and  schools,  and  post' 
offices,  should  be  extended  to  all  the  people  in  our  land. 

From  a  pecuniar}'-  standpoint  we  find  that  though  the  neces- 
sary expenses  of  livinjr  are  somewhat  increased,  the  opportunities 
for  accumulation  are  also  enlarged,  and  that  the  same  principles 
which  were  followed  in  the  wilderness  will  lead  to,  at  least,  an 
equal  degree  of  success  on  the  farm  in  the  vicinity  of  a  village 
or  town.  The  farmer  who  lives  in  a  civilized  community  needs 
money  for  more  purposes  than  the  pioneer,  but  as  he  has  many 
more  ways  of  obtaining  it,  this  can  hardly  be  consjdered  a  dis- 
advantage. He  will  be  obliged  to  modify  the  details  somewhat, 
but  the  same  general  principles  should  be  allowed  to  govern  his 
course.  If  it  is  objected  that  the  difference  in  circumstances 
and  surroundings  between  the  pioneer  and  the  farmer  in  a  thickly 
settled  community  is  so  great  that  no  legitimate  comparison  can 
be  instituted,  we  not  only  reply  that  the  objection  does  not  seem 
to  be  well  founded,  but  also  that  plenty  of  examples  can  be 
found  in  the  older  communities  which  prove,  beyond  all  chance 
of  cavil  or  doubt,  that  home  production  is  the  key  to  success  on 
the  l:\rm. 

If  he  will  only  look  around  him,  probably  every  farmer  will 
find  examples  of  the  success  which  has  been  secured  by  adopt- 
ing this  principle.  There  are  men  in  almost  every  hamlet  who 
have  year  after  year  been  striving  to  supply  their  wants  from 
their  own  farms.  They  are,  as  a  general  rule,  very  quiet  men. 
They  do  not  attend  conventions  and  their  voices  are  not  heard 
in  public  meetings  in  which  the  problems  of  the  farm  are  dis- 
cussed. Their  silence  has  been  the  means  of  causing  their 
work  to  remain  almost  unnoticed.  They  do  not  carry  on  an 
immense  business.  Other  men  seem  to  be  doing  a  great  deal 
more  than  they.  But  when  it  comes  to  the  profit,  which  is  the 
end  in  view,  they  are  far  in  advance  of  their  more  prominent 
neighbors.  There  are  no  mortgages  upon  their  farms  and  they 
have  no  large  outstanding  bills.     They  are  not  obliged  to  buy 


HOME   rRODUCTION:  435 

largely  on  the  credit  of  a  crop  yet  to  be  grown,  and  they  are 
never  left  at  the  mercy  of  dealers  in  a  certain  kind  of  grain  or 
compelled  to  risk  everything  upon  the  success  or  failure  of  a 
single  crop. 

We  are  well  aware  that  those  who  are  opposed  to  this  view 
present  some  very  plausible  arguments  against  it,  but  we  also 
know  how  the  two  theories  work  in  practical  experience,  and  we 
are  strongly  inclined  to  favor  that  which  gives  good  results 
in  practice  in  preference  to  a  plan  which  is  ably  supported  by 
arguments  but  which  breaks  down  under  a  practical  test.  Dur- 
ing the  past  fifteen  years  we  have  seen  the  workings  of  the 
specialty  system  on  rn  extensive  scale.  We  expected  a  partial 
failure,  but  the  results  were  far  more  disastrous  than  we  antici- 
pated. In  one  of  the  finest  farming  sections  of  this  broad  land 
the  specialty  system,  in  connection  with  evils  which  naturally 
follow  in  its  course,  has  brought  hundreds  of  men,  who  under 
the  old  system  of  culture  were  doing  well,  into  circumstances 
of  financial  embarrassment,  while  many  have  been  sold  out  of 
house  and  home  by  the  sheriff. 

Twenty  years  ago  the  farmers  in  the  Connecticut  Valley  were 
doing  a  small  but  a  reasonably  profitable  business.  They  cul- 
tivated a  variety  of  crops,  produced  on  their  own  farms  a  large 
part  of  their  household  necessities,  and  had  no  debts  which  they 
could  not  pay.-  But  in  an  evil  hour  some  venturesome  spirits 
found  that  tobacco  would  pay  a  large  profit.  The  price  advanced 
rapidly,  the  demand  increased,  and  a  multitude  of  farmers  who 
had  been  in  the  habit  of  growing  corn,  potatoes  and  hay,  turned 
their  attention  to  the  culture  of  this  crop.  Like  the  tulip  mania 
which  in  olden  time  well-nigh  ruined  the  staid  old  inhabitants  of 
Holland,  this  tobacco  mania  seemed  to  fairly  possess  the  souls 
of  men  who  had  been  regarded  as  wise  counsellors  and  worthy 
examples.  Young  men  thought  they  saw  the  way  to  fortune 
very  clearly  marked  out,  and  bought  land  for  the  culture  and 

put  up  buildings  for  the  curiag  of  tobacco,  going  into  debt  for. 
28 


436  FARMING  FOR   FRO  FIT. 

both  land  and  buildings  "^ith  a  recklessness  almost  sublime. 
Land  rapidly  advanced  in  price.  In  some  sections  land  which 
was  barely  worth  one  hundred  dollars  was  sold  for  five  hundred 
dollars  per  acre.  Men  seemed  to  think  that  by  making  a  spe- 
cialty of  tobacco  they  could  afford  to  pay  almost  any  price  for 
land. 

Not  only  did  they  buy  land  at  fearfully  inflated  prices,  but 
they  bought  almost  everything  else.  They  had  but  little 
money,  and  soon  were  deeply  in  debt ;  but  by  growing  tobacco 
they  expected  to  make  money  enough  to  pay  for  everything 
which  they  wanted  to  buy.  Those  were  golden  days  for 
dealers  in  sewing  machines,  parlor  organs  and  pianos.  Sales 
could  be  easily  effected  at  prices  which  were  highly  satisfactory 
to  the  agents  and  their  employers. 

The  idea  also  became  firmly  fixed  in  a  great  many  minds  that 
the  tobacco-grower  could  buy  all  the  ordinary  farm-products 
cheaper  than  he  could  grow  them.  Many  a  farmer,  who  in 
former  times  had  made  money  in  growing  corn  for  half  what 
was  then  its  selling  price,  was  convinced  that  it  would  not  pay 
.him  to  grow  corn,  for  he  could  buy  it  for  less  than  the  actual 
•  cost  of  cultivation.  The  same  reasoning  was  applied  to  almost 
all  of  the  other  old-fashioned  crops.  As  the  inevitable  result 
of  such  a  course,  farmers  not  only  had  nothing  but  tobacco  to 
sell,  but,  far  worse  than  this,  they  were  constantly  obliged  to 
buy  things  which  they  had  formerly  grown  at  home.  After  a 
few  years,  the  farms  began-  to  show  an  unmistakable  decline. 
The  few  acres  which  had  been  devoted  to  tobacco,  and  to  which 
large  quantities  of  fertilizers  had  been  applied,  were  in  fine  con- 
dition, but  all  the  rest  of  the  farm  had  been  robbed  in  order  to 
make  the  tobacco  fields  rich  enough  to  produce  a  good  crop. 

Still  farmers  seemed  to  have  implicit  faith  in  .the  future  of 
tobacco,  and  though  their  debts  remained  unpaid,  and  their  bills 
at  the  village  store  were  daily  increasing  in  amount,  they  were 
not  alarmed     Once  a  year  they  sold  their  tobacco.     For  a  few 


HOME   PRODUCTION.  437 

days  they  had  considerable  money.  But  when  the  store  bills 
were  settled,  and  the  interest  on  their  borrowed  money  was 
paid,  they  were,  in  a  financial  point  of  view,  pretty  well  reduced. 
In  a  short  time  the  old  credit  system  was  again  adopted.  They 
bought  freely,  promising  to  pay  when  they  sold  their  tobacco. 
Large  quantities  of  fertilizers  were  bought  to  be  paid  for  when  the 
crop  to  which  they  were  applied  was  ripe  and  sold.  Sound  busi- 
ness principles  seemed  to  be  forgotten  by  buyer  and  seller  alike. 
All  parties  who  were  engaged  in  the  business  failed  to  see  that 
tobacco-growing  not  only  possessed  all  the  weakness  which  is 
inherent  in  the  one  crop  system,  but  certain  elements  of  danger 
not  necessariljf  connected  with  the  growing  of  a  specialty.  But 
in  time  their  eyes  were  opened.  When  it  was  too  late  their 
mistake  became  evident. 

Tobacco  proved  to  be  a  very  uncertain  crop.  In  good 
seasons,  when  the  land  was  of  a  suitable  nature  and  was  well 
prepared,  there  was  no  great  difficulty  in  securing  a  good  yield. 
But  some  seasons  were  not  favorable,  and  the  crop  did  not  do 
well.  One  summer  an  untimely  hail-storm  utterly  destroyed 
the  whole  crop  for  many  farmers  who  had  made  it  their  chief 
reliance  for  the  support  of  their  families  for  a  year.  Some 
seasons  drought  seriously  injured  it;  at  other  times  the  tobacco- 
worm  was  terribly  destructive ;  and  when  these  evils  were 
avoided  or  overcome,  others  seemed  to  be  ready  to  carry  on  the 
ruinous  work. 

Then,  too,  when  the  growth  of  the  crop  was  all  that  could  be 
desired,  the  curing  process  was  not  always  safely  accomplished. 
In  some  cases,  after  the  cost  of  growing  and  harvesting  had 
been  sustained,  a  defect  in  the  curing  almost  ruined  the  product. 
After  a  while  a  time  came  when  the  demand  for  tobacco  ceased. 
Unlike  corn,  or  wheat,  or  many  other  crops  which  are  some- 
times grown  as  specialties,  this  product  could  not  be  consumed 
at  home.  For  all  practical  purposes  it  was  wholly  worthless. 
Until  it  would    sell  it  wa«    good    for    nothing.     Prices  rapidly 


438  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

went  down,  and  the  dream  of  the  tobacco-grower  came  to  an 
end.  Many  farmers  found  debts  pressing  heavily  upon  them 
with  no  means  of  payment.  "Hard  times"  came  on,  and 
property  depreciated  rapidly  in  value  until  it  came  to  a  point 
>vhcre  prices  were  merely  nominal.  Some  of  those  who  had 
done  the  largest  business  and  been  considered  wealthy  men 
went  through  bankruptcy,  and  paid  but  a  few  cents  on  a  dollar. 
Others  compromised  with  their  creditors,  while  some  sanguine 
men  attempted  to  pull  through.  Like  the  growth  of  Jonah's 
gourd,  the  prosperity  of  this  industr)'  was  sudden  and  brilliant ; 
while  like  the  decay  of  that  vine,  whose  history  will  be 
immortal,  its  failure  was  sudden,  unexpected  and*  complete.  It 
was  a  terrible  revelation,  but  it  came  with  all  the  force  of 
solemn  truth. 

Perhaps  some  reader  will  be  inclined  to  assert  that  all  this 
loss  and  evil  was  due  to  the  peculiar  times  and  the  extra- 
ordinary circumstances  by  which  these  men  were  surrounded 
rather  than  to  their  devotion  to  a  special  line  of  farming.  But 
this  suggestion  is  shown  to  be  wholly  at  fault  by  the  fact  that 
scattered  through  the  various  towns  in  which  this  tobacco 
mania  raged,  were  many  farmers  who  did  not  deviate  from  their 
old  style  of  managing  business,  and  who  have  gone  straight 
through  these  troublous  times  without  financial  embarrassment, 
whose  work  has  paid  them  well,  and  who  are  now  regarded  as 
successful  farmers  by  men  who  a  few  years  ago  thought  them 
"  old  fogies,"  and  were  sure  that  they  were  lacking  in  enterprise 
as  well  as  in  judgment.  The  test  has  been  very  severe,  and  the 
lesson  is  well  worth  remembering.  Let  no  one  think  that  fancy 
has  heightened  the  colors  of  this  sketch  of  the  tobacco  interest. 
We  have  lived  in  the  midst  of  the  excitement,  and  have  seen 
the  results.  We  know  whereof  we  do  affirm,  when  we  assert 
that  the  making  of  tobacco  a  specialty  was  a  ruinous  experi- 
ment. Yet  many  things  were  favorable  for  its  cultivation.  A 
, very,  .fine  quality  of  leaf  was  secured,  and  when  tobacco  was  in 


HOME  PRODUCTION.  439 

demand  this  grade  sold  for  a  high  price.  Probably  some 
tobacco  might  have  been  grown  without  involving  pecuniary- 
loss.  Merely  from  a  financial  standpoint  it  might  have  paid 
well.  The  trouble  was  chiefly  caused  by  making  its  produc- 
tion a  specialty.  And  trouble  of  like  nature,  though  of  less 
extent,  will  be  liable  to  come  to  farmers  who  engage  in  any 
specialty  to  the  exclusion  of  all  othsr  productions. 

The  idea,  advocated  by  the  specialist,  that  the  man  who  gives 
his  whole  time  and  attention  to  the  production  of  a  single  crop 
can  grow  that  crop  to  better  advantage  than  he  could  if  he  gave 
it  only  part  of  his  time  and  attention,  is  undoubtedly  correct. 
The  weak  place  in  the  argument  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that 
when  this  crop  is  grown  the  owner  has  only  one  product  on 
hand  while  he  needs  many.  For  him  to  obtain  these  products  is 
not  merely  a  matter  of  convenience,  it  is  a  case  of  necessity. 
Then,  too,  the  specialists  have  an  idea  that  certain  crops  can  be 
bought  cheaper  than  they  can  be  raised,  and  they  bring  this 
reasoning  to  bear  upon  almost  every  crop  which  the  farmer  can 
grow.  They  seem  to  think  that  they  can  prove  by  figures  that 
each  and  every  farm-crop  costs  more  to  produce  than  it  sells  for 
in  market.  That  this  is  false  reasoning  is  abundantly  proved  by 
the  fact  that  the  average  farmer  supports  a  family  and  pays 
taxes  without  running  into  debt. 

If  the  theory  of  the  specialists  were  true,  the  harder  they 
worked  the  more  money  the  farmers  who  grow  the  ordinary 
crops  would  lose.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  hear  farmers  in  the 
older  States  assert  that  it  costs  a  dollar  a  bushel  to  grow  Indian 
corn  while  it  can  be  bought  for  sixty-five  cents,  and  to  reason 
from  this  that  a  farmer  had  better  not  try  to  grow  this  crop. 
That  there  is  a  mistake  in  their  figures  is  proved  by  the  fact  that 
our  most  successful  farmers  are  corn-growers.  If  any  other 
crop  is  taken  as  an  example,  men  will  be  found  in  every  farming 
community  who  will  assert  that  its  selling  price  is  far  below  its 
real  cost.     It  is  generally  impossible  to  convince  these  men  by 


440  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

taking  a  single  crop  for  an  example,  but  even  they  can  see  that 
the  farmer  cannot  buy  everything  which  he  uses.  Unless  he  cul- 
tivates some  crop  which  he  can  either  sell  or  use  he  will  speedily 
find  his  way  to  the  poor-house.  As  a  general  rule,  the  nearer 
he  can  come  to  supplying  his  own  wants  the  more  successful 
tlie  farmer  will  be. 

We  think  there  is  a  very  strong  tendency  in  all  parts  of  the 
country  to  abandon  all  exclusive  specialties  and  adopt  a  system 
of  diversified  farming,  and  we  are  glad  to  note  that  many  of  the 
leading  agricultural  journals 'strongly  favor  this  change.  In 
some  sections  it  is  becoming  almost  a  necessity  for  the  farmer 
to  increase  the  number  and  variety  of  his  crops.  The  specialties 
which  have  long  been  almost  exclusively  grown  have  nearly 
exhausted  the  soil  of  the  particular  elements  of  which  they  are 
composed,  and  the  crops  which  are  now  secured  are  small  and 
rapidly  becoming  unprofitable.  A  system  of  rotation  of  crops 
will  give  a  great  deal  of  aid  in  restoring  the  fertility  of  the  land 
and  increasing  the  quantit>'  of  its  productions. 

Not  only  does  home  production  secure  a  fair  reward  for  his 
labor,  but  it  also  insures  to  the  farmer  a  good  degree  of  inde- 
pendence. This  is  an  important  clement  and  must  never  be 
omitted  from  the  account  when  the  profits  of  various  methods 
of  farming  are  under  consideration.  The  farmer  who  is  doing  a 
large  business  in  one  direction  and  attempting  nothing  else  is 
not  as  independent  as  the  one  who  does  much  less  but  grows 
many  different  crops.  At  first  glance  it  may  seem  as  if  this 
division  of  his  energies  would  be  a  ruinous  thing,  but  closer 
inspection  will  prove  it  to  be  very  beneficial. 

In  order  that  our  meaning  may  be  clear  we  will  suppose  two 
cases.  The  first  is  that  of  a  farmer  who  makes  wheat-growing 
a  specialty.  As  far  as  farming  is  concerned,  his  whole  attention 
is  devoted  to  the  production  of  this  one  crop.  He  strives*  to 
grow  it  as  cheaply  as  possible,  and  bends  all  his  energies  to  the 
accomplishment  of  this  one  aim.     He  is  an  intelligent  man  and 


HOME  PRODUCTION.  .^^j 

is  reasonably  successful  in  his  endeavor.  He  grows  a  large 
quantity  of  good  wheat  and  has  no  difficulty  in  selling  it  when 
there  is  a  call  for  this  kind  of  grain.  Occasionally,  when  the 
prices  are  very  low,  he  holds  on  for  an  advance.  As  a  general 
rule  this  does  not  prove  a  good  method,  and  he  usually  sells  for 
the  market  rates.  In  order  to  grow  as  large  a  quantity  as  he 
desires  he  is  obliged  to  keep  several  horses  and  a  few  hired 
men.  Both  the  horses  and  the  men  must  be  fed,  but  neither  of 
them  can  subsist  on  wheat  alone.  Meal  must  be  bought  for  the 
team  and  many  articles  for  the  men.  Even  hay  is  purchased  by 
some  farmers  who  are  engaged  in  growing  specialties. 

While  the  income  from  the  sale   of   the  large  lot  of  wheat 
is  considerable,   it    is    secured    at  a  great   disadvantage.      The 
soil,  as  already  shown,  will  either  be  rapidly  exhausted  of  some 
of  the  most  valuable  mineral  elements  of  plant-food  or  else  these 
elements  must  be  furnished  by  the  owner  at  a  great  and  con- 
stant expense.     It  makes  a  great  difference  with  the  profit  of  a 
crop  whether  the  manure  which  is  needed  for  its  growth  can  be 
obtained  from  the  farm,  without  any  direct  expense,  or  must  be 
purchased  at  high  prices  and  paid  for  in  cash.     If  a  man  is 
obliged  to  pay  several  hundred  dollars  every  year  for  fertilizers 
it  will  not  only  reduce  the  profits  of  his  business,  but,  in  a  few 
years,  this  money  with  the  accumulated  interest  will  amount  to 
a  large  sum.     In  order  to  return  this  money  with  interest,  and 
over  and  above  these  items  pay  for  the  labor  which  is  performed, 
interest  and  taxes  on  the  land  and  other  capital   invested,  and 
keep  this  capital  unimpaired  besides  paying  the  other  and  inevit- 
able costs  of  production,  the  wheat  crop  must   return  a  very 
large  sum.      After  deducting  these  items  many  wheat-growers 
would  have  but  little,  if  any  money  left. 

But  v,h:n  this  crop  is  made  the  only  reliance,  the  farmer  and 
his  family  must  be  supported  from  its  proceeds.  It  should 
return  enough  not  only  to  pay  all  the  expenses  of  its  production 
but  also  to  keep  the  family  in  comfort  for  at  least  a  year.     This 


442  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

is  not  all.  On  a  farm  managed  in  this  mannef  the  labor  is  per- 
formed at  a  great  disadvantage.  Much  of  the  time  both  men 
and  teams  arc  comparatively  idle.  There  is  nothing  which  can 
be  done  for  the  wheat,  and  there  is  nothing  else  to  do  anything 
for.  But  the  pay  of  the  men  and  the  expense  of  keeping  the 
teams  go  on  without  reduction. 

When  time  for  work  comes  the  labor  is  very  hard  and  exact- 
ing, but  it  must  receive  prompt  attention  or  else  great  loss  will 
result.  This  way  of  working  is  not  as  conducive  to  health  as 
the  slower  and  steadier  methods  of  toil  which  are  followed  where 
many  different  crops  are  grown. 

Again,  in  selling  the  wheat  crop  and  buying  family  supplies 
there  is  quite  a  percentage  of  loss  which  it  is  usually  impos- 
sible to  avoid.  This  will  appear  when  we  reflect  that  the 
wheat  which  the  farmer  disposes  of  to  the  dealer  is  sold  for 
the  lowest  wholesale  rates.  Every  man  through  whose  hands  it 
passes  charges  a  profit  thereon,  and  by  the  time  it  reaches 
the  consumer  the  price  is  much  higher  than  the  farmer  was  able 
to  obtain. 

The  same  principle  governs  the  sale  of  all  other  products. 
Consequently,  while  the  farmer  sells  his  wheat  at  the  very  lowest 
market  quotations,  when  he  comes  to  buy  the  products  of  other 
farms  he  becomes  a  consumer  and  is  obliged  to  go  to  the  other 
end  of  the  scale  and  pay  the  high  retail  rates.  Had  he  pro- 
duced these  things  himself,  he  could  have  had  them  all  at  whole- 
sale prices,  but  in  preferring  to  grow  wheat  with  which  to  pay 
for  them  he  loses  the  difference  between  these  two  extremes. 
This  is  a  matter  of  no  small  importance.  It  costs  a  great  deal  to 
support  a  family  when  the  purchases  of  supplies  are  all  econom- 
ically made  and  the  average  farmer  has  no  money  to  waste  or 
to  lose  in  unprofitable  exchanges.  With  the  present  styles  of 
living  and  dressing  there  will  be  a  necessity  for  as  much  buy- 
ing as  the  farmer  ought  to  do  if  he  produces  all  that  he  can  at 
home. 


HOME   PRODUCTION.  443 

Let  us  now  consider  the  method  adopted  by  the  farmer  who 
beHeves  in  home  production.  He  does  not  devote  his  whole 
attention  to  the  culture  of  any  particular  crop,  but  endeavors  to 
grow  many  kinds  and  grow  them  well.  He  desires  to  obtain  a 
good  grass  crop,  at  a  cost  not  exceeding"  its  real  value.  To 
secure  this  he  keeps  a  good  stock  of  cattle  to  which  the  hay  is 
fed.  The  manure  from  these  cattle  is  applied  to  the  various 
cultivated  crops,  and  much  of  it  remains  to  enrich  the  soil  and 
produce  grass  after  the  crops  to  which  it  was  originally  applied 
have  been  removed.  Good  wheat  is  succeeded  by  good  grass 
which  remains  productive  for  several  years.  As  milk  and  butter 
are  wanted  for  family  use,  a  few  good  cows  are  kept  to  furnish  a 
supply.  Corn  is  grown  for  the  purpose  of  feeding  the  hogs  and 
for  fattening  the  beef  which  is  needed  in  the  family.  Oats  are 
frequently  wanted  for  horses  and  young  stock,  and  are  produced 
on  the  farm.  Either  wheat  or  xy&,  and  in  many  cases  both,  find 
a  place  in  sufficient  quantity  to  furnish  the  family  with  bread. 
Roots  and  vegetables  are  also  grown  in  abundance,  and  poultry 
is  kept  to  furnish  eggs  and  meat.  In  short,  almost  every  vege- 
table and  animal  production  which  the  farmer  needs  and  can 
grow  is  given  a  place  on  his  farm.  This  adds  considerably  to 
his  work,  it  is  true,  but  it  also  greatly  reduces  the  household 
expenses.  The  farm,  as  a  whole,  is  kept  in  much  better  con- 
dition and  at  a  much  less  expense  than  is  usually  done  under 
the  one  crop  system,  and  much  of  the  extra  work  which  is 
required  is  done  at  those  times  in  which  both  men  and  teams 
would  otherwise  be  unemployed. 

By  this  system  many  of  the  wants  of  the  farmer  and  his  family 
are  not  only  supplied,  but  there  is  often  a  surplus  of  the  various 
products  which  can  be  exchanged  for  articles  which  cannot  be 
produced  on  the  farm.  Eggs  can  be  exchanged  for  tea  and 
coffee,  and  butter  can  be  made  to  pay  for  many  of  the  little 
things  which  the  grocer  must  furnish.  Poultry  can  be  exchanged 
for  other  meat,  if  desired,  and  vegetables  are  often  given  in  pay- 


444  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

ment  for  other  classes  of  goods.  Thus,  instead  of  being  obliged 
to.  sell  all  that  he  grows  and  pay  cash  for  all  that  he  buys,  the 
farmer  can  exchange  many  of  his  products  for  things  that  he 
needs.  Of  course,  these  products  cost  him  something,  but  they 
do  not,  at  least  do  not  need  to,  cost  him  as  much  as  he  receives 
for  them.  Thus  there  is  a  direct  profit  on  the  articles  which  he 
exchanges  as  well  as  a  saving  in  furnishing  these  things  instead 
of  money.  Take  the  hens  for  an  illustration. — It  costs  some- 
thing to  keep  them,  but  if  they  are  properly  rtianaged  this  cost  is 
considerably  below  their  selling  price.  Then,  too,  the  hens  pick 
up  a  great  deal  of  material  which  they  can  utilize,  yet  which  but 
for  them  would  be  wholly  wasted.  The  production  of  sugar  on 
the  farm  is  another  good  illustration  of  the  profits  of  home 
growing  of  all  the  household  necessities  that  the  farm  can  supply. 
If  the  farmer  attempts  nothing  of  this  kind  he  is  obliged  to  pay 
quite  a  sum  every  year,  often  several  dollars  every  month,  for 
sugar  and  molasses.  But  if  he  has  a  maple  orchard,  or,  where 
this  is  impossible,  grows  sorgo  or  the  sugar  cane,  he  can  obtain 
nearly  all  of  these  materials  which  he  will  need  for  a  very  small 
outlay  in  money.  Some  labor  will  be  required,  but  it  will  be 
labor  which  is  well  rewarded.  If  either  sugar  cane  or  sorgo  is 
grown  and  the  business  of  the  farmer  is  not  large  enough  to 
warrant  the  purchase  of  a  mill,  there  can  generally  be  found 
neighbors  enough  to  club  together  and  buy  one  to  be  used  in 
common,  or  else  some  one  in  the  vicinity  already  possessing  a 
mill  will  work  up  the  cane  for  a  share  of  the  product.  In  either 
of  these  ways,  one  of  which  will  be  found  feasible  in  all  sections 
where  either  the  Sugar  (Ribbon)  Cane  or  Sorgo  can  be  grown, 
the  home  production  of  sugar  can  be  made  very  profitable, 
while  the  manufacture  of  sugar  and  syrup  from  the  sap  of  the 
Maple  tree  requires  so  small  an  investment  that  any  farmer  who 
has  a  good  sugar  orchard  can  easily  obtain  the  icw  and  simple 
implements  which  he  will  need  for  making  it  productive. 

Other  illustrations  might  be  given,  but  enough  has  been   said 


HOME   PRODVCTION.  445 

to  show  the  far  greater  degree  of  independence  of  the  farmer 
who  attempts  to  supply  his  household  wants,  than  can  be  enjoyed 
by  the  one  who  makes  a  specialty  of  a  single  crop  and  gives  all 
his  time  and  skill  to  its  production.  But  this  chapter  ought  not 
to  close  without  calling  attention  to  the  great  risk  which  the 
specialist  is  constantly  obliged  to  run.  If  his  hopes  are  all  cen- 
tred upon  the  wheat  crop,  and  all  of  his  income  as  well  as  all 
the  material  for  supplying  his  household  necessities  must  come 
from  this  one  product,  and  for  any  reason  wheat  proves  a  failure 
his  loss  is  very  heavy.  We  all  know  that  wheat  sometimes  fails 
to  produce  a  paying  crop  and  that  other  grains  are  subject  to 
similar  risks.  From  this  we  should  infer  that  farmers  would 
much  rather  grow  several  crops  than  to  stake  everything  upon 
a  single  one. 

If  a  man  grows  wheat,  and  corn,  and  oats,  and  potatoes,  there 
is  no  probability  that  the  season  will  be  so  unfavorable  as  to. 
destroy  all  of  these  crops.  The  wheat  may  be  injured,  and  the 
other  crojis  saved.  Or  one  or  two  of  the  other  crops  may 
suffer,  and  the  remaining  ones  still  do  well.  This  matter  of 
comparative  safety  is  a  very  important  one  to  all  farmers  of 
limited  means.  A  wealthy  farmer  does  not  like  to  lose  all  the 
crops  of  a  whole  season,  but  he  will  not  be  wholly  ruined  by 
such  a  loss.  The  poor  man,  however,  who  has  all  that  he  can 
well  do  to  keep  along  when  things  go  reasonably  well,  cannot 
afford  to  take  any  extra  risks.  With  him  safety  and  certainty 
should  be  the  principal  conditions  and  recommendations  to  be 
required  in  the  selection  of  his  crops.  The  man  who  follows 
this  course  will  not  handle  as  much  money  as  the  specialist  will 
obtain  in  favorable  seasons,  but  he  will  have  much  more  comfort 
and  less  anxiety,  and  will  be  very  likely  to  find  more  real  profit 
when  he  balances  his  books  for  the  year,  than  the  man  who  has 
grown  only  one  crop  can  show.  For  it  is  not,  by  any  means,  the 
amount  of  money  which  men  receive  which  makes  them  rich, 
but   the   amount  which    they  are   able   to   save,   and   a   small 


446  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

business  which  is  properly  managed,  and  in  conducting  which 
but  i^w  expenses  are  involved,  will  often  pay  much  better  than 
a  large  one  in  which  the  expenditures  are  both  large  and 
constant.  The  old  proverb,  "  a  penny  saved  is  a  penny  earned," 
has  a  great  deal  of  truth  in  a  very  small  compass.  If  by 
growing  an  acre  of  wheat  the  farmer  can  save  the  payment  of 
twenty  dollars  for  flour  which  his  family  needs,  he  has  really 
secured  as  much  as  though  he  had  earned  that  amount  of 
money,  and  then  exchanged  it  for  flour.  This  principle  has  a 
wide  range  of  application,  and  should  always  be  remembered 
by  the  man  who  desires  to  be  a  successful  farmer. 

Not  only  does  the  general  principle  of  home  production 
seem  to  be  a  safe  and  desirable  one  for  the  farmer  to  follow, 
but  the  tendencies  of  the  present  time,  and  the  condition  of 
the  soil  in  large  sections  of  the  country',  both  point  to  its 
adoption  as  far  preferable  to  any  other  plan  of  cultivation  which 
has  yet  been  tested.  It  is  not  as  easy  to  obtain  money  now  as 
it  was  a  few  years  ago,  but  the  great  necessities  of  food  and 
clothing  are  in  just  as  good  demand,  and  are  just  as  truly 
required  as  they  ever  were.  That  they  always  will  be  needed  is 
evident,  and  it  also  seems  clear  that  the  man  who  labors  to 
supply  them,  as  far  as  possible  directly  from  his  own  farm,  is 
taking  the  wisest  course  which  he  can  pursue.  The  worn  out 
tobacco-lands  of  Virgini.\,  the  exhausted  cotton-fields  of  several 
of  the  Southern  St.\tes,  the  rapidly  decreasing  yield  of  the 
great  wheat-fields  of  the  West,  and  the  exhausted  rye-fields  of 
New  England,  all  seem  to  demand  a  system  of  diversified 
farming  which  shall  check  this  ruinous  exhaustion  of  the 
soil,  and  at  the  same  time  secure  to  the  husbandman  a  higher 
reward  for  his  labor,  and  a  greater  certainty  of  success  in  his 
business  than  the  present  methods  enable  him  to  obtain. 


O  VER-  PR  on  UCTIOIsr.  447 


HIS  is  one  of  the  great  evils  with  which  the  farmers  of  the 

%ll        present  day  are  often  obHged  to  contend.     It  is  an  evil 

^5j^*     which  it  is  somewhat  difficult  to  modify,  and  still  more 

■'\£'  difficult  to  remove.  Owing  to  their  great  numbers,  the 
want,  if  not  the  impossibility,  of  close  organization,  the  wide 
differences  in  the  soil  and  climate,  and  the  constant  fluctuations 
in  the  demands  of  both  the  local  and  the  foreign  markets, 
together  with  the  fact  that  they  are  scattered  over  a  vast  area, 
the  farmers  are,  more  than  any  other  class,  exposed  to  losses 
from  over-production. 

In  order  to  modify,  and  if  possible  prevent,  the  evils  re- 
sulting from  over-production,  a  wise  selection  of  crops  should 
be  made.  The  farmer  must  decide  for  himself  which  crops  shall 
be  grown,  and  the  quantities  in  which  they  shall  be  produced. 
But  his  judgment  should  be  based  upon  sound  and  extensive 
knowledge.  He  should  take  the  papers  which  give  accurate 
market  reports,  and  should  carefully  study  the  figures  which 
they  present.  He  ought  to  be  informed  concerning  the  crop 
prospects,  and  in  regard  to  any  extensive  changes  which  may 
be  going  on  in  different  sections  of  the  country.  But  he  should 
not  often  change  his  crops  in  hope  of  securing  those  which  sell 
for  the  highest  rates. 

There  are  many  farmers  continually  changing  crops  in  order 
to  obtain  high  prices.  This  would  be  bad,  even  if  the  desired 
rates  were  secured.  But  it  generally  happens  that  those  who 
rush  after  the  spoils  are  a  little  too  late.  They  increase  the 
supply  to  such  a  degree  that  the  price  goes  extremely  low. 
Meanwhile  some  other  crop,  the  culture  of  which  has  been 
abandoned  by  many  farmers  for  that  of  the  one  which  was 
selling  high,  becomes  scarce,  the  price  rises,  and  another  change 
is  made.  Then  there  are  a  few  years  in  which  the  crop  which 
the  changing  ones  left  sells  well,  while  the  one  which  they  have 


448  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

selected  follows  the  course  of  all  such  crops  when  the  supply 
largely  exceeds  the  demand,  and  the  price  runs  down  below  a 
paying  figure.  In  this  way  some  farmers  are  constantly  going 
the  rounds,  always  a  little  too  late  to  get  the  highest  prices,  and 
holding  on  long  enough  to  sell  for  the  very  lowest  ones.  This 
is  a  ruinous  course.  The  farmer  has  to  sell  his  crops  for  less 
than  they  are  worth.  The  constant  changing  prevents  the 
following  of  any  suitable  system  of  rotation,  and  the  cost  of 
production  is  largely  increased.  Of  course,  there  may  be 
circumstances  in  which  it  will  be  best  to  change  the  ordinary 
rotation  of  crops.  But  frequent  changes  which  are  made  to  gain 
the  benefit  of  high  prices  are  very  unprofitable. 

How  shall  the  farmer  protect  himself  from  the  evils  which, 
often  in  spite  of  his  individual  action,  over-production  threatens 
to  bring  upon  him  ?  We  know  of  but  one  method  which 
promises  to  be  effcclual.  That  is  by  furnishing  only  the  best 
grade  of  articles.  It  is  said  that  when  Daniel  Webster  was  a 
young  man  and  thinking  of  studying  law,  some  friend  asked 
him  if  the  legal  profession  was  not  already  crowded.  He 
replied  that  it  was,  but  added  the  significant  remark,  "  there  is 
room  enough  at  the  top."  He  worked  his  way  to  the  top,  and 
became  a  brilliant  lawyer.  While  inferior  men,  or  men  who  had 
made  a  poorer  use  of  their  abilities,  had  small  fees  and  but  little 
to  do,  Mr.  Webster  was  liberally  paid  and  had  all  the  business 
to  which  he  could  attend.  This  principle  will  be  just  as 
powerful  an  aid  on  the  farm  as  it  was  in  the  law  office.  The 
best  farmer  will  be  successful.  The  man  who  has  the  finest 
wheat  in  the  country  can  sell  it  even  though  multitudes  of 
growers  who  have  only  a  poor  grade  are  obliged  to  wait  long 
for  a  buyer.  Even  in  a  time  of  the  greatest  plenty  farm  produc- 
tions which  are  strictly  first-class  will  sell.  They  may  not  com- 
mand as  high  prices  as  the  owners  desire,  but  they  can  be 
converted  into  cash  at  times  when  the  poorer  grades  cannot  be 
sold.     It  is  often  the  case  that  first-rate  fruit  will  sell  for  a  hisfh 


O  VER-PR  OD  UCTION.  449 

figure  when  a  medium  grade  will  go  far  below  its  actual  worth, 
and  no  buyers  can  be  found  for  a  poor  one.  The  best  peaches 
are  not  thrown  by  the  car  load  into  the  docks  at  New  York. 
All  the  nicest  ones  which  reach  New  York,  or  any  other  city, 
in  good  condition,  are  sold.  It  is  the  poor,  unripe  specimens 
which  are  tnrown  away.  The  finest  grains  and  nicest  fruits,  and 
all  other  first-rate  farm  products,  can  be  sold.  They  will  not 
only  sell  for  higher  prices,  but  also  in  larger  quantities  than 
poorer  grades.  A  family  will  consume  more  good  butter  than 
it  will  poor,  and  will  be  willing  to  pay  a  higher  price  per  pound. 
The  same  principle  applies  to  all  other  farm  products.  Our 
cities  and  towns  are  full  of  people  who  must  have  the  products 
of  the  farm.  Many  of  these  people  are  poor  and  must  buy  the 
cheapest  grade  they  can  find.  But  there  are  multitudes  who  are 
in  good  circumstances,  and  who  will  not  buy  a  poor  grade  if 
they  can  get  a  better  one.  They  are  not  able  to  pay  the 
extreme  fancy  prices  which  a  few  wealthy  parties  give,  but  they 
are  both  able  and  willing  to  pay  well  for  what  they  buy  if  it  is 
really  nice. 

There  has  been,  is  now,  and  perhaps  there  always  will  be,  an 
over-production  of  poor  butter,  poor  fruit,  poor  beef,  and  a  low 
grade  of  almost  everything  else  which  is  sold  from  the  farm, 
but  the  man  who  has  a  nice  grade  of  any  standard  farm  product 
need  not  keep  it  long  on  hand.  Whatever  may  become  of  the 
poorer  kinds,  his  own  products  will  sell.  Let  the  farmer  who 
fears  that  over-production  will  be  the  ruin  of  the  country,  take 
special  pains  to  secure  the  finest  quality  in  the  goods  which  he 
takes  to  the  market,  and  he  will  soon  find  that  there  is  a  demand 
for  all  the  products  which  he  can  supply. 


450  FARMING   FOR  PROFIT. 

T  must  be  evident  to  every  thinking  man  that  there  is  no 


i 


one  thing  which  the  farmer  can  do  with  perfect  con- 
fidence that  it  will  insure  the  production  of  a  good  crop. 
\^  There  are  many  operations  which  are  essential  to  suc- 
cess, and  while  no  one  of  them  alone  can  meet  all  the  require- 
ments of  the  case,  no  one  of  them  can  safely  be  left  out.  It  is 
absolutely  necessary  that  the  land  should  be  well  prepared,  but  if 
nothing  else  were  done  the  best  preparation  in  the  world  would 
not  produce  a  crop.  It  is  also  necessary  that  good  seed  shoulJ 
be  used,  but  even  this  alone  will  amount  to  nothing.  There 
must  be  a  good  soil,  a  suitable  preparation,  and  proper  culture 
of  the  growing  plants,  in  connection  with  the  use  of  good  seed, 
if  the  best  results  are  to  be  secured. 

For  some  reason  which  is  not  plain  to  be  seen,  the  selection 
of  the  seed  as  one  of  the  leading  elements  in  the  production  of 
large  and  profitable  crops,  has  never  received  the  attention 
which  it  has  deserved.  Other  matters  seem  to  have  engrossed 
the  attention  of  most  of  the  men  who  have  made  agriculture  a 
special  study.  They  have  been  engaged  in  trying  to  discover 
new  varieties,  to  learn  the  best  methods  of  fitting  the  soil,  and 
in  developing  new  systems  of  cultivation.  Meanwhile  the 
practical  farmers  have  gone  right  along  in  the  old  way  of 
using  secJ  from  their  own  crops,  and  without  making  a  careful 
effort  to  select  that  which  was  the  best  fitted  for  their  purpose. 
There  have  been  some  individual  exceptions  to  this  rule,  but 
the  general  practice  has  indicated  a  great  lack  of  interest  in  this 
very  important  part  of  their  work.  The  study  and  thought 
which  have  been  given,  and  the  experiments  which  have  been 
made  in  these  other  directions,  have  led  to  valuable  results. 
The  labors  of  men  who  have  been  engaged  therein  should  be 
gratefully  recognized,  and  farmers  should  cheerfully  avail  them- 
selves of  the  benefits  which  have  thus  been  placed  within  their 
reach. 


GOOD   SEED. 

4ol 


But   m    addition  to  all  the  light  which    has    been  obtained 
and  all  the  advantages  which  have  been  secured  in  these  direc' 
tions,  there  is  need  of  a  clearer  realization  of  the  fact  that  the 
seed    exerts    a    controlling    influence    upon    the    quantity   and 
quality  of  the  crop.     It  is  for  want  of  attention  ro  this  fact  that 
so  many  efforts  to  obtain   large  yields  have  failed  of  success 
In  some  of  these   cases   all   of  the  conditions  except  this  one 
seem  to  have  been  complied  with,  but  the  seed  which  was  used 
was  not  the  best,  and  the  best  results  were  not  obtained.     Just 
as  long  as  effect  follows  cause,  just  so  long  will  it  be  impossible 
to  secure  first-class   crops   from   second-class  seed.     We  know 
that  m  the  animal  world  the  character  of  the  offspring,  is  deter 
mmed  by  that  of  its  parents.     We  can  have  the  same  assurance 
concerning   the    individuals    of   the    vegetable    kingdom      The 
seed  as  surely  determines  the  character  and  appearance  of  the- 
crop  which  it  produces  a's  parents  impress  their  characteristics 
upon  their  children. 

Let  us  consider  some  of  the  powers  and  qualities  which  are 
or  should  be,  possessed  by  the  seed  of  our  ordinary  farm-crops' 
In  some  inexplicable    manner   there   is   hidden  in  every  well- 
developed   seed   a   mysterious    quality  called  Vitalitv      This 
quality  enables  the  seed,  when  placed   under  certain  favorable 
conditions,  to   germinate,  and   thus    commence   the   series   of 
changes  which  will  result  in  the  production  of  other  specimens, 
of  .ts  kind.     As  long  as  the  seed  is  kept  intact  this  power  lies 
dormant.     When  it  becomes  active,  a  change  in  the  character 
and  appearance   of  the  seed   is  manifest.     The   interest   of  the 
farmer  requires  that  this  change  shall  take  place  only  in  those 
specimens  which  he  uses  for  the  production  of  future  crops  and 
that  they  shall  remain  in  their  natural  condition  until   or 'very 
neariy  until,  the  time  when  they  are  cast  into  the  soil      'por  the 
process  of  growth  injures  the  seed  for  other  purposes,  and 'if  if 
takes  place  long  before  the  seed  is  planted,  spoils  it  for  repro- 
duction.    Consequently,  it  is  for  the,  interest  of  the  farmer  to, 

«0 


452  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

keep  his  ripened  grain  as  much  as  possible  from  all  untoward 
iniiucnces.  If  his  wheat,  which  is  in  the  stack,  is  for  several 
successive  days  exposed  to  warm  and  wet  weather,  much  of  it 
will  sprout.  In  other  words,  the  vital  principle  becomes  active, 
chemical  changes  are  effected,  and  growth  is  the  result.  In 
such  circumstances  growth  inevitably  means  injury,  and  this 
injury  is  very  closely  in  proportion  to  the  extent  to  which  the 
changes  are  effected.  If  the  rain  is  of  short  duration,  and  the 
kernel  merely  absorbs  a  little  moisture  which  is  soon  evap- 
orated, no  great  harm  is  done.  But  if  the  rain  continues,  and 
the  kernel  keeps  on  absorbing  moisture,  in  a  short  time  the 
starch  which  it  contained,  and  which  is  absolutely  necessary  to 
the  production  of  nice  flour,  is  converted  into  sugar,  which  is 
considerably  diluted  with  water.  As  the  process  continues,  the 
sugar  which  has  been  formed  is  changed  to  cellulose,  and  the 
kernel  is  wholly  ruined  for  flouring  purposes.  The  conversion 
of  the  starch  into  sugar  before  the  kernel  is  planted  also  injures 
it  for  seed,  because  the  plant  cannot  live  for  any  length  of  time 
away  from  the  soil,  and  unless  the  seed  is  at  once  put  into  the 
ground  all  the  growth  which  has  been  made  will  be  wholly  lost 
The  young  shoot  will  very  soon  wither  and  die. 

This  is  not  all  the  injury  that  has  been  done  as  we  shall  see 
at  once  when  we  reflect  that  the  starch  which  was  stored  in  the 
kernel  was  just  the  kind  of  food  which  the  plant  requires  for  its 
nourishment  until  its  roots  become  strong  enough  to  obtain  food 
from  the  soil  and  its  leaves  are  developed  enough  to  secure  the 
materials  for  growth  which  are  furnished  to  all  plants  by  tlic 
atmosphere.  But  the  process  of  sprout  ng  through  which  the 
kernel  has  passed  has  changed  the  materials  of  the  seed  and 
partially  used  them  as  food  for  the  plant  which  had  become 
partly  developed.  When  such  a  seed  is  planted  it  will  absorb 
moisture,  but  there  will  be  no  starch  and  but  little  sugar  upon 
which  the  plantlet  can  feed.  Some  seeds  will  only  sprout  once, 
and   if  the   process  .of  germination    is    checked    it  cannot   be 


GOOD  SEED. 

renewed.  Other  seeds  will  endure  some  interruption,  thou^I. 
they  are  greatly  injured  thereby.  From  this  it  will  be  evide^nt 
that  the  selection  of  seed  is  a  matter  of  importance  to  the  farmer 
and  that  m  making  the  selection  he  should  be  careful  to  obtain 
only  that  in  which  the  quality  described  as  vitality  is  un- 
impaired. 

Another  quality  which  some  seeds  possess,  and  which  shonid 
always  be  sought  when  a  selection  is  made,  may  be  described 
as  Vigor.     This  can  never  be  present  without  vitality,  but  th^re 
can  be  vitality  without  vigor.     There  are  men  in  the  world  who 
are  al.ve  but  who  possess  but  very  little  vital  force.     It  requires 
about  all  of  their  strength  to  n.aintain  their  feeble  hold  upon 
hfe.     The  same  principle  applies  in  all  of  its  fulness  to  the  case 
o    plants.     In  a  great  many  fields  of  grain  plants  can  be  found 
wh.ch,  while  living,  are  but  little  better  than  dead.     They  «-,r| 
grow  for  a  while,  and  the  fields  may  look  a  little  better  for  their 
presence,  but  the  difference  which  they  will  make  in  the  yield 
of  the  crops  will  be  very  small.     From  these  extren,ely  weak 
specmens  there  are  various  grades  of  improvement  until  we 
reach  the  plants  which  are  full  of  life  and  strength.     Each  and 
every  stalk  of  these  several  grades  has  power  to  produce  seed 
after  .ts  own   kind.     If  the  seed   from  the  strongest  plants  is 
saved  to  furnish  the  germs  for  a  future  crop,  the  plants  which 
W.11  be  secured  will,  if  circumstances  are  favorable  for  thcr 
development,  be  almost  sure  to  be  strong  and  vigorous.     Rut  if 
seed  ,3  saved  from  the  weak  stalks,  the  product  of  that  seed  <vm 
be  very  likely  to  be  still  weaker  than  the  parent  stalks      The 
grade  of  plants  can  be  lowered  much  more  easily  than  it  can  be 
ra,sed.     The  natural   tendencies  seem  to  be  downward   rather 
than  toward  a  higher  type.     Still,  this  tendency  can  be  counter- 
acted, and  the  various  kinds  of  plants  can  be  greatly  improved 
by  careful  selection  combined  with  good  cultivation 

The  facts  that  the  seed  has  a  strong  power  of  impressing  its 
own  characteristics   upon   its  product,  and  that  this  power  i. 


451  FARMING   1-OR   PRO  FIT. 

somewhat  modified  by  a  natural  proneness  to  seek  a  lower  level, 
•  should  induce  farmers  to  make  a  very  careful  selection  of  the 
seed  which  they  design  to  use  for  planting.  They  also  show 
very  plainly  why  some  farmers  who  have  good  land  and  give 
good  culture  do  not  obtain  paying  crops.  These  men  are  not 
careful  in  making  a  selection  of  seed,  but  take  about  an  average 
lot  for  this  purpose.  In  this  there  is  the  product  of  some  stalks 
of  each  cf  the  several  grades  of  vigor.  While  part  of  the  seed 
was  produced  by  the  best  stalks,  much  of  it  came  from  the 
weakest  plants.  The  grains  from  the  best  stalks  will  probably 
yield  a  good  crop,  but  those  which  came  from  the  lower  grades 
will  be  very  sure  to  have  all  the  undesirable  qualities  of  their 
parent  plants.  If  we  sow  seed  from  weak  plants  we  must 
expect  to  have  weak  plants  for  our  product,  and  if  our  crops  are 
largely  composed  of  weak  plants,  they  will  be  both  small  and 
unprofitable. 

Another  quality  which  seed  should  possess  is  Permanence 
OF  Characteristics.  This  is  an  important  quality  and  one 
which  a  great  deal  of  seed  does  not  possess.  It  can  be  secured 
by  careful  selection  of  the  seed  which  is  used  in  a  series  of  years. 
Without  it  there  is  a  great  deal  of  risk  that  the  crops  will  be 
poor.  In  their  efforts  for  the  improvement  of  seeds,  horticul- 
turists often  have  a  great  deal  of  trouble  to  fix  the  characteristics 
of  certain  specimens  which  they  wish  to  preserve,  and  it  often 
requires  many  years  to  enable  them  to  secure  the  desired  result. 
But  when  permanence  has  once  been  established  it  can  be 
retained  by  carefully  selecting  the  seed  which  is  to  be  sown. 
If  this  selection  is  neglected  the  variety  will  show  a  strong  ten- 
dency to  run  back  to  its  original  condition.  The  common 
carrot  furnishes  an  illustration  of  this.  As  long  as  the  seed  is 
carefully  saved  from  good  specimens,  and  proper  cultivation  is 
given,  the  crops  which  are  obtained  will  be  like  the  ones  which 
produced  the  seed.  But  if  there  is  carelessness  in  producing  the 
^.  seed,  or  culture  is  neglected,  it  will  be  but  a  short  time  before 


GOOD   SEED.  455 

the  useful  carrot  is  changed  into  a  worse  than  useless  weed. 
Many  crops  retain  their  distinguishing  characteristics  much 
better  than  the  carrot,  but  with  all  plants  there  seems  to  be  a 
strong  tendency  to  revert  to  some  former  style  of  growth  and 
appearance.  It  requires  a  vast  amount  of  patient  effort  to  firmly 
"  fix "  the  characteristics  of  new  kinds  of  grain.  In  selecting 
seed  the  farmer  should  keep  this  fact  in  mind,  and  not  only 
secure  seed  which  is  good  in  itself,  but  also  that  which  will, 
under  good  cultivation,  produce  its  like.  And  when  this  char- 
acteristic has  been  secured  it  can,  and  should,  be  maintained  by 
means  of  careful  selections  of  seed  for  future  crops. 

Early  Maturity  is  another  quality  which  the  seed  of  farm 
crops  should  possess.  In  the  minds  of  many  farmers  this  quality 
is  generally  associated  with  a  dwarfish  habit  of  growth  and  a 
light  yield  of  grain.  But  these  things  do  not  always  connect 
themselves  with  an  early  ripening  of  the  seed.  Still  it  is  quite 
natural  that  the  longer  the  time  v/hich  a  crop  requires  in  which 
to  mature,  the  larger  it  should  grow,  and  we  find  that  many  of 
the  very  large  varieties  of  grain  are  late  about  ripening  their 
seed.  Perhaps  if  plants  were  left  wholly  to  themselves  this 
would  be  a  universal  rule,  but  under  the  present  methods  of 
culture  there  are  many  exceptions.  With  some  varieties  man 
has  long  been  experimenting  in  order  to  change  the  time  of 
ripening,  and  his  efforts  have  been  very  successful.  Some  me- 
dium-sized varieties  of  corn  have  been  made  to  ripen  some  weeks 
earlier  than  their  original  time,  and  this  has  been  accomplished 
without  diminishing  the  size  of  either  stalks  or  ears  and  without 
decreasing  the  yield  per  acre.  For  grain  which  is  grown  in  the 
Northern  States  this  is  a  valuable  characteristic.  In  some  un- 
favorable seasons  the  question  whether  corn  could  or  could  not 
be  ripened  has  turned  wholly  upon  the  possession,  or  the  want, 
of  this  one  quality.  In  New  England,  and  also  in  several  of  the 
Western  States,  it  sometimes  happens  that  the  warm  season  is 
very  short.     Spring  opens  late  and  cold,  and  frosts  come  very 


456  FAR\fING   FOR   PROFIT. 

early  in  Autumn.  In  such  seasons  the  seed  cannot  be  safely 
planted  until  quite  late,  and  unless  the  variety  matures  early  the 
frost  will  find  the  grain  unripe  and  cause  it  serious  injury. 

Every  farmer  who  has  handled  the  corn  crop  knows  that  well- 
ripened  grain  is  worth  a  great  deal  more  than  that  which  is  not 
fully  matured.  Even  where  it  is  almost  ripe  the  corn  is  deficient 
in  some  of  its  most  valuable  qualities.  The  fodder,  which  in 
many  States  is  considered  valuable  for  feeding  purposes,  is  also 
badly  damaged  by  frost  coming  upon  it  before  it  is  cut  and 
cured.  In  unfavorable  seasons  it  is  almost  impossible  to  obtain 
well-ripened  crops  when  the  late  varieties  are  planted.  It  is  true 
that  such  seasons  occur  only  occasionally,  that  they  are  the 
exception  and  not  the  rule,  but  it  is  also  true  that  they  are  fre- 
quent enough  to  justify  the  farmer  in  an  effort  to  avoid  evil 
results  from  their  appearance.  At  such  times  the  earliest  and 
smallest  varieties  pay  better  than  the  large  and  late  sorts.  But 
as  already  intimated,  the  qualities  of  size  and  earliness  do  not 
necessarily  conflict,  and  by  taking  a  little  pains  to  secure  the 
best  seed,  farmers  can  supply  themselves  with  varieties  which 
will  be  large  enough  to  satisfy  all  reasonable  demands  and  early 
enough  to  ripen  in  a  short  and  unfavorable  season. . 

PuRiTi'. — This  is  another  quality  which  the  seed  of  farm  crops 
ought  always  to  possess.  By  this  term  we  mean  not  merely  the 
quality  of  producing  its  kind,  which  has  already  been  considered, 
but  perfect  uniformity  of  appearance.  In  this  respect  an  im- 
mense amount  of  seed  which  farmers  use  is  deficient.  Instead 
of  taking  pains  to  have  their  corn  all  of  one  variety,  or  if  differ- 
ent kinds  are  cultivated  to  plant  them  in  fields  distant  from  each 
other,  too  many  growers  allow  several  different  kinds  to  mix 
and  make  no  effort  to  secure  purity  of  the  seed.  In  a  few  cases 
this  may  be  due  to  the  impression,  which  some  farmers  have, 
that  corn  will  "do  better"  if  several  sorts  are  mixed  than  it  will 
if  only  one  variety  is  planted.  This  idea  is  wholly  without  a 
reasonable  foundation,  and  the  more  farmers  read  and  study,  the 


GOOD   SEED.  457 

less  it  will  prevail.  In  most  cases  the  use  of  mixed  seed  is  due 
to  a  want  of  thought  and  care  rather  than  to  any  behef  that  it 
is  superior  to  that  which  is  pure.  Instead  of  bein<j  better  the 
impure  seed  is  far  inferior  to  that  which  is  unmixed.  To 
any  one  who  will  think  carefully  upon  the  subject  thjs  will  be 
evident. 

Take  a  case  for  illustration.  Suppose  in  a  certain  lot  of  seed- 
corn  there  are  mixed  four  or  five  varieties.  These  sorts  do 
not  hybridize,  that  is,  do  not  unite  to  form  new  and  perma- 
nent varieties,  but  merely  mix,  and  the  result  is  that  on  one 
ear  many  kernels  of  each  of  the  kinds  which  are  represented  in 
the  field  may  be  found.  Now  as  these  kernels  are  not  alike  it  is 
almost  a  necessity,  and  it  is  certainly  a  fact,  that  some  of  them 
will  be  superior  to  others.  If  this  is  the  case,  it  follows  that 
while  part  of  the  mixture  is  good,  part  of  it  is,  and  must  be^ 
inferior.  Consequently,  as  a  whole,  the  corn  obtained  is  not  first- 
class.  In  order  to  be  first-rate,  all  of  it  should  be  equal  to  the 
kind  to  which  the  best  specimens  belong.  Thus,  as  far  as  quality 
goes,  it  is  plain  that  the  best  grade  cannot  be  secured  from 
mixed  grain.  Part  of  the  lot  is  superior  to  the  rest,  and  the 
moment  the  poorer  grades  are  left  out  and  only  the  best  one  is 
used,  the  mixture  is  destroyed. 

Another  thing  to  be  considered  in  using  mixed  seed  is  the 
fact  that  the  various  kinds  which  are  represented  cannot  all 
ripen  at  the  san^e  period,  and  that  when  part  of  the  grains  are 
ripe  enough  to  harvest,  the  remainder  may  be  altogether  too 
green.  As  it  is  of  great  importance  to  have  grain  ripen  uni- 
formly, this  objection  against  mixed  seed  should  carry  consider- 
able weight. 

But  the  principal  reason  why  strict  purity  of  seed  should  be 
secured  and  preserved  may  be  found  in  the  fact  that  this  would 
enable  the  grower  to  obtain  quite  an  increase  of  the  price  which 
his  mixed  grain  now  commands.  This  is  not  a  mere  supposition, 
but  a  solid  truth,  and  one  in  which  farmers  who  are  engaged  in 


458  FARMING   FOR  PROFIT. 

growing^  grain  are  deeply  interested.  It  is  a  fact  which  dealers 
have  long  recognized  and  to  which  they  have  often  called  the 
attention  of  farmers.  Several  years  ago  the  Board  of  Trade  in 
one  of  our  Western  cities  issued  a  circular  to  the  farmers  in  the 
corn-growing  section,  in  which  they  complained  of  the  mixing 
of  different  kinds,  and  stated  that  the  price  which  the  grain 
would  command  in  market  was  at  least  three  cents  per  bushel 
less  than  it  would  be  if  the  corn  was  all  of  one  color  and  be- 
longed to  some  one  variety.  In  this  circular  farmers  were 
advised  to  be  more  careful  in  selecting  their  corn  for  seed,  and 
were  urged  to  attempt  to  secure  a  greater  degree  of  uniformity 
in  the  character  and  appearance  of  the  crop.  Some  farmers  fol- 
lowed these  recommendations,  but  that  they  were  too  generally 
disregarded  the  present  appearance  of  Western  corn  places 
beyond  doubt.  The  way  is  still  open  for  improvement  and  the 
need  of  it  is  beyond  dispute. 

If  corn-growers  could  be  made  to  realize  that  their  grain 
would  command  three  cents  per  bushel  more  than  they  can  now 
obtain  for  it,  they  would,  doubtless,  be  willing  to  make  an  effort 
to  obtain  better  seed.  The  men  who  buy  corn  judge  of  it  ver)' 
much  by  its  appearance.  They  do  not  want  to  pay  high  prices 
and  they  make  use  of  every  imperfection  as  an  argument  in 
favor  of  low  rates.  If  a  lot  of  corn  is  neither  white  nor  yellow, 
and  does  not  belong  to  any  known  variety,  buyers  will  not  be 
willing  to  pay  as  well  for  it  as  they  would  if  it  was  pure.  On  a 
single  bushel  the  increase  in  price  which  could  be  secured,  if 
sufficient  care  werd  taken  to  grow  pure  and  good  varieties,  would 
be  small,  but  on  the  quantity  which  a  large  corn-grower  will 
raise  in  a  period  of  ten  years  it  would  amount  to  quite  a  sum 
and  would  add  considerably  to  the  profits  of  the  farm.  An  ad- 
vance in  price  of  three  cents  per  bushel  on  the  corn  crop  of  one 
year  would  put  at  least  six  inillions  of  dollars  into  the  pockets  of 
the  farmers  in  the  one  State  of  Illinois.  The  expense  involved 
in  securing  this  immense  amount  of  money  would  be  very  small. 


GOOD   SEED.  459 

There  would  be  no  extra  cost  for  planting,  cultivation,  or  har- 
vesting. The  extra  price  of  seed  would  be  but  a  tride  for  the 
first  year  and  nothing  afterwards.  Almost  the  whole  amount 
would  be  clear  gain.  In  several  of  the  other  corn-growing 
States  from  one  to  three  millions  of  dollars  per  year  might  be 
made  by  the  farmers,  if  they  would  give  proper  attention  to  the 
selection  of  corn  for  seed.  Here  is  an  opportunity  for  those 
who  will  give  a  little  time  and  thought  to  the  selection  of  seed 
to  make  a  larger  profit  on  the  corn  crop  than  they  have  yet  been 
able  to  secure. 

Productiveness. — This  is  another  quality  which  shooild  be 
sought  in  selecting  seed.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  some  seed 
possesses  this  quality  in  a  high  degree,  while  other  specimens, 
which  to  all  appearance  are  just  as  good,  are  very  deficient  in 
this  respect. 

This  point  has  not  received  the  attention  which  it  deserves, 
and  many  farmers  are  slow  to  believe  that  there  is  any  particular 
difference  in  seed  as  far  as  its  productive  powers  are  concerned. 
They  know  that  certain  trees  are  more  fruitful  than  other 
specimens  which  are  as  favorably  situated,  and  they  cannot 
escape  the  conviction  that  there  is  a  quality  of  productiveness 
which  is  inherited  by  different  trees  in  different  degrees  of  inten- 
sity. But  when  they  are  told  that  plants  also  possess  this 
quality,  and  that  the  yield  of  a  crop  will  be  largely  determined 
by  the  degree  in  which  it  has  been  inherited  by  the  seed,  they 
are  incredulous.  Variations  in  the  yield  of  corn  they  ascribe  to 
difference  in  soil,  or  variety,  or  fertilizer,  or  the  time  of  planting, 
rather  than  to  any  power  in  the  seed  itself  But  sometimes 
when  in  adjoining  fields,  in  which  the  soil  is  as  nearly  alike  as 
soils  can  be,  the  same  varieties  are  planted,  and  there  is  no 
difference  either  in  the  cultivation  or  the  manuring,  but  a  great 
difference  in  the  quantity  of  grain  which  is  harvested,  they  are 
almost  compelled  to  acknowledge  that  there  is  a  difference  in 
the  productive  powers  of  seed  which  belongs  to  the  same 
variety,  but  is  produced  by  different  specimens  of  plants. 


460  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

Careful  experiment  has  proved  to  the  satisfaction  of  all 
unprejudiced  parties  who  have  studied  the  results  that  the 
quality  of  productiveness  is  strongly  developed  in  some  plants, 
and  possessed  in  only  a  slight  degree  by  others,  and  that  the 
plants  communicate  these  characteristics  to  the  seed  which  they 
produce.  In  the  Scientific  Farmer  for  May,  1877,  is  the 
record  of  an  experiment  with  different  grades  of  corn  which 
looked  equally  well,  and  which  were  planted  on  a  field  which 
had  given  good  and  uniform  crops.  The  field  was  divided  into 
three  plots.  One  of  these  received  no  manure.  The  remaining 
two  were  well-fertilized.  Upon  the  one  without  manure  and 
one  of  the  two  upon  wliich  manure  was  applied,  the  same  kind 
of  seed  was  planted,  while  upon  the  remaining  manured  plot 
another  kind  was  used.  The  result  was  that  the  land  without 
manure,  upon  which  the  most  productive  seed  was  used,  yielded 
at  the  rate  of  sixty-eight  and  three-fourths  bushels  per  acre,  the 
manured  plot  planted  with  the  same  kind  of  seed  produced  one 
hundred  and  t.n  busliels  per  acre,  while  the  manured  plot  on 
wliich  another  kind  of  seed  was  used  only  yielded  fifty-five 
bushels  per  acre.  Here  the  evidence  is  clear  and  convincing 
that  the  seed  made  a  difference  of  thirteen  and  three-fourths 
bushels  per  acre  over  and  above  the  influence  of  the  manure, 
and  that  the  difference  in  the  seed  made  all  the  difference 
between  the  yield  of  the  two  plots  which  were  manured — a 
difference  of  fifty-five  bushels  per  acre.  With  the  same  kind  of 
soil  and  culture,  and  an  equal  quantity  of  manure,  the  best  seed 
produced  just  twice  the  amount  of  grain  which  was  obtained 
from  the  inferior  seed.  Yet  these  two  kinds  of  seed  did  not 
jiresent  any  evidence  in  their  external  characteristics  by  which 
one  could  be  proved  better  than  the  other,  and  it  is  highly 
probable  that  the  poorest  seed  used  in  this  experiment  was  in 
every  respect  fully  equal  to  a  large  proportion  of  the  seed  used 
in  the  country.  Comparatively  few  farmers  obtain  an  average 
yield  of  more  than  fifty-five  bushels  of  corn  per  acre. 


GOOD  SEED.  4gj 


This  experiment  also  throws  some  hght  upon  the  question  of 
economy  in  buying  seed.  Only  one  peck  of  corn  is  needed  to 
plant  an  acre.  Many  farmers  do  not  use  as  much  as  this.  But 
if  a  peck  is  used,  and  the  common  quality  of  grain  is  selected 
and  carefully  shelled,  it  will  be  worth  somewhere  from  fifteen  to 
twenty-five  cents.  If  the  very  best  seed  is  obtained,  the  cost, 
with  transportation  charges,  may  be  two  dollars.  The  difference 
in  the  cost  of  seed  enough  for  an  acre  will  be  from  one  dollar 
and  seventy-five  to  one  dollar  and  eighty-five  cents.  The  cost 
of  planting  and  cultivating  will  be  the  same,  but  the  difference 
in  the  yield  will  be  from  forty  to  fifty-five  bushels. 

We  do  not  believe  that  a  farmer  should  buy  everything  that 
is  offered  for  sale,  but  we  are  confident  that  if  the  varieties  of 
grain  which  he  is  growing  do  not  yield  well,  that  if  with  as  high 
manuring   and   as  good  cultivation   as  his  neighbors  give,  he 
cannot  obtain  as  large  crops  as  they  secure,  it  will  be  wise'  for 
him  to  change  the  seed  with  a  view  to  obtaining  some  which 
will  be  more  prolific.     We  have  experimented  somewhat  with 
various  kinds  of  corn,  and  have  found  a  great  difference  in  the 
yield  of  varieties  which  looked  quite  well.     And  we  have  found 
that  some  farmers  have  grown  corn  year  after  year  which  was 
very    handsome,    and    which    they    supposed    was    a    very  fine 
variety,  when  it  was  greatly  inferior  in  productiveness  to  kinds 
which  produced  just  as  good  grain,  and  which  were  grown  in 
their  own  neighborhoods. 

In  order  to  be  sure  that  his  corn  is  reasonably  productive 
every  farmer  should  keep  an  accurate  record  of  the  yield  per 
acre  each  year.  Otherwise  he  may  be  deceived,  and  think  he  is 
domg  well  when  his  crops  are  far  below  what  should  be  their 
average  yield.  .  If  he  has  a  prolific  variety,  he  should  be  careful 
m  selectmg  seed  and  do  all  that  he  can  to  stimulate  and  develop 
th.s  quahty.  If  he  is  growing  a  variety  which  is  not  as  pro- 
ductive as  It  should  be,  it  will  be  greatly  for  his  interest  to  make 
a  change  as  soon  as  possible. 


462  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

The  same  principle  applies  with  equal  force  to  other  farm 
crops.  We  used  the  corn  crop  merely  as  an  illustration.  In 
many  States  other  crops  are  of  still  greater  importance.  What- 
ever the  crop  which  the  farmer  wishes  to  grow,  and  whatc\er 
the  facilities  which  he  may  have  for  its  production,  he  may 
accept  it  as  a  settled  and  forever  unchangeable  principle  that 
good  seed  is  an  essential  element  in  its  successful  cultivation. 
Without  this  he  cannot  obtain  the  best  results,  or  anything 
approaching  them,  and  it  is  utterly  useless  for  him  to  make  the 
attempt.  If  at  any  time  he  feels  that  the  price  of  first-class  seed 
is  too  high  to  justify  him  in  purchasing,  he  should  reflect  that 
whatever  good  seed  may  cost  it  is  absolutely  certain  that  he 
cannot  afford  to  use  inferior  seed  even  though  it  costs  lam 
nothing. 


TKE  SEIkEOrrON'  GF  SEED, 

iIKE  all  other  things  of  value  good  seed  has  its  price,  and 
X  only  by  the  payment  of  its  price  can  it  be  obtained.  It 
/y'  is  not  produced  by  chance,  and  it  does  not  perpetuate 
itself  certainly  and  for  an  indefinite  length  of  time. 
Knowledge,  care,  and  skill  on  the  part  of  the  grower  are  all 
absolutely  necessarj'  to  its  production.  It  is  only  by  a  patient, 
careful,  and  wise  selection  of  the  plants,  or  roots,  or  bulbs,  that 
the  finest  seed  can  be  secured.  The  careless,  hap-hazard  way 
in  which  many  farmers  and  gardeners  save  the  seed  which  they 
plant,  accounts,  in  a  great  measure,  for  the  poor  quality  of  the 
seed  itself  and  the  light  yield  of  the  crops  which  they  obtain 
therefrom. 

Good  seed  is  not  produced  by  ever)'  plant,  artd  if  no  care  is 
taken  in  selecting  the  plants  for  seed,  the  choice  of  many  inferior 
ones  will  be  inevitable.  The  average  product  of  an  ordinary 
field  is  very  far  below  what  should  ±>e  taken  as  a  standard  by 
which  to  measure  plants  for  seed.     The  very  best  plants  which 


THE  SELECTION  OF  SEED.  '  463 

can  be  obtained  are  none  too  good  for  the  production  of  seed. 
The  man  who  saves  the  poorest  part  of  every  crop  for  seed  will 
soon  have  very  small  crops.  When  the  average  product  of  the 
field  is  saved  the  yield  does  no  more  than  hold  its  own  and  keep 
up  the  average.  It  is  only  when  the  finer  plants  are  saved  for 
seed  that  the  yield  increases  and  a  manifest  improvement  of  the 
quality  is  secured.  Even  then,  if  there  has  been  no  careful 
guarding  of  the  plants,  during  the  period  of  their  growth,  against 
the  various  adverse  influences  which  inevitably  surround  them 
and  no  thorough  culture  has  been  given,  the  quality  of  the  seed 
secured  will  fall  far  below  the  grade  which  might  have  been 
obtained. 

It  very  often  happens  that  men  are  careful  in  saving  the 
largest  and  finest  ears  of  corn  for  seed  and  yet  fail  to  obtain  as 
good  crops  as  they  think  they  have  a  right  to  expect.  The 
cause  of  their  v/ant  of  success  is  easily  explained.  The  kernels 
of  the  fine  ears  in  which  they  placed  so  much  confidence  were 
fertilized  by  the  pollen  of  inferior  stalks.  A  mongrel  calf  may 
look  as  well  as  a  thoroughbred,  but  no  one  who  understands 
physiological  laws,  or  who  has  had  much  experience  with  cattle, 
would  have  any  confidence  ih  such  a  calf  as  a  breeder.  How- 
ever fine  the  individual  may  be,  it  does  not  possess,  and  con- 
sequently cannot  transmit,  any  fixed  characteristics.  It  is  a 
slow  process  to  form  a  distinct  breed  of  animals.  There  are  so 
many  sports  and  reversions  that  even  the  experienced  and  skilful 
breeder  finds  the  t)bstacles  to  success  almost  insurmountable. 
It  is  fully  as  difficult  a  matter  to  breed  plants  to  a  desired  form. 
But  this  can  be  done  by  the  skilful  cultivator.  It  may  take  a 
long  time — perhaps  a  longer  period  than  the  life  of  any  one  man 
may  be  required  in  order  to  bring  the  plant  as  near  perfection  as 
possible — but  time,  and  patience,  and  skill  will  develop  a  won- 
derful improvement. 

The  great  difference  between  the  potato  and  the  tomato  will 
serve  to  illustrate  the  modifying  power  of  cultivation  and  breed- 


464  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

ing.  These  plants  are  alike  in  their  botanical  structure.  Both, 
in  their  natural  state,  bear  fruit  on  top  of  their  vines.  The 
potato  balls  have-  not  been  used  by  man.  His  efforts  for  the 
improvement  of  the  potato  have  been  directed  to  the  tubers. 
The  balls,  which  are  a  similar  product  to  the  tomatoes,  have 
been  left  to  take  care  of  themselves.  But  with  the  tomato  a  very 
different  course  has  been  pursued.  The  efforts  of  a  large  num- 
ber of  cultivators  have  been  directed  toward  the  development 
and  improvement  of  the  fruit  of  the  vines.  The  result  of  this 
different  treatment  is  indicated  by  the  difference  in  size,  appear- 
ance, quality,  and  productiveness  of  the  vines  of  the  potato  and 
the  tomato.  The  finer  sorts  of  the  tomato  when  compared  with 
potato  balls  show  what  can  be  done  in  the  line  of  improving 
the  fruit  of  plants. 

As  a  large  part  of  the  profits  of  the  farmers'  business  come 
from  the  growth  of  plants  and  their  sale,  or  the  sale  of  their 
products,  it  is  a  matter  of  great  importance  that  they  should 
secure  the  very  best  plants  which  can  be  obtained,  keep  them 
up  to  their  present  standard,  and  make  a  constant  effort  for  their 
improvement.  In  order  to  be  fully  successful  in  this  work  it  is 
necessarv^  for  the  farmer  to  begin  at  the  beginning.  By  starting 
at  an  intermediate  point  some  benefit  may  be  secured.  But  the 
results  will  be  far  more  uncertain,  much  time  will  be  wasted, 
and  frequent  failures  will  be  inevitable.  The  first  thing  to  be 
done  is  to  get  the  best  seed  which  can  be  obtained.  Some 
variety  adapted  to  the  soil,  climate,  and  mod^  of  cultivation  pur- 
sued should  be  selected.  If  the  farmer  has  good  seed  of  this 
kind  he  can  use  it,  but  if  he  has  only  an  inferior  grade  he  should 
obtain  a  supply  elsewhere.  The  good  seed  may  not  be  good 
enough  to  transmit  its  good  qualities  in  perfection.  Like  the 
mongrel  calf,  it  may  be  good  itself  and  yet  not  be  able  to  breed 
true  to  its  own  characteristics.  But  there  is  more  hope  in  breed- 
ing from  a  good  calf  than  there  is  from  a  poor  one.  The  good 
one  is  nearer  the  mark  than  the  other  and  will  be  much  more 


THE  SELECTION  OF  SEED.  4^5 

likely  to  produce  good  stock.  The  same  is  true  of  plants.  In 
working  from  the  best  which  can  be  had  there  is  less  distance 
to  pass  and  the  road  is  more  direct  than  will  be  the  case  if  we 
start  way  back  with  a  poorer  specimen.  The  first  thing,  then, 
to  be  done  when  an  improvement  in  the  yield,  quality,  or 
appearance  of  plants  is  desired,  is  to  either  select  from  home 
resources  or  obtain  from  abroad  the  very  finest  and  nicest  seed 
which  can  be  secured. 

In  selecting  seed  from  which  to  develop  a  better  class  of 
plants,  care  must  be  taken  to  secure  that  which  presents  the 
desired  characteristics  in  a  marked  degree.     Some  plants  have 
a  strong  tendency  toward  beauty  of  form  and  appearance,  others 
are  very  fragrant,  while  the  leading  characteristic  of  others  is 
productiveness.     Now,  if  a  man  wants  to  develop  the  element 
of  beauty,  he  should  start  with  a  plant  which  is  already  beau- 
tiful.    If  fragrance  is  desired,  the  most  fragrant  flower  should  be 
taken  as  a  starting  point  for  increased  development.     If  produc- 
tiveness is  specially  desired,  the  most  productive  plants  in  the 
field  should  be  selected  and  their  fruit  saved  for  seed  with  which 
to  increase  and   extend    the    productive  power.     These  varied 
qualities  might  be  secured  if  plants  were  taken  which  did  not 
possess  them   in  an  unusual  degree,  but  it  would   require  more 
skill  and  several  years  longer  time  to  secure  the  desired  result. 
The  stronger  the  impress  of  the  wished-for  peculiarity  which  the 
plant  already  bears,  the  more  certain  and  powerful  will  be  its 
manifestation  in  the  productions  of  that  plant  in  the  next  gene- 
ration.      There    may   be    difficulty,    and    much    time    may    be 
required,  even  when   strongly  marked   specimens  are  used   for 
propagation,  but  the  difficulty  will  be  less  and  the  time  will  be 
shorter  than  will  be  needed  if  only  ordinary  plants  are  taken. 

The  double  rose  is  a  fine  example  of  what  can  be  accom- 
plished in  the  line  of  beauty  by  careful  culture  and  thorough 
breeding.  The.  structure  of  the  rose  flower  is,  naturally,  like 
that  of  the  common  apple-blossom.     The  form  of  the  original 


466  FARMIXG    FOR    PROFIT. 

rose  was,  and  the  form  of  many  of  the  wild,  uncultivated  roses 
is,  with  the  exception  of  size,  the  same  as  the  blossom  of  an 
apple  tree.  No  effort  has  been  made  to  change  the  form  of  the 
apple  blossom,  but  gardeners  have  long  been  at  work  upon  the 
rose,  and  have  succeeded  in  obtaining  perfect  double  blossoms 
entirely  destitute  of  stamens  and  pistils.  When  this  point  is 
reached,  perfection  has  been  secured.  The  skill  of  man  can  go 
no  farther.  But  with  this  perfection,  the  reproductive  power  of 
the  plant  is  obliterated.  There  are  no  seeds  from  which  to  pro- 
duce new  specimens.  Many  kinds  of  plants  can  be  brought  to 
this  stage.  But  the  species  can  be  kept,  and  plants  can  be 
rapidly  propagated  by  layers,  cuttings  or  budding.  The  same 
care  which  has  been  bestowed  upon  the  rose  would  have  made 
a  great  difference  in  the  form  of  any  other  flower. 

But  the  reader  may  say  that  mere  form  is  of  no  consequence 
to  the  ordinar}'  farmer.  It  is  true  that  it  is  not  as  essential  to 
his  success  as  it  is  to  the  gardener's,  but  it  is  not  a  matter  of 
indifference  to  the  farmer.  The  form  and  color  of  wheat  has 
considerable  influence  in  fixing  its  market  value.  The  same  is 
true  of  corn,  oats,  potatoes,  fruit,  and  nearly  everything  which 
the  farmer  grows.  The  power  to  change  these  features  is  worth 
a  great  deal.  But  these  are  only  a  part  of  the  qualities  which 
can  be  modified  by  skilful  selection.  The  vigor  of  the  plant 
and  time  of  ripening  the  seed  can  be  varied,  and  the  capacity  for 
production  can  be  largely  increased. 

Each  and  every  prominent  trait  of  our  cultivated  plants  may 
be  greatly  changed  by  careful  management.  It  is  to  this  fact, 
and  the  labors  of  many  horticulturists  and  farmers,  that  we  are 
indebted  for  our  best  varieties  of  grain  and  fruit.  By  making  a 
careful  selection  of  the  materials  with  which  he  will  work, 
the  farmer  may  accomplish  great  results.  We  know  of  two 
farmers,  each  one  of  whom  has  made  a  great  improvement  of  the 
variety  of  corn  which  he  has  grown  for  the  past  ten  years. 
We  know  of  others  who  have  hardly  been  able  to  keep  their 


THE  SELECTION  OF  SEED.  467 

corn  up  to  the  original  standard.  The  former  made  a  wise 
selection  of  the  varieties  which  they  intended  to  improve.  The 
latter  were  not  as  fortunate  in  their  choice.  Mr.  C.  G.  Pringle, 
of  Vermont,  the  originator  of  the  Snowflake,  Alpha  and  Ruby 
potatoes,  has  been  very  successful  in  improving  old  and  origi- 
nating new  varieties  of  grain  and  vegetables.  He  is  a  skilful 
manager,  and  has  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  habits  of  plants; 
But  his  success  is  very  largely  due  to  the  wisdom  with  which 
he  selected  the  varieties  to  be  improved.  The  Champlain 
wheat,  which  he  originated  in  1870,  was  the  result  of  a  union 
of  the  valuable  qualities  of  two  varieties.  He  saw  the  need  of 
the  farmers  at  the  extreme  North  of  a  variety  of  wheat  which 
should  be  very  hardy  and  also  be  of  a  nice  quality.  There 
were  varieties  which  were  hardy,  but  of  only  second  or  third 
quality;  while  there  were  others  *vhich  were  very  nice,  but 
proved  too  tender  for  our  cold  winters.  But  in  the  Champlain 
wheat,  Mr.  Pringle  has  secured  a  combination  of  the  hardy 
qualities  of  the  Black  Sea  wheat  with  the  fine  quality  of  the 
Golden  Drop,  and  has  produced  a  variety  which  is  specially 
adapted  to  meet  the  wants  of  Northern  wheat-growers.  Had 
he  crossed  some  weak-growing  variety  with  the  Golden  Drop, 
the  new  kind  would  have  been  a  failure  at  the  North.  But  he 
followed  the  rule  which  all  successful  growers  must  adopt,  and 
selected  as  a  basis  for  his  experiments  varieties  which  already 
possessed  the  desired  characteristics. 

Plants  which  are  to  be  utilized  for  the  production  of  seed 
should  be  grown  by  themselves,  and  cultivalcd  for  this  special 
purpose.  This  is  necessary  in  order  to  guard  them  from  the 
adverse  influences  to  which  they  would  otherwise  be  exposed. 
For  if  it  is  sown  in  the  open  field,  the  finest  seed  may  not  pro- 
duce a  good  crop,  and  may  fail  to  perpetuate  its  characteristics. 
In  one  of  his  lectures,  Hon.  P.  A.  Chadbourne  spoke  at  some 
length  upon  the  modification  of  corn  by  being  accidentally  fer- 
tilized by  imperfect  specimens  or  by  different  varieties.  He  Said 
30 


468  FARAf/J^G   FOR   PROFIT. 

that,  "The  fact  that  seeds  that  look  just  alike,  and  were  raised 
in  the  same  place,  give  us  much  different  results,  is  not  always 
owing  to  the  soil.  I  have  no  doubt  that  those  germs  are  won- 
derfully sensitive,  far  beyond  anything  we  have  ever  dreamed 
of.  There  are  many  things  in  our  experiments  that  lead  me  to 
suppose  this.  I  believe,  also,  that  the  action  of  this  pollen  is 
very  much  more  far-reaching  than  has  generally  been  sup- 
posed." He  exhibited  some  specimens  of  corn  which  illus- 
trated the  liability  of  variation  of  the  product  of  plants  grown 
without  special  care  to  shield  them  from  untoward  influences. 
There  were  six  ears — three  white  and  three  red  ones — all  of 
which  grew  from  a  white  ear.  The  seed  which  produced  these 
very  diverse  .specimens  was  planted  far  from  any  other  corn,  so 
that  all  possibility  of  a  mixture  should  be  prevented.  The  year 
before  the  seed-corn  was  ^11  white,  but  about  half  the  ears 
which  it  produced  were  red.  Sometime  the  white  corn  had, 
doubtless,  been  fertilized  by  pollen  from  a  red  variety  grown  in 
another  field. 

Probably  every  farmer  has  noticed  cases  in  which  the  variety 
which  was  planted  was  strangely  modified.  Sometimes  there 
will  be  an  occasional  ear  of  a  totally  different  kind.  In  other 
cases  only  a  few  kernels  of  another  variety  will  be  found  upon 
an  ear  which  is  nearly  all  of  the  ordinary  sort.  Sometimes  a 
few  kernels  of  sweet  corn  will  be  found  upon  an  ear  of  some 
common  field  variety.  Corn  which  is  grown  in  a  field 
which  is  near  any  other  variety,  will  be  very  liable  to  become 
mixed.  It  will  be  utterly  impossible  to  maintain  the  absolute 
purity  of  any  variety,  if  a  different  one  is  planted  near  by.  A 
farmer  may  buy  the  very  nicest  seed  of  the  most  prolific  variety 
in  the  world,  but  if  he  plants  it  in  a  field  which  joins  one  in  which 
his  neighbor  plants  another  sort,  he  cannot  keep  the  variety 
•pure.  He  will  either  be  obliged  to  buy  seed  every  year  or  else 
plant  a  mixed  and  inferior  kind.  When  seed-corn  is  selected 
from  the  field,  several   neighbors    should  agree  to  plant  one 


THE   SELECTION  OF  SEED.  469 

variety  of  corn.  In  this  way  the  injury  from  mixture  which 
now  occurs  would  be  considerably  reduced. 

The  habit  of  planting  several  different  kinds  upon  one  farm  is 
not  at  all  to  be  commended.  It  is  injurious  to  the  farmer's  own 
interest,  and  makes  it  still  more  difficult  than  it  otherwise  would 
be  for  his  neighbors  to  grow  the  kind  which  they  desire  to  pro- 
duce. The  distance  to  which  the  pollen  is  carried  is  not  cer- 
tainly known,  but  it  is  probably  greater  than  farmers  generally 
suppose.  We  once  found  a  bright  red  ear  in  a  field  of  yellow 
corn.  There  was  not  another  red  ear  on  the  farm  and  but  few 
red  kernels  could  be  found  on  other  ears.  And  there  was 
no  red  corn  grown  on  the  adjoining  farm.  But  beyond  that  was 
a  farm  upon  which  there  was  a  small  field  of  this  colored  variety. 
The  red  ear  must  have  been  fertilized  by  pollen  from  this  distant 
field.  There  have  been  other  strongly  marked  cases,  and  they 
prove  that  it  is  unsafe  to  rely  upon  the  purity  of  seed-corn 
which  is  grown  without  being  separated  from  any  other  kind  by 
a  much  longer  distance  than  is  usually  thought  necessary. 

In  order  to  secure  absolute  purity  we  think  a  distance  of  at 
least  half  a  mile  is  required.  If  the  corn  for  seed  is  grown  in  a 
valley  and  other  kinds  are  produced  on  the  surrounding  hills, 
this  distance  should  be  doubled. 

But  contact  with  other  varieties  is  not  the  only  way  in  which 
seed  corn  is  deteriorated.  If  corn  is  grown  in  the  open  field, 
the  pollen  of  the  inferior  stalks,  and  of  the  suckers,  is  just  as 
likely  to  fertilize  the  ears  as  that  produced  by  the  finest  speci- 
mens. An  ear  of  corn  may  appear  all  right  and  yet  its  kernels 
fail  to  be  reasonably  productive,  because  it  was  fertilized  by  the 
pollen  from  a  very  poor  stalk  which  has  impressed  its  character 
upon  the  seed. 

In  almost  every  field,  in  every  one  of  any  size,  which  was 
planted  with  ordinary  seed,  there  will  be  many  small  and  imper- 
fect ears.  No  matter  how  rich  the  'land,  or  how  thorough  the 
cultivation  which  the  crop  receives,  these  specimens  will  appear. 


470  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

They  are  the  legitimate  fruit  of  seed  produced  on  ears  which 
had  been  fertilized  by  pollen  from  inferior  plants.  In  order  to 
prevent  such  a  result  the  farmer  must  give  more  attention  to 
that  part  of  the  crop  from  which  the  seed  is  to  be  taken  than  is 
usually  bestowed.  The  corn  for  seed  should  be  planted  by 
itself,  in  a  field  quite  a  distance  from  any  other  corn.  If  this  is 
impossible,  a  plot  of  ground  between  the  two  pieces  should  be 
planted  with  broom-corn,  or  sugar-cane.  It  will  be  well  to  put 
a  strip  of  broom-corn,  a  few  rods  wide,  close  to  the  field  which 
is  not  to  be  saved,  provided  the  fields  arc  within  eighty  rods  of 
each  other.  '  The  broom-corn  will  hinder  the  free  passage  of  the 
pollen,  and  thus  diminish  the  liability  of  a  mixture  of  different 
varieties  or  fertilization  by  the  pollen  of  inferior  specimens.  If 
only  a  small  quantity  of  corn  is  to  be  saved  for  seed,  the  plot 
on  which  it  is  planted  should  be  in  the  form  of  a  square.  If  a  few 
long  rows  are  planted,  the  pollen  cannot  be  so  evenly  distributed 
as  it  will  from  several  short  ones.  The  land  should  be  rich  and 
the  best  cultivation  should  be  given. 

Another  important  item  was  mentioned  by  Mr.  Ciiadbourne 
in  the  lecture  from  which  we  have  quoted.  He  expressed  the 
opinion,  "  That  in  order  to  raise  good  prolific  seed-corn,  it  will 
be  necessary  for  a  man  to  plant  the  best  seed  he  can  procure ; 
and  before  the  corn  tassels,  before  it  produces  pollen,  to  go 
along  the  rows  and  cut  out  every  mean,  miserable  stalk,  so  that 
every  ear  shall  stand  on  a  proper  stalk  (that  is,  have  a  proper 
mother)  and  shall  be  fertilized  by  pollen  that  has  come  from  a 
strong,  healthy,  corn-producing  stalk."  Before  the  tassels  form, 
all  the  suckers  should  be  cut,  and  the  inferior  stalks  removed. 
If  these  things  receive  attention  at  the  proper  time,  the  seed- 
corn  will  have  a  vigorous  and  healthy  parentage.  If  the  same 
course  is  followed  year  after  year,  a  great  and  permanent  im- 
provement will  be  effected.  By  this  means  the  average  yield  of 
the  corn  crop  in  this  cduntry  might  be  greatly  increased,  and 
the  profits  of  its  production  would  be  greater  than  have  yet 
been  obtained. 


THE  SELECTION   OF  SEED.  471 

With  the  wheat  crop  equal  care  is  needed  in  order  to  secure 
the  finest  seed.  The  best  grain  which  is  available  should  be 
sown  on  a  rich  and  thoroughly  prepared  piece  of  ground.  It 
should  be  sown  in  rows,  or  drilled  in,  far  enough  apart  to  allow 
the  hoe  to  be  used  between  them.  All  weeds  should  be  kept 
down,  and  before  the  blossoms  appear  all  the  inferior  stalks 
should  be  cut  out. 

With  the  potato  crop  there  has  been  more  trouble  on  account 
of  poor  seed  than  there  has  with  almost  any,  perhaps  we  might 
say  with  almost  all  of  the  other  farm  crops.  Varieties  have 
"  run  out  "  in  a  few  years  wherever  they  were  planted.  Chang- 
ing the  seed  has  been  resorted  to  by  multitudes  of  farmers,  and 
has  given  temporary  relief,  but  no  permanent  good  has  been 
accomplished.  The  complaint  is  general.  It  has  been  so  often 
made,  and  for  so  long  a  time,' that  some  writers  consider  the 
deterioration  as  inherent  in  the  potato  itself,  and  recommend 
the  introduction  of  new  kinds,  and  the  discarding  of  the  older 
varieties  when  they  begin  to  fail.  We  do 'not  think  this  theory 
is  correct.  We  are  confident  that  by  a  careful  selection  of  seed, 
with  good  culture,  the  varieties  of  potatoes  may  be  as  per- 
manent as  those  of  corn.  We  have  kept  the  Early  Rose  up  to 
its  original  standard.  There  is  a  great  deal  of  complaint  that 
this  variety  is  deteriorating.  Probably  the  men  who  find  it 
"  running  out "  have  not  been  very  careful  to  select  the  nicest 
seed,  and  supply  the  best  manures.  Many  farmers  plant  only 
the  little,  immature  specimens  which  are  neither  fit  to  eat  nor 
to  sell.  They  seldom  plant  any  which  are  even  half  grown. 
Now  if  corn  for  seed  were  selected  in  this  way,  there  would 
be  as  much  complaint  about  the  deterioration  of  corn,  and  the 
"  running  out "  of  varieties,  as  there  has  been  about  the  failure 
of  the  potato  to  keep  up  to  a  uniform  standard  of  excellence. 
In  order  to  obtain  good  potatoes  for  seed,  the  finest  tubers  of 
medium  size  should  be  planted  on  dry  land  which  has  been 
well  manured.     Chemical   fertilizers  we  consider  the  best  for 


472  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 

this  purpose.  The  plants  should  be  carefully  cultivated,  and 
when  the  tubers  are  ripe  they  should  be  dug,  and  the  best 
specimens  of  a  medium  size  should  be  selected  for  seed  to  be 
used  the  next  year,  and  stored  in  a  cool,  dry  cellar. 

The  different  varieties  of  the  potato  should  be  grov/n  in  plots 
which  are  quite  a  distance  apart.  Mr.  William  Hunt,  of 
Conn.,  read  an  article  on  the  general  subject  of  potato  cul- 
ture before  the  Conn.  State  Board  of  Agriculture,  in  1877, 
in  which  he  claims  to  have  discovered  the  fact  that  the 
deterioration  of  varieties  often  results  from  their  mixing  by 
means  of  the  flowers.  He  claims  that  the  pollen  is  carried  a 
considerable  distance  by  th&-wind,  and  that  where  two  or  more 
kinds  are  grown  near  each  other  the  potatoes  will  mix,  and  the 
product  will  usually  be  inferior  to  that  of  the  parent  stock. 
The  first  year  the  quality  is  not  affected.  The  second  season 
changes  are  manifest  in  the  tubers,  and  in  succeeding  years  the 
deterioration  is  rapid.  This  theory  accounts  for  changes  which 
have  often  been  observed,  but  which  could  not  be  satisfactorily 
explained.  Mr.  Hunt  picks  all  the  flower  buds  before  they 
open,  from  the  plots  on  which  he  grows  potatoes  for  seed — a 
practice  which  may  be  safely  and  profitably  followed  by  all  who 
are  engaged  in  producing  this  crop. 

Such  are  some  of  the  general  principles  which  should  govern 
in  the  selection  of  seed.  We  have  attempted  to  illustrate  them 
by  reference  to  particular  crops.  With  other  plants  the 
methods  pursued  must  be  modified  by  their  condition  and 
character.  But  with  all  crops  the  same  careful  and  patient 
effort  must  be  made  to  get  .the  best  possible  grade  to  start  with, 
to  give  it  the  best  possible  chance,  and  then  to  guard  the  plants 
from  all  untoward  influences.  After  the  seed  is  grown,  there 
still  remains  a  work  for  the  cultivator  in  gathering  and  storing 
it.  For  the  best  seeds  are  just  as  likely  to  be  wasted  or  injured 
by  exposure  as  the  poorest  ones,  and  a  little  neglect  at  the  time 
of  ripening  may  cause  the  loss  of  nearly  the  whole  lot.     When 


THE   SELECTION  OF  SEED.  473 

the  plants  are  well-matured,  and  the  seeds  are  ripe,  which  any 
observant  person  can  easily  determine  by  their  general  appear- 
ance, the  harvesting  should  be  performed.  Imperfectly  ripened 
seed  will  often  grow,  but  it  will  not  produce  as  hardy, 
vigorous  plants  as  that  which  is  thoroughly  ripe.  If  the 
cutting  of  the  seed-plants  is  too  long  delayed  a  great  waste 
is  involved  by  shelling  in  the  field,  and  some  seeds  are 
damaged  by  exposure  to  the  weather.  With  plants  which 
ripen  their  seeds  unevenly,  a  middle  course  is  to  be  pursued. 
The  onion  belongs  to  this  class.  The  heads  should  be  removed 
when  about  half  of  the  seed-cells  have  opened.  Wheat,  corn, 
and  other  grain,  should  remain  until  thoroughly  ripe,  should'  be 
carefully  cured,  and  ought  not  to  be  shelled  until  it  is  perfectly 
dry.  Great  care  should  be  taken,  both  before  and  after  shelling, 
to  prevent  all  injury  by  heating.  The  curing  should  be  done, 
if  possible,  in  bright  weather,  and  the  stalks  should  be  stored 
in  a  cool,  dry  place.  When  thoroughly  cured  and  dried  the 
seed  may  be  shelled.  If  it  is  necessary  to  wash  it,  care  should 
be  taken  to  dry  it  perfectly  before  it  is  put  away. 

Seeds,  wi'Ji  a  few  exceptions,  such  as  nuts,  which  should  be 
kept  in  sand,  should  be  kept  in  a  cool  and  dry  room.  Putting 
them  in  papers  or  bags  when  they  are  damp,  is  one  cause  of  the 
difficulty  which  some  farmers  have  in  getting  seeds  which  they 
have  raised  to  grow.  Another  cause  is  the  keeping  of  seeds  in 
a  damp  place,  or  a  place  which  is  occasionally  damp.  To  be 
constantly  damp  will  prove  their  ruin,  while  occasional  moist- 
ening and  drying  will  work  equal  harm.  The  seed  should 
never  be  kept  in  large  quantities,  subjected  to  extremes  of  tem- 
perature, or  allowed  to  become  damp. 

The  length  of  time  for  which  it  will  retain  its  vitality  will  vary 
with  different  kinds.  Even  with  the  best  of  care  onion-seed  is 
very  doubtful  when  two  years  old,  and  worthless  when  three ; 
while  cucumber-seed  will  grow  when,  it  is  from  seven  to  ten 
years  old.     Wheat  and  corn  will    grow  when  they  have  been 


474  FARMING   FOR    PROFIT. 

kept  many  years.  But  if  the  seed  is  kept  where  it  gets  damp, 
its  vitahty  is  soon  destroyed.  It  is  said  that  squashes,  cucum- 
bers, and  similar  crops,  are  better  when  grown  from  old  seed,  as 
they  will  run  less  to  vines  and  be  more  prolific.  This  may  be 
true,  but  in  our  experiments  in  this  direction  we  have  found  it 
difficult  to  get  old  seeds  to  germinate  well,  and  have  thought 
the  plants  were  more  tender  than  those  from  newer  seed.  We 
believe  it  is  generally  admitted  that  old  seeds  are  weaker  and 
produce  less  vigorous  plants  than  fresh  ones.  Imperfect  flower- 
seeds  often  give  the  finest  flowers,  but  this  is  not  an  argument 
for  the  use  of  weak  seeds  of  vegetable  plants.  On  the  contrary 
it  is  a  strong  argument  against  this  course.  For  from  the  flower 
man  desires  only  beauty.  Utility  is  not  considered.  The 
increased  beauty  of  the  flower  is  obtained  by  changing  the 
stamens  and  pistils  into  leaves.  In  some  roses  this  change  is 
complete.  We  now  have  a  splendid  sun-flower  in  our  garden  in 
which  there  are  but  a  very  few  seeds,  nearly  all  of  the  large 
flower  being  a  mass  of  beautiful  petals.  Such  a  change  makes 
a  beautiful  flower,  but  it  would  not  be  wise  to  try  its  effect  upon 
vegetables.  For  when  carried  to  an  extreme  it  is  ruinous  to  the 
species.  Reproduction  by  seed  becomes  impossible,  and  it  is 
only  by  means  of  layering,  budding,  or  some  other  resource  of 
the  gardener,  that  the  varieties  can  be  continued.  With  vege- 
*  tables  we  do  not  need  beauty  of  blossom,  but  we  are  in  want 
of  a  strong  tendency  to  produce  seed.  And  as  old  seed  tends 
to  the  production  of  finer  flowers  at  the  expense  of  the 
vitality  and  seed-producing  power  of  the  plant,  we  think  its  use 
will  be  found  unprofitable.  The  purest  and  best  seeds,  which 
are  fresh  and  uninjured,  should  always  be  obtained  for  use  in 
the  garden  and  on  the  farm. 


ECONOMY  OF  LABOR.  475 

-^''x)  S  a  class,  farmers  have  obtained  a  high  reputation  for 
t.  economy  in  the  use  of  money.  This  reputation  has 
"  -V  V  been  honestly  earned.  The  average  farmer  is  very 
^~^  careful  about  spending  his  hard-earned  dollars.  He 
does  not  lightly  allow  them  to  pass  out  of  his  possession.  He 
takes  a  great  deal  of  pains  to  obtain  them  and  is  anxious  to 
keep  them  when  they  have  been  secured.  But  with  labor  the 
case  is  very  different.  Of  this  he  is  prodigal.  He  rejoices  in 
his  ability  to  perform  a  great  deal  of  work.  The  average  far- 
mers in  this  country  are  very  hard  workers.  They  toil  more 
hours  than  almost  any  other  class,  more  hours  than  they  require 
their  cattle  to  work,  and  they  make  longer  days  and  more  of 
them  than  the  men  whom  they  hire.  So  far  they  are  very 
faithful  laborers.  But  they  have  not  succeeded  in  systematizing 
their  work  so  as  to  manage  it  to  the  best  advantage.  They  are 
careful  about  their  money,  but  very  careless  about  their  work. 
They  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  labor  is  a  standard  of  value,  and 
that  the  price  of  an  article  is,  in  a  very  great  degree,  determined 
by  the  amount  of  work  required  for  its  production.  There  are 
various  methods  in  which  labor  is  wasted  on  the  farm.  A  few 
of  the  principal  ones  we  will  endeavor  to  point  out. 

The  use  of  poor  tools,  or  tools  poorly  adapted  to  the  purpose 
for  which  they  are  designed,  is  a  prolific  source  of  waste  of  labor 
on  the  farm.  The  man  who  insists  upon  cutting  his  grain  with 
the  old-fashioned  cradle  instead  of  using  a  reaping  machine  for 
the  purpose,  wastes,  in  addition  to  a  large  quantity  of  grain,  a 
great  deal  of  labor.  His  horses  could  do  more  in  one  day  than 
he  can  in  many  days,  and  do  it  better.  He  has  the  horses  and 
must  feed  them  just  the  same  as  he  would  have  to  if  he  had 
them  cut  the  grain  instead  of  doing  it  himself  He  ought  to 
have  his  horses  do  this,  and  in  the  days  which  they  save  to  him 
he  can  be  doing  something  else.     The  man  who  furnishes  poor 


476  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 

shovels,  and  forks,  and  other  tools  for  his  hired  men  thereby 
wastes  a  great  deal  of  time  and  labor  for  which  he  is  obliged  to 
pay.  With  poor  tools  a  man  cannot  do  as  good  work,  or  as 
much  of  it,  as  he  can  with  good  ones.  Even  good  tools  when  . 
poorly  adapted  to  the  purpose  for  which  they  arc  used  involve 
a  great  loss  of  labor.  The  man  who  makes  his  team  draw  a 
heavy  harrow  over  a  field  in  which  a  light  one  would  do  just  as 
well  thereby  throws  away  the  extra  labor  of  the  team.  Similar 
examples  might  be  given  in  large  numbers. 

The  use  of  inefficient  teams  is  another  way  in  which  much 
labor  is  wasted  on  the  farm.  We  have  often  seen  two  able- 
bodied  men  plowing  with  one  slow  yoke  of  oxen.  The  two 
men  and  the  team  would  succeed  in  plowing  one  acre  of  land 
per  day.  One  of  the  men  with  a  pair  of  horses  couJd  have 
plowed  an  acre  and  a  half  per  day  while  the  other  man  might 
have  been  doing  other  work.  Or,  if  it  seemed  desirable  to 
use  oxen  instead  of  horses,  the  team  might  have  been  trained 
so  that. one  man  could  both  hold  the  plow  and  drive  the  cattle 
We  have  plowed  alone  with  oxen  a  great  many  days,  and  any 
one  can  do  it  who  will  properly  train  his  teams  and  be  gentle 
with  them.  There  are  places  where  a  driver  may  be  needed 
with  ordinary  cattle.  But  on  smooth  land  one  man  ought  to  be 
able  to  hold  the  plow  and  also  drive  the  team.  Sometimes 
oxen  which  are  not  good  to  work  are  used  and  labor  is  wasted 
because  they  will  only  draw  from  half  to  three-fourths  of  a  load 
at  a  time.  When  balky  horses,  or  weak,  lame  animals  are 
employed,  the  work  is,  and  must  be,  done  at  a  great  disadvan- 
tage. With  such  a  team  economy  in  this  branch  of  labor  can- 
not be  secured. 

The  neglect  to  do  work  at  the  proper  time  is  another  prolific 
source  of  waste  of  labor  on  a  farm.  If  before  the  rains  come, 
the  farmer  digs  plenty  of  ditches  to  carry  off  the  water,  he  will 
have  much  less  to  do  to  drain  his  field  than  he  will  if  he  waits 
until  the  land  is  soaked  and  then  attempts  to  open  drains.     The 


ECONOMY  OF  LABOR.  477 

man  who  plows  when  the  land  is  dry  will  save  a  great  deal  of 
labor  for  himself  and  his  team.  In  drawing  dirt  there  is  often 
a  loss  of  from  one-third  to  more  than  one-half  of  the  whole 
amount  gf  labor  performed.  When  a  man  draws  dirt  from 
which  the  water  runs  in  streams  through  the  cracks  in  his  cart, 
he  has  probably  got  a  greater  weight  of  water  in  his  load  than 
he  has  of  dirt.  The  water  is  useless  material.  Consequently, 
more  than  half  of  the  labor  of  loading  and  unloading  on  the 
part  of  the  man,  and  of  the  draft  on  the  part  of  the  team,  is 
absolutely  thrown  away.  In  the  cultivation  of  farm  crops,  labor 
is  often  lost  by  delay  in  attempting  the  work  which  should  be 
promptly  begun.  And  with  many  kinds  of  farm  labor  a  great 
saving  can  be  made  by  doing  the  work  at  the  proper  time. 

Frequent  changes  of  work  are  also  a  prominent  means  of 
wasting  labor.  The  man  who  commences  one  kind  of  work  in 
the  morning,  soon  thinks  of  something  else  which  ought  to  be 
done  and  changes  off  to  that,  and  in  the  course  of  the  day  works 
at  half  a  dozen  different  jobs,  no  one  of  which  he  has  completed, 
is  very  wasteful  of  his  work.  He  may  hitch  up  his  team  many 
times  a  day  to  do  things  which  might  all  have  been  done  with- 
out unharnessing.  The  man  who  mows  a  little  rowen  when  the 
dew  is  on,  then  picks  a  few  apples,  digs  a  few  potatoes,  and 
draws  a  load  or  two  of  muck  to  his  yards,  all  in  one  day  does 
not  economize  his  labor.  He  keeps  a  great  many  things  on  the 
works  at  once,  in  all  stages  of  development,  but  nothing  is 
finished  and  he  is  always  at  a  loss  to  know  what  to  do.  His 
constant  changes  involve  him  in  a  great  loss  of  time  and  travel. 
Everything  goes  slowly  because  he  tries  to  carry  everything 
along  at  once.  If  he  would  make  up  his  mind  what  work 
needed  doing  first,  and  then  give  his  undivided  attention  to  its 
completion,  the  changeable  farmer  would  be  much  more  econ- 
ical  of  his  labor,  and,  consequently,  much  more  successful  in  his 
business. 

Want  of  skill  is  one  of  the  great  difficulties  with  many  farmers 


478  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

in  their  efforts  to  economize  labor.  They  work  very  much  by 
guess.  Some  -men  are  naturally  much  more  skilful  than 
others,  but  all  may  learn  to  manage  farm  business  well.  Many 
young  farmers  exhibit  this  want  of  skill.  It  is  to  be  expected 
that  they  will  make  mistakes.  EJcperience  is  a  great  teacher. 
More  men  have  become  good  farmers  by  means  of  the  lessons 
taught  by  experience  than  ever  have  reached  success  by  means 
of  any  natural  aptitude  for  the  business.  No  one  should  despair 
because  his  past  has  not  been  satisfactory.  Study  and  care  will 
yet  lead  him  to  success.  By  observing  how  his  most  successful 
neighbors  economize  labor,  reading  the  best  agricultural  books 
and  papers,  and  studying  the  lessons  of  his  own  experience,  he 
will  be  able  to  manage  his  buiness  better  and  become,  in  time,  a 
skilful  farmer.  The  old  saying,  "It  is  half  to  calculate,"  is  as 
applicable  to  farming  as  it  is  to  almost  anything.  A  well-planned 
effort  in  any  line  of  business  is  the  most  likely  to  be  successful. 
It  should  be  one  of  the  aims  of  the  young  farmer  to  learn  to 
plan  his  work  well.  Skill  in  laying  out  work  and  inefficiency 
in  executing  it,  sometimes,  but  very  seldom,  go  together.  As 
a  rule  the  man  who  is  skilful  in  planning  will  be  an  efficient 
worker. 

Carelessness  is  one  of  the  hindrances  to  economy  of  labor. 
Many  farmers  mean  to  save  all  their  time  and  employ  their  work 
to  the  best  advantage,  who  are  careless  and  negligent  and  who 
are,  on  this  account,  continually  incurring  losses  and  meeting 
with  disappointments.  They  forget  to  do  things  which  they 
fully  intended  to  perform.  Very  often  a  rainy  day  will  come 
and  the  farmer  and  his  hands  will  be  almost  wholly  idle  for  want 
of  work  which  can  be  done  under  cover,  but  in  a  few  days  it 
will  be  found  necessary  to  do  a  job  which  might  just  as  vi^ell 
have  been  attended  to  at  that  time  and  thus  allowed  the  men 
to  be  doing  other  work  in  clear  weather.  Sometimes  there  are 
days  in  winter  when  certain  kinds  of  outdoor  work  nu'ght  be 
easily  performed  if  they  were  thought  of,  but  which  arc    /uly 


ECONOMY  OF  LABOR.  479 

remembered  when  the  opportunity  has  passed  away.  Then,  in 
the  hurrying  days  of  spring,  time  has  to  be  taken  to  do  what 
might  just  as  well  have  been  done  when  there  was  nothing  else 
on  hand.  Besides,  it  often  happens  that  by  delay  the  amount  of 
work  required  is  largely  increased. 

Failure  to  economize  labor  often  results  from  the  performance 
of  unnecessary  work  or  the  doing  of  ordinary  work  in  too 
elaborate  a  manner.  One  of  the  kings  of  Macedon  spent  many 
years  of  his  life  in  making  lanterns.  The  important  interests  of 
his  kingdom  were  neglected  because  he  was  too  busy  to  attend 
to  them.  He  was  not  an  idle  man,  but  his  work  amounted  to 
nothing  because  he  wasted  his  labor.  Many  farmers  spend  a 
great  deal  of  time  and  labor  in  doing  work  which  will  prove  of 
no  benefit  to  themselves  or  to  any  one  else.  There  are  also 
many  who  are  very  particular  about  their  methods  of  doing 
work.  They  hoe  their  potatoes  as  carefully  as  a  mason  builds  a 
wall.  Their  corn  might  be  cultivated  just  as  well,  as  far  as  the 
good  of  the  crop  is  concerned,  by  horse  power,  but  they  will 
have  every  hill  nicely  hoed  by  hand  two  or  three  times  during 
the  season.  We  dislike  to  see  work  slighted,  and  never  advise 
running  over  it,  but  the  great  fact  that  labor  costs  and  that  the 
man  who  wastes  labor  thereby  wastes  money,  ought  to  be  kept 
constantly  in  mind  and  should  prevent  that  extreme  nicety  in 
Ihe  performance  of  farm  work  which  requires  much  extra  time 
but  yields  no  corresponding  return.  » 

Another  reason  why  so  many  farmers  fail  to  economize  labor 
is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  their  buildings  are  very  inconveni- 
ent and  their  farms  are  poorly  laid  out.  The  amount  of  extra 
work  required  on  a  farm  which  is  not  well  arranged  and  has 
inconvenient  buildings  is  very  great.  One  farmer  will  grow  his 
green  fodder  crops  near  the  yard  in  which  he  feeds  them,  while 
another  will  put  them  far  off  in  the  field.  All  through  the 
months  when  this  kind  of  fodder  is  needed,  one  of  these  farmers 
will  simply  cut  and  throw  into  the  yard  what  is  wanted  at  once, 


480  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

spending  only  a  few  minutes  about  the  work,  while  the  other 
will  he  obliged  to  hitch  up  a  team,  drive  into  the  field,  and  be 
gone  quite  a  length  of  time.  One  man  will  have  his  yards  so 
arranged  that  when  his  team  draws  a  load  of  manure  into  the 
field,  a  load  of  muck  can  be  brought  back.  Another  man  has 
his  yards  so  laid  out  that  the  manure  must  be  carted  out  before 
material  for  compost  can  be  brought  in.  Some  farmers  have 
convenient  places  of  storage  for  all  their  crops  and  tools,  while 
others  are  constantly  cramped  for  room.  On  some  farms  the 
buildings  are  so  inconveniently  arranged  that  the  work  of  doing 
the  chores  in  winter  is  just  about  doubled.  On  other  farms 
everything  is  convenient  and  work  can  be  rapidly  performed. 
It  will  pay  well  to  study  convenience  in  the  arrangement  of 
fields  and  buildings,  and  even  to  be  to  some  expense  to  secure 
it.  The  man  who  has  things  "handy"  will  get  along  faster, 
better,  and  easier,  with  his  work  than  the  one  who  is  constantly 
hampered  by  inconvenient  surroundings. 

There  are  many  other  ways  in  which  economy  of  labor  can 
be  secured,  but  as  we  must  limit  our  attention  to  general  prin- 
ciples, with  illustrations  thereof,  we  will  not  pursue  the  subject 
further.  We  will  only  remark  that  as  the  excessive  spending  of 
money  for  needless  purposes  is  ruinous,  so  the  waste  of  labor 
which  is  so  common  in  all  parts  of  the  country  is  proving  a  great 
and  constant  burden.  The  honest  farmer  must  work  hard. 
From  this  necessity  there  is  no  exemption.  When  he  obtains  a 
suitable  reward  he  can  labor  with  a  cheerful  spirit,  but  to  work 
hard  arid  be  constantly  unsuccessful  is  very  disheartening.  By 
carefully  economizing  his  work  the  average  farmer  can  secure  a 
very  gratifying  degree  of  success.  Without  this  careful  saving 
of  labor  and  time,  he  will  be  almost  certain  to  fall  far  below  his 
hopes  and  expectations. 


FARM  TEAMS.  481 


TEAM,  of  some  kind,  every  farmer  must  have.  He 
^     cannot  do  his  work  without  one,  and  neither  borrowing 

P^         nor  hiring  can  be  depended   upon  to  furnish  one  just 

e)       when  its  services  are  required. 

The  principal  animals  used  in  this  country  for  teams  are  the 
horse,  mule,  and  ox.  For  many  places  and  purposes  the  horse 
is  much  the  best.  The  mule  is  hardy,  long-lived,  and  can  be 
easily  kept,  but  for  various  reasons  he  has  not  become  as 
popular  as  the  horse.  There  are  places  where  neither  horses  nor 
mules  can  work  to  good  advantage,  but  in  which  oxen  can 
be  profitably  employed.  But  on  the  road  oxen  are  very 
slow,  and  cannot  successfully  compete  with  either  horses  or 
mules. 

Which  of  these  animals  it  will  be  best  for  the  farmer  to  keep 
for  a  team  must  depend  upon  his  circumstances  and  the 
character  of  his  land.  On  some  farms  oxen  would  be  wholly 
inefficient,  while  on  others  they  would  be  the  most  profitable 
animals  for  a  team  which  the  farmer  could  employ.  For  most 
purposes  either  the  horse  or  the  mule-team  is  better  than  an 
ox-team.  But  it  does  not  follow  that  every  farmer  ought  to 
keep  horses  or  mules.  A  steam-plow  is  better  than  a  horse- 
plow,  but  not  every  farmer  can  have  one.  It  is  faster  and 
pleasanter  travelling  on  the  cars  than  it  is  on  foot,  but  many 
people  are  obliged  to  walk  because  they  cannot  afford  to  buy 
tickets  of  the  railroad  companies.  There  are  farmers  who 
would  like  to  use  horses  or  mules,  but  who  are  under  a  sort  of 
necessity  to  keep  oxen  because  they  cannot  afford  a  better 
team.  Still,  there  are  many  who  prefer  pleasure  to  profit,  and 
who  keep  horses  although  oxen  could  do  their  work  at  a  much 
less  expense.  In  New  England  there  has  been  a  great  change 
in  this  direction.  Twenty  years  ago  oxen  were  extensively  used, 
but   they  have  been,  to  a  very  great   extent,  superseded  by 


482  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

horses.  Some  farmers  have  found  the  change  profitable,  but 
many  have  lost  money  by  the  operation.  The  horses  make  a 
better  team,  but  many  of  these  farmers  could  have  got  along 
with  oxen,  and  saved  quite  a  sum  both  in  the  first  cost  of  the 
teams  and  in  the  expense  of  keeping  them.  If  teaming  were  the 
only  kind  of  work  to  be  done  on  a  farm  either  horses  or  mules 
would  be  needed.  Oxen  would  require  more  time  than  the 
farmer  could  afford  to  give.  But  on  many  small  farms  the  team 
is  not  constantly  employed,  and  oxen  could  do  the  work. 

In  the  great  grain-growing  sections  horses  or  mules  will  be 
absolutely  needed.  It  is  of  great  importance  to  get  the  lam  <• 
fitted,  and  seed  sown  at  the  proper  time,  and  delay,  though  only 
of  a  few  days,  will  involve  a  heavy  loss.  Oxen  are  too  slow  foi' 
use  in  such  places,  and  for  work  on  the  road.  On  farms  wheie 
grain-growing  is  not  a  specialty,  the  owners  may  be  better 
able  to  furnish  the  extra  time  required  to  work  with  oxen  than 
they  are  to  pay  the  higher  price  which  a  better  team  will  com- 
mand. There  are  a  few  places  in  which  oxen  are  the  best  team. 
On  steep  hillsides,  and  in  the  mud,  they  are  decidedly  superior. 
But  for  most  purposes  horses  or  mules  are  greatly  to  be 
preferred. 

On  the  one  hand  there  is  the  greater  degree  of  eflficiency  of 
the  horse  and  mule,  while  on  the  other  there  is  the  lower  price 
of  the  ox.  The  cost  of  keeping  and  shoeing  a  horse  or  mule- 
team  is  much  in  excess  of  that  required  for  the  ox-team.  Then, 
too,  the  horse  and  the  mule  rapidly  decrease  in  value  until  old 
age  renders  them  worthless,  while  the  ox  depreciates  but  little  for 
several  years,  and  at  any  time  can  be  fattened  and  sold  to  the 
butcher  for  almost,  if  not  quite,  as  much  as  he  was  ever  worth. 
If  a  horse  or  mule  is  accidentally  injured,  a  part,  and  often  the 
whole,  of  its  value  is  thereby  destroyed,  but  if  an  ox  gets  lame 
he  can  be  fattened  and  but  little  loss  will  be  sustained. 

The  expense  of  fitting  out  a  horse  or  mule-team  is  much 
8:reater  than  that  required  for  an  ox- team.     The  harnesses  and 


FARM    TEAMS.  483 

wagons  required  for  the  former  costs  a  great  deal  when  com- 
pared with  the  yoke,  chains,  and  cart,  which  are  needed  for  the 
oxen.  Whether  the  extra  time  required  in  using  the  oxen  is 
worth  as  much  to  the  farmer  as  the  extra  cost  of  a  horse  or 
mule-team,  the  increased  expense  of  keeping,  the  higher  cost  of 
wagons  and  harnesses,  depreciation  in  the  value  of  the  horse  or 
mule-teams,  and  the  interest  on  the  extra  amount  of  capital  thus 
invested,  is  a  question  to  be  considered  by  those  whose  farm- 
work  oxen  are  qualified  4:o  perform.  We  do  not,  except  for 
purposes  already  indicated,  recommend  oxen  as  a  better  team 
than  horses  or  mules,  but  merely  raise  the  question  whether  in 
many  cases  they  may  not  be  less  expensive. 

The  farmer  must  keep  one  horse,  or  mule,  for  use  on  the 
road.  He  cannot  get  along  without  it,  although  if  the  farm- 
business  is  small  there  will.be  a  great  deal  of  time  in  which  it 
will  have  nothing  to  do.  If  by  obtaining  one  more  horse,  or 
mule,  he  can  perform  all  the  farm-work  with  the  pair,  it  may  be 
better  to  keep  the  extra  one  than  it  is  to  buy  a  yoke  of  oxen. 

On   large   farriis   several    animals   must  be   kept   for   work. 

There  should  be  a  sufficient  number  to  do  the  work  promptly 

and   thoroughly,  but   the   temptation  to  keep  more  horses  or 

mules  than  are  needed  should  be  "resisted.     Every  idle  horse 

or  mule  involves  its  owner  in  a  great  expense.     It  costs  almof,t 

as  much  to  keep  one  idle  as  it  does  at  work.     In  one  case  the 

expense  is  paid  by  labor,  while  in  the  other  there  is  no  return. 

A  good  team,  fully  able  to   do   all   the  work  and  do  it  well, 

should  be  kept  on  every  farm,  but  it  will  not  pay  the  owner  to 

keep  a  larger  number  of  animals  for  this  purpose  than  are  really 

needed  for  its  accomplishment. 
31 


4g4  FARMING   FOR  PROFIT. 

FiimM  FENCES. 

'O  quite  an  extent  farm  fences  are  necessary.  There  must 
be  a  fence  around  the  pasture ;  there  should  be  a  fence 
on  the  boundary  line  of  the  farm,  except  where  it  joins 
■Q)  the  highway;  and  if  cattle  are  allowed  in  the  mowings 
in  the  fall,  it  Svill  be  useful  to  have  the  grass-land  divided  into 
two  or  more  fields.  It  is  also  well  to  have  fences  so  that  cattle 
can  be  kept  off  the  grain  fields  wheif  tl:e/  would  be  .liable  to 
track  the  land  arfd  injure  the  crop.  But  it  is  not  necessary,  and 
it  is  not  desirable,  that  the  whole  farm  should  be  cut  up  into 
eight  or  ten-acre  fields,  according  to  the  practice  of  some  of  the 
New  England  farmers  of  a  former  generation.  Such  a  course 
involves  an  immense  cost  for  fencing,  and  a  great  waste  of  land. 
The  cost  of  the  fences  now  standing  in  this  coin';ry  is  far 
beyond  the  estimate  which  a  man  not  acquainted  with  the  facts 
would  make.  We  know  of  farms  which  are  cut  up  into  small 
fields  by  heavy  stone  walls.  The  work  of  gathering  ths  stones 
and  building  the  walls  could  not  now  be  hired  for  the  whole 
value  of  the  land  and  crops  and  buildings.  There  are  thou- 
sands of  farms  in  New  England  which  will  not  sell  for  enough 
to  pay  fair  day's  wages  for  the  work  which  has  been  done  in 
fencing  them.  It  has  been  asserted  that  the  fences  in  this 
country  cost  more  than  all  of  the  houses,  including  those  in 
cities ;  more  than  all  manufactories  with  their  machinery  ;  and 
more  than  any  other  single  class  of  property,  except  real  estate. 
The  annual  cost  (^f  fences,  including  interest  on  the  investment, 
is  said  to  be  from  one  to  two  hundred  millions  of  dollars. 
Whether  these  estimates  are  accepted  as  exact  or  not  the  great 
fact  that  a  vast  amount  of  money  is  already  invested  in  fences 
remains  beyond  dispute.  It  is  equally  evident  that  a  large 
number  of  these  fences  are  wholly  useless. 

On  account  of  the  great  expense  and  the  loss  of  land  involved 
in  their  construction,  we  do  not  favor  having  as  many  fences  as 


FARM   FF.XCF.S  4<"<5 

are  usually  found  on  the  farm.  The  fences  we  have  name! 
seem  to  be  necessary'.  Others  would  often  be  convenient,  but 
would  cost  more  than  they  would  be  worth.  In  many  cases  a 
temporary  fence  can  be  employed,  which  will  give  the  conve- 
niences without  the  disadvantages  of  a  permanent  structure.  In 
some  of  the  States  it  will  also  be  necessary'  to  fence  next  the 
highway,  or  else  endure  all  the  losses  which  may  be  sustained 
by  droves  of  cattle  or  by  stray  animals.  In  Massachusetts 
the  law  does  not  require  roadside  fences,  and  within  the  past 
five  years  a  great  many  of  the  old  walls  and  the  board  fences, 
together  with  some  of  the  more  pretentious  slat,  or  picket 
fences,  have  been  removed.  The  appearance  of  the  farms,  and 
also  of  the  towns,  has  been  greatly  improved  by  this  change, 
and  a  great  saving  is  effected  by  the  owners  of  the  land. 

The  kinds  of  fence  in  common  use  are  the  rail,  the  post  and 
rail,  post  and  board,  stone  wall,  hedge,  embankment  and  wnre 
fence.  The  common  rail  fence  is  open  to  the  objections  of 
requiring  a  great  deal  of  timber,  occupying  a  great  deal  of  land^ 
and -of  being  easily  thrown  down.  There  are  various  modifica- 
tions of  this  style  of  fence,  and  where  land  is  plenty,  timber 
cheap,  saw-mills  scarce,  and  money  does  not  abound,  some  of 
these  forms  may  be  profitably  employed.  But  as  a  rule,  under 
ordinary  circumstances,  and  especially  where  land  is  valuable, 
some  other  style  will  be  more  desirable. 

The  post  and  rail  fence  is  an  improvement  on  the  style 
already  described,  though  subject  to  some  disadvantages.  For 
this  fence  much  less  timber  is  needed,  and  it  occupies  less  than 
half  the  land  which  the  other  requires.  It  is  also  a  more  sub- 
stantial fence.  But  the  work  of  digging  the  post  holes,  cutting 
the  holes  in  the  posts  to  admit  the  ends  of  the  rails,  and  of 
fitting  the  rails,  renders  the  labor  item  quite  expensive.  On. 
land  which  is  inclined  to  heave,  the  posts  are  soon  thrown  out 
unless  they  are  filled  around  with  gravel,  or  some  other  precau- 
tion is  taken  to  prevent  the  evil.     If  a  large  hole  is  dug,  and  a- 


486  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

piece  of  board  two  feet  long  is  nailed  to  one  side,  near  the 
bottom,  and  another  piece  on  the  opposite  side  a  little  higher 
up,  and  the  earth  firmly  packed  d  iwn,  the  post  will  rise  and  fall 
with  the  soil,  and  will  not  be  thrown  out.  Such  a  fence,  if  well 
built,  will  last  many  years  without  repairs. 

The  post  and  board  fence  looks  better  than  the  post  and  rail. 
In  some  sections  it  is  cheaper,  while  in  others  it  is  more  expen- 
sive. Posts  seven  feet  apart,  with  four  six-inch  boards  placed 
six  inches  apart  and  firmly  nailed,  make  a  good  fence.  This 
style  requires  but  little  land  and  very  few  repairs. 

The  stone  wall  is  a  very  common  fence  in  New  England,  and 
is  used  to  some  extent  in  other  sections.  When  well  made  it  is 
quite  durable,  and  will  turn  cattle  and  horses,  but  will  not  keep 
sheep  without  a  rail,  or  something  of  the  kind,  placed  on  top. 
It  takes  considerable  land,  and  makes  an  almost  immovable 
fence.  No  matter  how  much  a  farmer  may  want  to  change  the 
size  of  his  fields,  if  his  land  is  cut  up  into  little  lots  divided 
by  heavy  stone  walls,  he  must  leave  them  as  they  are,  or  else 
be  content  to  perform  an  immense  amount  of  work.  On  very 
stony  farms  it  may  pay  to  make  the  boundary  fences  of  stones. 
This,  not  because  it  will  be  a  cheap  style,  but  merely  in  order  to 
find  a  place  to  put  the  stones.  The  inside  fences  of  a  farm 
should  be  made  of  lighter  material  which  can  be  more  easily 
removed. 

Live  fences  have  attracted  much  attention,  and  been  exten- 
sively introduced  at  the  West,  In  New  England  there  are 
also  many  hedges.  We  do  not  like  these  fences,  but  it  may 
sometimes  be  well  to  make  a  virtue  of  necessity,  and  use  them 
for  want  of  anything  better  adapted  to  the  circumstances  of  the 
farmer.  Our  own  experience  has  been  with  a  species  of  the 
willow  brought  from  Ohio,  and  very  highly  recommended. 
It  makes  a  strong  fence,  but,  being  a  vigorous  grower,  requires 
much  trimming,  it  looks  badly,  and  takes  a  great  deal  of  plant- 
food  from  the  land.     Many  farmers  have  used  the  buckthorn. 


FARM  FENCES.  437 

arbor-vitae,  hemlock,  and  pine.  Each  of  these  will  make  quite 
a  fence,  but  they  require  manure  and  cultivation  to  insure  a 
strong  and  uniform  growth  when  young,  and  much  pruning  t-^ 
make  them  look  decently  when  they  have  attained  considerabU 
size.  They  are  also  subject  to  the  adverse  influences  of  extreme 
drought  and  severe  cold.  As  they  cannot  be  removed  without 
being  destroyed,  they  are  not  well  adapted  for  inside  fences, 
while  if  neighbors  choose  to  quarrel  they  may  cut  the  roots 
upon  their  own  sides,  and  thus  injure  the  boundary-hedges. 
In  the  Middle  and  Southern  States  the  Osage  orange  is  a 
better  hedge-plant  than  those  we  have  named,  but  it  will  not 
endure  Northern  winters.  The  honey  locust  is  one  of  the 
best  hedge-plants  for  all  sections. 

Embankments  are  often  used  in  England  for  fencing  between 
two  farms.  A  large,  open  ditch  is  dug  on  the  line,  and  the  dirt 
piled  up  in  a  high  wall  upon  one  side.  Of  these  fences 
Loudon  says  the  earth  taken  out  is  "  formed  into  a  bank,  the 
height  of  which  when  added  to  the  depth  of  the  ditch  forms  a 
tolerable  barrier."  But  he  does  not  recommend  them  as  highly 
as  he  does  the  double  ditch,  in  which  the  earth  from  an  open 
ditch  on  each  side  is  piled  upon  the  line  of  the  fence,  and  a 
hedge  is  planted  on  top  of  this  embankment.  Where  the  land 
is  very  wet,  and  underdraining  is  impracticable,  one  of  these* 
methods  may  be  adopted.  We  recommend  it  only  for  very  wet 
land,  and  consider  its  value  as  an  instrument  of  drainage  to  be 
far  in  excess  of  its  merits  as  a  fence. 

The  wire  fence  is  now  quite  popular,  and  seems  destined  to 
come  into  extensive  use  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  Some 
years  ago  plain  wire  was  used  at  the  West  for  fencing  pur- 
poses. It  possessed  many  merits,  but  was  defective  in  some 
important  respects.  Various  improvements  have  been  effected 
and  patented.  The  most  important  of  these  have  been  bought 
by  the  Washburn  &  Moen  Manufacturing  Co.,  of  Worcester, 
Mass.,  and  united  in  the  Glidden  Steel  Barb  Fence.     This 


4»8 


FARMING    lOK    PROFIT. 


fence  possesses  many  advantages  over  any  other  style.  The 
wire  is  very  strong,  being  made  of  two  strands,  and  will  sustain 
a  weight  of  fourteen  hundred  pounds  to  each  line.     It  is  easily 


seen,  and,  having  many  barbs,  cattle  find  it  impassable.  When 
once  well  put  up  it  remains  in  place  through  all  extremes  of 
heat  and  cold.     This  wire  makes  a  very  cheap  fence.     Four 


FARM  FENCES.  489 

lines  can  be  put  up  at  a  cost  for  materials  of  only  seventy-five 
cents  to  one  dollar  per  rod,  and  make  a  fence  through  which  no 
animals,  large  or  small,  can  pass.  The  barb  wire  fence  is  repre- 
sented in  Figure  51.  Such  a  fence  can  be  put  up  very  rapidly, 
will  n^t  be  destroyed  by  prairie  fires,  will  not  be  blown  down, 
and  will  neither  cause  drifts  nor  be  injured  by  snow.  This  wire 
can  be  used  in  connection  with  old  or  new  wood  fences  if 
desired.  We  have  tried  stretching  one  line  on  top  of  an  old 
Virginia  fence  which  the  cattle  often  used  to  throw  down.  It 
has  worked  to  perfection,  and  made  the  old  fence  safe  at  a  very 
slight  expense.  This  wire  is  well  adapted  for  use  as  a  temporary 
fence  for  keeping  cattle  out  of  grain  fields  in  the  fall.  For  this 
purpose  posts  can  be  set  quite  a  distance  apart,  and  only  two, 
or,  at  most,  three  lines  of  wire  will  be  needed. 

In  making  a  fence  which  is  designed  to  remain  for  any  length 
of  time  it  is  best  to  use  good  materials  and  do  the  work  well. 
For  a  Virginia  fence  wooden  blocks  will  prove  much  better 
than  stones  for  foundations  for  the  corners.  The  former  will 
decay  in  time  and  must  be  replaced.  The  latter  will  last,  but 
will  soon  sink  into  the  ground  and  become  useless.  *Stakes 
should  be  made  long  enough  to  be  re-sharpened  and  used  again 
when  the  ends  in  the  ground  decay.  They  should  also  be  large 
enough  to  keep  the  fence  in  place.  From  rails,  stakes,  posts, 
and  boards,  all  the  bark  should  be  taken  before  they  are  put 
into  the  fence.  When  the  bark  remains  the  timber  will  last  but 
little,  if  any,  more  than  half  as  long  as  it  would  if  the  bark  had 
been  taken  off.  Sound  timber  should  always  be  chosen,  and 
when  a  post  and  board  fence  is  made,  heavy  nails  should  b& 
ased.  It  does  not  pay  to  have  too  many  fences,  but  it  is  best 
when  making  one  designed  to  be  permanent  to  use  good 
materials  and  put  them  together  in  the  best  possible  manner. 


490  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 


I^ARM  ROAl 


'ARM  ROADS  are  a  great  convenience,  though  not  an 
absolute  necessity.     Many  farmers  have  nothing  of  the 

;j,^  kind.  They  drive  all  over  the  fields,  wherever  they  want 
t)  to  go,  and  make  no  effort  to  secure  a  good  road  in  any 
part  of  the  farm.  The  result  is  that  their  mowing  lots  and  grain 
fields  are  cut  up  with  wheef  tracks  and  trodden  by  the  team,  the 
labor  of  drawing  the  loads  is  increased  to  such  an  extent  that 
the  teams  are  obliged  to  work  extremely  hard,  while  the  work 
is  so  severe,  especially  when  the  land  is  softened  by  rains,  that 
much  smaller  loads  must  be  taken  than  could  be  drawn  if  good 
roads  were  provided. 

Roads  will  cost  some  labor,  but  in  the  end  will  save  both  labor 
and  time.  The  farmer  and  his  help  can  easily  make  them. 
On  every  farm  there  should  be  one  good  road  which,  with 
its  branches,  shall  lead  from  the  barn  to  each  field. 

On  dry  land  the  farm  road  is  easily  constructed.  Many 
farmers  rely  merely  upon  a  cart  path.  But  such  a  path  soon 
becomes  rutted.  Very  little  grass  will  grow  between  the  tracks, 
and  the  land  had  better  be  devoted  wholly  to  the  purposes  of  a 
road.  The  ruts  cause  the  loads  to  draw  very  much  harder  than 
they  would  on  a  good  road,  while  they  are  also  liable  to  cause 
wagon  wheels  to  be  unduly  wrenched  and  twisted.  A  team  will 
draw  a  heavier  load  on  a  good  road  than  it  can  in  the  ordinary 
cart  path,  and  wagon  and  cart  wheels  will  last  much 'longer — 
advantages  which  will  soon  compensate  the  farmer  for  the  labor 
required  in  making  the  road. 

The  farm  road  should  be  elevated  a  little  above  the  level  of 
the  land,  and  in  order  to  let  the  water  run  off  it  should 
be  made  a  little  higher  in  the  middle  than  it  is  at  the  sides. 
The  ground  should  be  plowed,  graded,  and  rolled.  If  it  is  nearly 
level,  an  open  furrow  may  be  left  on  each  side.  Where  the  land 
is  wet  the  labor  will  be  increased.     The  ground  should  be  thor- 


FARM   ROADS.  491 

oughly  underdrained.  If  stones  are  plenty,  the  earth  may  be 
thrown  out  to  a  depth  of  two  or  three  feet  and  the  trench  filled 
with  cobbles,  upon  which  the  dirt  may  be  placed.  The  centre 
of  the  road  must  be  some  higher  than  the  edges,  and  at  the  sides 
an  open  furrow,  or  a  trench  filled  with  stones,  should  be  made. 
If  there  are  no  stones  to  be  had,  tiles  may  be  laid  under  the 
road.  When  this  course  is  impracticable,  the  road  should  be 
considerably  elevated  and  large  ditches  at  the  sides  should  be 
made  to  take  off  the  water. 

In  some  places  several  farmers  could  profitably  unite  in  buying 
a  machine  for  making  roads.  The  cost  to  each  would  be  slight, 
while  all  the  advantages  of  single  ownership  would  be  secured. 
The  Champion  Road  Grader,  made  by  the  Eureka  Manufac- 
turing Company,  of  Rock  Falls,  111.,  is  an  excellent  implement 
for  making  farm  roads. 

It  may  be  objected  to  farm  roads  that  they  will  be  in  the  way 
when  the  fields  are  plowed.  This  has  little  force,  for  the  roads 
can  easily  be  avoided.  They  will  often  prove  very  useful.  Many 
a  load  of  hay  has  been  shaken  off  while  being  drawn  over  a 
rough  cart  path  which  would  have  stayed  on,  and  all  the  labor 
of  reloading,  with  its  loss  of  time,  would  have  been  avoided  if 
there  had  been  a  good  road  where  it  was  drawn.  A  man  and 
team  carting  out  manure  in  the  wet  weather  of  spring  will 
accomplish  a  great  deal  more  if  there  is  a  good  road  than  they 
can  with  only  a  common  path  to  draw  it  over.  On  a  good  road 
the  team  will  draw  as  much  at  twice  as  can  be  taken  at  three 
times  in  a  cart  path  on  soft  land.  The  use  of  poor  roads  thus 
involves  a  loss  of  the  time  and  labor  of  one  day  out  of  every 
three  in  which  the  team  is  used. 

Not  only  this,  but  the  liability  of  accident  is  greatly  increased 
by  poor  roads,  or  by  driving  in  the  ruts  where  no  roads  are  pro- 
vided. Many  a  horse  has  been  made  lame  for  life  by  injuries 
received  while  drawing  loads  in  a  muddy  cart  path.  Thus  the 
horse  is  obliged  to  endure  a  great  deal  of  suffering,  while  the 


492  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 

owner  must  sustain  quite  a  loss.     If  a  good  road  had  been  fur- 
nished, both  of  these  evils  would  have  been  avoided. 

The  loss  of  labor  is  another  consideration  which  should  have 
considerable  influence  in  inducing  the  farmer  to  keep  good  roads. 
We  have  already  shown  that  labor  is  equivalent  to  money.  And 
it  is  easy  to  see  that  there  is  not  only  a  great  loss  of  time  in- 
volved by  using  poor  roads,  but  also  a  great  deal  of  labor.  The 
team  may  be  required  to  draw  only  two-thirds  as  much  on  a 
poor  road  as  it  would  have  to  take  on  a  good  one,  but  the  labor 
is  gfreater  than  it  would  be  with  a  full  load.  This  increase  is  not 
merely  in  the  aggregate  amount  of  work,  in  the  necessity  of 
working  three  days  to  do  two  days'  labor,  but  each  and  every 
load,  though  only  two-thirds  as  large,  draws  much  harder  tlian 
a  full  load  should. 

On  dry  land  it  will  pay  to  furnish  good  roads  for  the  team, 
while  on  wet  land  a  heavy  and  constant  loss  will  be  incurred  by 
the  farmer  who  uses  a  cart  path,  or  drives  where  he  happens  to, 
instead  of  making  a  good  road  over  which  loads  can  be  easily 
drawn. 


(f\ 


TIMBEH  CUr^TURE, 


/-,C^HE  setting  of  timber  trees  has  often  been  recommended 
'  ■  and  in  "many  places  can  be  made  quite  profitable.  The 
Western  farmer  needs  wood  for  fuel,  and  timber  for 
building  and  fencing  purposes.  His  house  should  have 
trees  around  it  to  purify  the  air,  and  his  cattle  need  shade  in 
their  pastures.  In  New  England  there  are  many  firms  upon 
which  trees  are  needed  for  these  purposes,  and  many  tracts  *of 
comparatively  waste  land  which  can  be  made  useful  by  their 
production.  At  the  South  there  are  many  places  where  trees 
would  improve  the  land,  make  the  locations  more  healthful,  and 
supply  a  great  want  of  nice  timber. 

In  all  sections  of  the  country  there  are  a  multitude  of  farmers 


TIMBER    CULTURE.  493 

who,  by  devoting  an  acre  or  more  of  land  to  the  growth  of  the 
finest  timber  trees  which  flourish  in  their  locahties,  could  greatly 
increase  the  value  of  their  farms  and  do  a  good  thing  for  the 
financial  interests  of  their  descendants.  Some  varieties  of  trees 
grow  very  rapidly,  and  with  a  little  cultivation  the  slow-growing 
soi-ts  can  be  hastened  in  their  development.  Even  on  land 
which  is  far  from  good,  timber  culture  often  proves  quite  profit- 
able. Mr.  J.  S.  Fay,  of  Mass.,  devoted  one  hundred  and  twenty- 
five  acres  of  very  poor  land  to  timber  culture  in  1853  and  a 
few  succeeding  years.  Larch  trees  transplanted  from  the  nur- 
sery in  1853  ^^'ei's  forty  feet  in  height,  and  ten  or  twelve  inches 
in  diameter  a  foot  above  the  ground,  in  1875.  Other  varieties 
of  trees  also  made  a  very  rapid  growth.  About  three-fourths 
of  the  trees  were  obtained  from  seed  sown  where  they  were  to 
stand,  some  were  imported,  while  others  were  started  in  the 
nursery.  Probably  at  the  West  the  growth  of  timber  trees 
would  be  much  more  rapid  than  it  is  at  the  East. 

For  growing  at  the  West  and  South  the  catalpa  is  a  splendid 
tree.  It  grows  very  rapidly  and  the  wood  is  one  of  the  most 
durable  kinds  known.  Mr.  Suel  Foster,  of  Iowa,  says  there 
are  two  varieties,  one  of  which  occasionally  winter-kills  at  the 
North,  while  the  other  seems  to  be  as  hardy  as  the  maple  or 
oak.  We  know  of  a  few  trees  in  Mass.  which  when  small  were 
somewhat  affected  by  severe  winters.  Probably  the  hardy  sort 
would  do  well  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  This  tree  grows  so 
rapidly  that  it  soon  becomes  large  enough  for  bean  poles,  and 
in  six  or  eight  years  will  do  for  fence  stakes  and  many  other 
purposes.  The  trees  are  healthy  and  not  liable  to  be  attacked 
by  insects.  For  railroad  ties,  bridges,  fences,  and  other  pur- 
poses for  which  permanence  is  required,  this  timber  is  of  great 
value.  It  also  takes  a  fine  polish  and  is  useful  for  cabinet  work 
and  finishing  the  interior  of  buildings. 

There  are  many  other  varieties  of  trees  which  grow  rapidly 
and  succeed  in  large  sections  of  the  country.     The  white  ash. 


494  FARMING   FOR    PROFIT. 

walnut,  European  larch,  locust,  chestnut,  and  pine  can  be  easily 
and  successfully  cultivated  in  most  of  the  States.  The  white 
oak  is  also  a  very  valuable  timber  tree  and  will  adapt  itself  to  a 
wide  range  of  soil  and  climate,  but  is  of  a  slow  habit  of  growth. 
A  few  trees  of  this  sort  might  well  find  a  place  in  a  timber  plan- 
tation. 

It  is  better  to  set  several  different  kinds  of  trees  than  to  use 
only  one  variety.  These  trees  may  be  started  from  seed  planted 
where  they  are  to  grow,  from  seed  in  the  garden  and  the  trees 
transplanted  when  three  or  four  years  old,  or  they  may  be 
obtained  directly  from  a  nursery.  We  think  it  is  decidedly 
better  to  follow  either  of  the  other  plans  than  it  is  to  plant  the 
seeds  where  the  trees  are  expected  to  stand.  The  distance  apart 
at  which  the  trees  should  be  placed  will  depend  upon  the  pur- 
poses for  which  they  are  to  be  used  and  the  size  which  they 
are  expected  to  attain. 

It  has  often  been  asserted  that  the  removal  of  forests  greatly 
diminishes  the  rain-fall,  affects  the  climate  unfavorably,  and 
injures  the  soil.  On  the  other  hand,  the  claim  has  been  made 
that  when  taken  in  periods  of  twenty  years  the  rain-fall  is  nearly 
uniform,  that  it  is  not  changed  to  any  extent  by  the  presence  or 
the  removal  of  forests,  and  that  the  changes  of  climate  and  soil 
which  have  been  observed  in  connection  with  the  clearing  off 
of  vast  forests  are  due  to  other  causes. 

It  is  probably  true  that  the  average  rain-fall  of  a  country  in 
periods  of  twenty  years  is  about  the  same,  but  when  quite  a  pro- 
portion of  the  land  is  well  covered  with  trees  the  rain  is  much 
more  evenly  divided  than  it  is  when  there  are  no  forests.  If  the 
land  is  bare,  a  large  part  of  the  rain  falls  in  heav}'  storms  and 
runs  into  the  rivers  and  seas  without  proving  of  much  use  in 
watering  the  land.  But  when  there  are  plenty  of  forests  the 
clouds  are  frequently  intercepted,  rain  falls  often,  and,  coming 
\n  small  quantities,  refreshes  the  earth  and  keeps  it  from  becom- 
ing  parched      In   this  way  forests   prevent   both   floods   and 


TIMBER    CULTURE.  495 

droughts.  Forests  must  also  exert  quite  a  modifying  influence 
upon  the  chmate  of  a  country.  They  break  the  force  of  the 
cold  winds  which  prevail  in  winter  and  cool  the  hot  ones  which 
blow  in  summer. 

By  these  modifications  of  the  rain-fall  and  climate  it  will  be 
seen  that  the  clearing  off  of  large  forests  must  unfavorably  affect 
the  soil.     The  removal  of  large  bodies  of  timber  dries  up  the 
little  mountain  streams,  breaks  the  uniformity  of  the  rain-fall, 
makes  the  planting  seasons  late  and  cold  and  the  summers  hot 
and  dry.     The  maintaining  of  a  proper  balance  between  the  area 
in  forests  and  under  cultivation  seems  to  be  one  of  the  important 
conditions  upon  which  the  highest  success  in  agriculture  depends. 
Another  important  matter  connected  with  this  subject  is  the 
influence  of  the   changes  v^^rought  by  the   removal   of  forests 
upon  the  health  of  the  people.     The  changes  of  temperature 
become  more  sudden  and  violent,  and  invalids  find  the  climate 
increasing  in  severity.     Trees  are  also  needed  to  purify  the  air. 
They  should  not  be  so  close  to  buildings  as  to  prevent  the 
shining  of  the  sun  upon  them,  but  they  ought  not  to  be  very  far 
removed.      There  are  places  in  Italy  which  were  once  very 
pleasant  and  healthful  localities,  which  after  the  removal  of  the 
surrounding  forests  gradually  became  unhealthy,  and  at  certain 
seasons  of  the  year  were  considered  unsafe.     In  some  of  these 
localities  trees  have  been  planted,  and  the  original  purity  of  the 
atmosphere    has    been    secured.      Doubtless    there   are   many 
places  in  this  country  which  would  have  been  healthful  instead 
of  malarious,  if  the  forests  had  been  preserved. 

Timber  culture  offers  to  a  large  class  of  farmers  a  field  of 
profitable  labor.  By  growing  timber  trees  in  sections  destitute 
of  wood,  or  by  carefully  selecting  from  the  forests  which 
remain  the  specimens  which  have  matured  and  keeping  the 
young  and  vigorous  ones  for  future  use,  the  farmer  may  secure 
for  himself  and  for  those  who  come  after  him  a  great  and  per- 
manent benefit. 


496 


FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 


FO'MniR  0>M  THIS  FiS.RM. 

Y'^^HERE  are  many  purposes  for  which  power  is  needed  on 
\!  Ill  a  large  farm,  and  it  is  often  very  convenient  on  a  small 
i^fJC  one.  The  principal  kinds  which  are  adapted  to  the 
^G  purpose  are  horse-power,  wind  and  steam  Water- 
power  is  useful  where  it  can  be  obtained,  but  on  most  farms  this 
is  out  of  the  question.  For  light  purposes,  such  as  churning, 
dog  or  sheep-power  is  often  used.  As  horses  are  kept  on  all 
large  farms,  their  services  are  very  often  employed.     Wind  is 

also  used  to  quite  an  ex- 
tent, and  a  few  of  the 
largest  farmers  are  making 
some  use  of  steam.  But 
the  majority  of  farmers  who 
use  power  must  choose 
between  that  of  the  horse 
and  the  wind.  The  object 
to  be  attained  is  the  substi- 
tution of  the  cheap  power 

FIG.    ?2. — DOG-POWER. — MADE   BY  N.  Y.  PLOW        r    \  •     J     r         *-! 

•^  of  horses   or  wind  for  the 

CO.,   N.    Y.    CITY. 

more  costly  labor  of  men. 
Each  of  these  kinds  of  power  has  its  advantages.  Horse-power 
is  movable,  and  can  be  set  up  and  used  at  home  or  abroad. 
It  can  be  readily  attached  to  the  various  machines  which  it  is 
desired  to  use.  It  can  be  easily  regulated,  and  used  whenever 
it  is  wanted.  The  cost  is  also  within  the  means  of  a  large  class 
of  our  successful  farmers.  Wind  is  a  variable  power — some- 
times altogether  too  strong,  while  at  others  it  accomplishes 
nothing.  A  wind-engine  once  erected  is  stationary,  and  must 
remain  where  it  is  placed.  As  its  location  is  usually  on  top  of 
a  building,  or  a  high  tower,  it  cannot  be  so  readily  attached  to 
the  various  machines  to  which  its  motion  is  to  be  communi- 
cated as  the  horse-power.     But  while  the  horse-power  has  some 


POWER  ON  THE  FARM. 


407 


FIG.    53.— HORSE-POWER.      MANUFACTURED   BY  A,  W.  GRAY'S  SONS,  MIDDLETOWN 

SPRINGS,   VT. 


FIG.   54.— WIND-MILL.      MANUFACTURED   BY   ECLIPSE  WIND  MILL  CO.,   BELOIT,   WIS. 


498  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

advantages  over  wind,  the  latter  also  has  some  points  in  which 
it  is  superior.  For  pumping  water  in  distant  pastures  it  is  the 
only  available  power.  The  farmer  can  neither  go  with,  nor 
send  his  horse-power  there  to  pump  water,  and  if  he  could  the 
expense  would  be  greater  than  that  of  erecting  a  wind-mill. 
By  the  use  of  suitable  tanks,  a  supply  can  be  provided  for 
calms ;  and  by  means  of  an  automatic  arrangement,  the  pump 
will  cease  to  operate  when  these  tanks  are  full,  and  begin  again 
when  they  are  empty.  Many  farmers  have  used  wind-mills 
for  pumping  water  in  their  pastures,  and  found  them  very 
profitable. 

For  the  other  purposes  to  which  power  is  applied  on  the 
farm,  the  wind-engine  should  be  near  the  barn.  A  good  one 
may  be  used  for  shelling  corn,  threshing  grain,  grinding  feed, 
and  sawing  wood.  A  light  wind  will  be  sufficient  to  drive  it, 
and  the  inconveniences  attending  the  use  of  this  power  can  be 
offset  by  the  low  cost  for  which  it  can  be  supplied.  The 
mechanical  part  of  the  horse-power  is  not  very  costly,  but  the 
power  itself  must  be  furnished  by  horses  at  a  considerable 
expense  to  the  owner.  It  is  true  that  horses  must  be  kept  on 
the  farm  for  other  purposes,  and  that  they  can  often  be  driving 
machinery  when  they  would  otherwise  be  idle.  But  the  more 
the  labor  of  the  team  is  increased,  the  greater  will  be  the  cost  of 
keeping,  the  liability  of  accident  or  disease,  and  the  sooner  the 
animals  will  be  worn  out.  Many  farmers  who  have  other  work 
•enough  for  their  horses  prefer  to  use  wind  as  a  power  rather 
than  keep  a  larger  team.  Others  have  horses  enough  to  do  all 
the  farm  work,  including  the  driving  of  the  machines  which 
they  need  to  use.  Consequently,  some  will  find  it  profitable  to 
use  wind-mills  while  others  will  prefer  the  horse-power. 

A  very  good  stationary  steam-engine  for  farm  purposes  can 
be  had  for  a  comparatively  low  price,  and  in  sections  where  fuel 
is  abundant  steam  may  be  largely  used  as  a  motive  power  for 
driving  farm  machines.     The  use  of  steam  will  require  buildings 


POWER    ON  THE   FARM.  499 

specially  adapted  to  the  purpose,  and  the  employment  of  careful 
help  or  else  the  personal  attention  of  the  owner.  A  good  wind- 
engine,  properly  arranged,  will  pretty  much  take  care  of  itself 
Horse-power  ought  to  have  a  careful  manager,  but  careless 
handling  does  not  involve  as  much  danger  as  it  would  with 
steam.  The  engines  may  be  made  nearly  self-regulating  so  as 
to  avoid  great  liability  of  explosions,  but  if  the  manager  is  care- 
less the  machine  may  be  ruined  and  a  heavy  loss  involved. 
But,  in  spite  of  some  drawbacks,  steam  gives  certain  advantages 
which  can"  be  secured  by  no  other  power  adapted  to  the  farm. 
By  a  little  additional  expense  the  food  for  the  cattle  may  be 
steamed  and  roots  can  be  cooked,  if  desired.  Probably  any 
intelligent  farmer  who  once  makes  a  practical  trial  of  steam- 
power,  if  he  gets  a  good  engine,  will  be  perfectly  satisfied  with 
its  operation.  Some  of  the  portable  engines  also  give  promise 
of  still  greater  usefulness. 

A  few  words  may  be  admissible  concerning  steam-power 
as  a  means  of  performing  the  heavy  work  which  usually 
devolves  upon  teams.  It  is  generally  known  that  in  Eng- 
land steam-engines  are  very  often  used  to  draw  the  plow, 
but  perhaps  many  farmers  are  not  aware  that  steam-plowing 
has  been  successfully  employed  at  the  South,  West  and  in 
the  Middle  States  of  our  own  country.  We  do  not  refer  to 
mere  experiments,  but  to  the  practical  operations  of  the  steam- 
plow.  The  great  seedsmen,  D.  Landreth  &  Sons,  of  Phila- 
delphia, have  used  steam-power  with  gratifying  success  in  the 
culture  of  their  large  farms.  Engines  are  being  simplified  and 
improved,  and  it  may  be  confidently  expected  that  before  many 
years  shall  pass  the  great  prairies  of  the  West  will  be  thoroughly 
tilled  to  a  great  depth  by  steam.  The  engines  for  drawing  the 
gang  of  plows  will  also  be  effective  for  other  farm  work.  Such 
engines  will  not  be  used  by  the  smaller  farmers  on  account  of 
their  expense,  but  there  are  many  large  land-holders  who  will 

be  able  to  cultivate  their  farms  at  a  less  cost  by  the  use  of  steam 
32 


500 


FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 


than  they  can  with  horses.  At  the  South,  on  account  of  the 
difficulty  of  securing  labor,  the  steam-engine  will  probably 
become  a  great  reliance  of  the  progressive  farmer. 

In  many  places  the  plan  of  neighborhood  ownership  may  be 
profitably  adopted.  Several  farmers  living  near  together,  and 
each    doing  too  small   an  amount  of  business  to   justify  the 


FIG.  55. — PORTABLE  ENGINE,  MADE  BY  BLYMYER  MFG.  CO.,  CINCINNATI,  O. 


expense  of  separate  machines,  could  purchase  a  horse-power,  or 
steam-engine,  in  company,  and  thus,  at  a  very  moderate  cost, 
secure  nearly  all  of  the  advantages  of  individual  possession. 

There  are  many  different  styles  of  horse-powers,  wind,  and 
steam-engines.  The  illustrations  which  we  give  represent 
standard  machines. 


FARM  IMPLEMENTS. 


501 


\  ITHIN  the  past  thirty  years  machines  have  largely  taken 
the  place  of  hand-labor  on  the  farm.  By  their  aid  the 
work  can  be  performed  much  faster,  and  some  kinds 
much  better,  than  it  can  be  done  by  hand.  As  they 
enable  a  man  with  a  small  amount  of  capital  to  do  a  much  larger 
business  than  he  could  carry  on  without  them,  and  also  prevent 
a  great  deal  of  waste  which  would  otherwise  occur,  they  are 
usually  considered  both  cheaper  and  better  than  hand-power.  To 
the  small  farmer  they  are  a 
great  convenience,  while  the 
large  farmer  finds  them  in- 
dispensable. 

The  machines  which  the 
average  farmer  needs  are 
divided  into  several  classes, 
those    of    each    class    being 

FIG.    56. — FIREFLY    HAND-HOE. 

fitted  for  the  performance  of 

some  special  line  of  work.  One  class  is  designed  to  prepare 
the  land  to  receive  the  seed,  another  for  seeding,  one  for  the 
cultivation  of  crops,  another  for  harvesting,  and  still  another  for 
preparing  the  products  of  the  farm  for  use  or  for  the  market. 
Other  machines  are  used  because  by  their  aid  work  can  be  done 
more  conveniently  than  it  can  by  hand,  while  household  imple- 
ments form  a  class  by  themselves.  We  have  already  described 
and  illustrated  many  of  these  machines,  but  some  classes  deserve 
somewhat  fuller  treatment. 

The  Plow  is  one  of  the  most  important  implements  for  pre- 
paring the  land  to  receive  the  seed.  It  is  made  in  many 
different  forms,  and  of  various  kinds  of  material.  To  attempt 
to  say  which  is  the  best  plow  in  use  would  be  a  foolish  effort. 
Some  plows  are  better  for  some  kinds  of  work  than  others,  while 
for  other  work  they  are  inferior.     The  buyer  should  obtain  a 


502 


FARMING   FOR   FROFIT. 


FIG.    58. — GALE  CHILLED   PLOW. 


FIG.   59. — ^ADAMANT   PLOW, 


FIG.   60.— SUP-POINT. 


FARM  IMPLEMENTS. 


503 


plow  which  is  suited  to  the  work  which  he  designs  to  perform. 
It  is  not  wise  to  attempt  to  do  light  work  with  a  heavy  plow 
which  was  made  to  run  deep,  nor  to  try  to  turn  wide,  deep  fur- 
rows with  a  small,  light  plow.  The  strength  of  the  team  ought 
also  to  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration. 

Whether  iron  or  steel 
plows  should  be  used  will 
depend  somewhat  upon  the 
kind  of  land  which  is  to  be 
plowed.  Iron  is  generally 
preferred  in  very  stony  fields 
and    many   farmers  like    it 


FIG.    6l. — ONEONTA   CLIPPER. 


.^.^.^jMi 


--i^- 


V??v 


FIG.    62. — SULKY    PLOW. 

better  for  all  work  except  turning  very  sticky  soils.  With 
reasonable  usage  a  steel  plow  will  work  successfully  where 
there  are  many  stones.  We  have  used  one  several  years  where 
the  fields  were  quite  stony.  Also  in  very  soft,  mucky  soil. 
For  the  latter  the  steel  plow  is  incomparably  better  than  iron. 
For   ordinary    land    a    first-class    iron    plow  will  give   satisfac- 


504  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 

tion  if  it  is  adapted  to  the  work  required  of  it  and  is  well 
used.  The  same  is  true  of  the  steel  plow  with  the  additional 
advantage  of  lasting  longer,  and  of  being  able  to  work  in  all 
kinds  of  soil  which  are  not  extremely  rocky,  but  it  has  the 
disadvantage  of  a  somewhat  higfier  price.  The  "  chilled " 
plows  are  also  very  good  and  durable.  Sulky  plows  are 
extensively  used  at  the  West,  and  with  sufficient  power  will  do 
perfect  work  with  great  ease  to  the  operator. 

Each  farmer  ought  to  have  at  least  three  different  styles  of 
plow,  and  one  doing  a  large  business  may  need  several  more. 
The  small  farmer  should  have  a  sod-plow,  a  stubble-plow,  and  a 
light  one-horse  plow  for  the  marking  out  of  land  for  planting, 
for  covering  potatoes,  and  the  various  other  purposes  for  which 
such  an  implement  is  almost  indispensable.  It  does  not  pay 
to  try  to  get  along  with  two  plows  when  three  are  absolutely 
needed. 

•  As  the  yield  of  the  crop  will  depend  in  a  great  measure  upon 
the  thoroughness  with  which  the  land  is  plowed,  it  follows 
that  a  perfect  working  plow  should  always  be  secured.  It  is 
not  an  object  to  buy  inferior  plows,  either  of  pattern,  material, 
or  construction.  If  the  plow  is  not  of  good  form  it  either  will 
not  do  good  work,  or  else  it  will  require  too  much  power  to 
draw  it.  These  are  radical  defects,  and  should  always  be  avoided. 
If  a  plow  is  made  of  poor  material  it  will  very  soon  wear  out, 
and  though  such  plows  may  be  cheap  to  begin  with,  they  are 
the  most  expensive  of  all  in  the  end.  Better  pay  twenty  dollars 
for  a  plow  made  of  good  material  than  buy  one  made  out  of 
poor  stock  for  fifteen.  The  former  will  last  a  long  time.  The 
latter  will  be  likely  to  fail  very  soon,  and  may  give  out  at  the 
most  hurrying  time  of  the  whole  year,  when  each  day's  delay 
while  waiting  for  a  new  one  will  prove  a  great  damage.  In  the 
end  the  cash  expense  of  such  plows  will  far  exceed  that  of  the 
better  and  higher-priced  ones,  while  the  inconvenience  and 
delays  which  will  be  inevitable  will  add  still  more  to  their  cost 


FAUM  IMPLEMENTS. 


506 


FIG.    63. — COLLINS   STEEL   GANG   PLOW. 


FIG.  64. 


£1^ 


no.   65. -^-CLOGGED- HARROW 
TOOTH. 


FIG.    66. — THOMAS     SMOOTHING    HARROW. 


506  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

If  the  plow  is  poorly  made,  a  defect  which  is  often,  but  not 
always,  associated  with  the  use  of  poor  materials,  there  will  be 
constant  danger  of  breakage,  liability  of  delays,  and  heavy 
expenses  for  repairs.  It  is  always  best  to  obtain  plows  of  good 
form,  which  are  made  of  good  materials  and  well  put  together. 
We  present  illustrations  of  several  standard  plows.  Figure  56 
represents  a  plow,  or  hoe,  for  hand-use  in  the  garden.  It  is 
made  by  S.  L.  Allen  &  Co.,  of  Philadelphia,  Pa.  Figure  57 
shows  a  large  plow  for  breaking  heavy  sod.  It  is  made  by 
the  Furst  and  Bradley  Manufacturing  Co.,  Chicago,  111.  Fig- 
ure 58  shows  the  Gale  Chilled  plow  with  iron  beam,  made  by 
the  Gale  Manufacturing  Co.,  Albion,  Mich.,  and  designed  for 
heavy  work.  Figure  59  represents  the  Adamant  plows  made 
by  the  New  York  Plow  Co.,  of  New  York  city.  These 
plows  are  extremely  hard  and  consequently  very  durable. 
They  are  also  fitted  with  "  slip-points,"  Figure  60,  by  means 
of  which  the  cost  of  repairs  is  greatly  reduced,  while  the  plow 
can  be  constantly  kept  sharp.  Figure  61  represents  the 
Oneonta  Clipper,  a  swivel-plow  made  by  the  Belcher  &  Taylor 
Agricultural  Tool  Co.,  Chicopee  palls,  Mass.  This  plow  is 
specially  designed  for  use  on  side  hills,  but  works  perfectly  on 
level  land.  By  a  movement  of  the  foot  the  plow  can  be  turned 
without  removing  the  hands.  Unlike  most  reversible  plows 
this  is  so  arranged  that  the  plowman  can  easily  walk  in  the 
furrow.  Figure  62  shows  a  large  sulky  plow.  Figure  63 
represents  a  steel  gang-plow  made  by  Collins  &  Co.,  of  New 
York  city. 

The  Roller  is  another  implement  which  ever)'-  farmer  ought 
to  have,  but  which  many  farmers  get  along  without.  The  best 
ones  for  ordinary  use  are  made  of  cast  iron,  in  several  sections. 
For  use  on  clay  land  which  has  become  baked  and  very  hard,  a 
heavy  iron-roller  which  has  a  large  number  of  teeth  upon  its 
outer  surface  may  be  needed.  For  lighter  work  as  a  clod- 
crusher,  a  log  may  be  drawn  over  the  ground  without  rolling. 


FARM  IMPLEMENTS. 


507 


Where  the  lumps  of  earth  are  not  extremely  hard,  such  an 
implement  will  do  very  fair  work.  We  have  used  a  square 
stick  of  timber  for  this  purpose  with  good  results.  A  round 
stick  is  better,  as  it  will  not  be  as  likely  to  clog.  Such  an 
implement  can  be  made  for  either  one  or  two  horses.  For  the 
former  a  pair  of  shafts  will  be  needed,  while  the  latter  requires  a 
pole  similar  to  that  of  a  wagon.  But  the  genuine  roller  is  very 
much  better,  and  is  really  needed  on  many  kinds  of  soil.  If 
there  are  no  clods  to  crush,  it  is  often  an  object  to  smooth 
the  land,  grass  seed  can  sometimes  be  best  got  in  with  a 
roller,  and  in  a  great  many 


cases  it  will  prove  a  very 
useful  implement.  If  the 
farmer  owns  but  little  land, 
and  feels  unable  to  purchase 
an  iron  roller,  it  will  cer- 
tainly pay  him  to  make  a 
good  wooden  one.  Some 
farmers  construct  rollers  of 
plank,  and  make  very  good 
ones.  These  rollers  should 
be  made  in  two  sections 
for  convenience  in  turnins" 


FIG.   67. — SPRING   TOOTH  HARROW. 


around.  If  this  form  is  considered  too  expensive,  a  very 
decent  roller  can  be  made,  at  small  cost,  of  a  straight  log. 
The  length  and  size  of  the  log  should  be  adapted  to  the 
strength  of  the  team  which  is  to  draw  it.  Figure  64  represents 
one  of  the  best  iron  rollers. 

The  Harrow  is  a  very  important  implement,  and  one  which 
has  no  substitute.  It  should  be  found  on  the  very  smallest 
farm,  and  on  a  large  farm  several  harrows,  of  different  forms 
and  for  different  purposes,  will  be  required.  Many  different 
forms  have  been  devised.  The  triangular  harrow,  made  in  the 
form  of  a  letter  A,  and  having  large,  long  teeth,  has  always. 


508  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

been  a  favorite  for  use  among  stumps,  stones,  or  on  very  rough 
ground.  The  square  harrow  has  many  more  teeth,  is  hghtcr, 
does  not  draw  as  hard,  is  better  to  handle,  and  on  smooth  land 
will  do  better  work.  It  should  be  made  in  two  sections,  joined 
at  the  sides  by  hinges  which  can  readily  be  separated.  Both 
these  styles  are  open  to  the  objection  of  being  veiy  easily 
clogged.  Figure  65  shows  the  too  frequent  condition  of  the 
teeth.  When  clogged  they  accomplish  but  little,  while  the  labor 
of  the  team  is  greatly  increased.  By  the  use  of  slanting  teeth  this 
difficulty  is  wholly  avoided,  the  efficiency  of  the  implement  is 
very  greatly  increased,  while  the  draft  is  considerably  reduced. 
This  form  of  harrow  is  represented  by  Figure  66.  It  was 
invented  by  J.  J.  Thomas,  Esq.,  the  well-known  author  of 
several  valuable  agricultural  books,  and  one  of  the  editors  of 
the  "  Country  Gentleman,"  and  is  manufactured  by  the  Thomas 
Smoothing-Harrow  Co.,  Geneva,  N.  Y. 

Figure  67  shows  a  new  style  of  harrow  made  by  G.  B.  Oliii 
&  Co.,  Perry,  N.  Y.  This  form  readily  adapts  itself  to  uneven 
land,  can  be  adjusted  to  work  deep  or  shallow,  draws  easily, 
while  the  teeth  readily  pass  over  obstructions.  Figure  68  rep- 
resents a  combined  clod-crusher,  pulverizer,  and  leveler,  which 
is  manufactured  by  Nash  &  Brother,  of  New  York  city.  Th( 
leveling  bar  breaks  down  the  lumps,  and  levels  the  surface, 
while  the  curved  steel  coulters  cut  the  soil,  and  leave  it  veiy 
loose  and  fine.  This  is  a  valuable  implement,  especially  for  use 
on  inverted  sod,  and  on  hard  and  rough  fields.  Figure  69 
shows  the  Randall  Harrow,  made  by  the  Warrior  Mower  Co., 
Little  Falls,  N.  Y.  This  convenient  and  wonderfully  efficient 
implement  is  too  well  known  to  need  description.  It  can  be 
used  either  as  a  stiff  or  a  jointed  harrow,  can  be  set  at  different 
angles,  and  will  pulverize  the  soil  rapidly,  and  leave  it  in  excel- 
lent condition. 

Planters,  cultivators,  and  harvesters  have  already  been  illus- 
trated.    For  us6  on  large  farms,  a  Horse-Fork  is  almost  indis- 


FARM  IMPLEMENTS. 


509 


pensable,  and  it  proves  a  great  convenience  on  small  ones.  By 
means  of  various  attachments  this  implement  can  be  used  for 
pitching  hay  into  a  window,  and  for  distributing  it  over  quite  a 


Fia  68. — ACME  CLOD-CRUSHER,    LEVELER   AND   PULVERIZER. 


FIG.    69. — RANDALL  HARROW. 

large  surface  on  the  mow  if  desired.  These  forks  save  a  great 
deal  of  hard  labor,  and  do  their  work  very  rapidly.  They  can 
be  advantageously  used  in  building  hay-stacks,  as  well  as  for 
unloading  at  the  barn.  Figure  70  represents  the  method  of 
stacking  hay  by  means  of  this  implement. 


510 


FARMING   FOR  PROFIT. 


In  order  to  shell  and  clean  the  vast  quantities  of  grain  now 
produced,  machines  for  the  purpose  are  an  absolute  necessity. 
Many  different  kinds  have  been  invented,  and  several  have  come 


into  extensive  use  Many  farmers  who  grow  a  large  quantity  of 
grain  prefer  to  hire  their  threshing  done,  rather  than  buy  a 
machine  and  run  it  themselves.  Hence  there  are,  in  the  grain- 
growing  regions,  many  men  who  make  a  business  of  threshing 


FARM  IMPLEMENTS.  511 

for  others.  In  some  respects  it  is  better  to  hire  the  work  done, 
while  in  others  this  course  does  not  seem  advisable.  On  a  large 
farm  there  should  be  a  power  of  some  kind  for  other  purposes, 
and  the  man  who  has  power  for  doing  the  work  can  usually  do 
it  cheaper  than  he  can  hire  it  done.  In  buying  a  machine  care 
should  be  taken  to  obtain  one  which  runs  easily,  which  is 
durable,  and  which  will  do  the  work  well.  There  are  several 
excellent  machines  in  the  market.  Figure  71  represents  the 
Farquhar  Thresher  and  Cleaner,  made  by  A.  B.  Farquhar,  York, 
Pa.  This  machine  received  the  medal  and  highest  diploma  at 
the  Centennial  and  at  the  Paris  Exposition. 

Figure  72  shows  a  simple  but  effective  machine  for  gathering 
the  heads  of  the  clover-plant.  By  its  use  a  man  and  horse  can 
collect  the  heads  at  the  rate  of  an  acre  per  hour. 

For  cleaning  grain,  a  fanning-mill  is  needed  on  every  farm. 
When  the  business  of  the  farm  is  so  small  that  it  does  not  seem 
to  justify  the  expense  of  securing  a  machine,  several  neighbors 
may  unite  in  the  purchase  of  a  good  mill,  and  use  it  in  common. 
Figure  "ji  shows  Montgomery's  Rockaway  Fan,  made  by 
Dorsey,  Moore  &  Co.,  Baltimore,  Md. 

A  good  Corn-Husker  is  a  great  necessity  in  all  the  large  corn- 
growing  regions,  and  would  be  a  great  help  to  a  multitude  of 
farmers  doing  only  a  small  business.  At  the  Pennsylvania  State 
Fair,  in  1879,  a  machine  of  this  description  was  exhibited,  and 
attracted  considerable  attention.  It  seems  to  be  perfectly 
adapted  to  the  work  which  it  is  designed  to  perform.  It  is  a 
simple  machine,  and  not  liable  to  get  out  of  order.  It  can  be 
used  at  the  barn  or  taken  into  the  field.  The  stalks  are  thrown 
into  the  machine  and  carried,  butts  forward,  by  an  endless  apron 
to  a  pair  of  corrugated  and  grooved  rollers,  which  draw  the 
stalks  through  and  push  the  ears  out  of  the  husks.  This 
machine  can  be  run  by  hand  or  power.  The  rapidity  of  its 
operation  depends  upon  the  size  of  the  machine,  and  the  power 
applied.     The  cost  of  the  smaller  sizes  is  fifty  dollars.     C.  D. 


512 


FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 


Richardson  &  Co.,  of  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  arc  the  owners  of  the 
patent. 

The  same  company  also  exhibited  a  Corn-Harvester,  which  is 
a  valuable  implement  for  use  at  the  West  and  South.  This 
machine  is  to  be  used  in  the  field.  When  the  corn  is  fully  ripe, 
the  machine  is  drawn  through  the  field — the  horses  walking 
between  the  rows.  It  cuts  the  stalks  near  the  ground,  throws 
them  into  the  machine  where  they  are  drawn  between  rollers. 


FIG.    71. — THRESHER   AND  CLEANER. 


FIG.   72. — CLOVER-SEED  GATHERER. 


FIG.    73. — ROCKAWAY  FAN. 

and  the  ears  husked  in  the  same  manner  as  with  the  Com- 
Huskcr.  The  ears  can  be  dropped  into  a  hopper,  carried  by  an 
elevator  to  chute,  and  thence  to  a  wagon  drawn  behind  the 
machine.  The  stalks  are  made  into  bundles,  and  dropped  upon 
the  ground.  This  machine  costs  about  two  hundred  dollars. 
With  a  good  team,  eight  or  ten  acres  of  corn  per  day  can  be 
harvested. 

The  Corn-Sheller  is  a  machine  which  is  needed  on  nearly 
all  farms  where  corn  is  grown.     Figure  74  shows  an  excellent 


FARM  IMPLEMENTS. 


613 


hand-machine,  made  by  the  Sandwich  Manufacturing  Co.,  Sand- 
wich, 111.  Figure  75  shows  the  power  Shuck-Shelier,  manufac- 
tured by  Kingsland,  Ferguson  &  Co.,  St.  Louis,  Mo.  This 
simple  and  durable  machine  proves  very  valuable  in  the  large 
corn-growing  sections.  It  shells  corn  clean  with  the  husks  on 
or  after  it  has  been  husked,  and  does  the  work  very  rapidly. 

Farm-Mills,  for  grinding  corn  and  other  kinds  of  grain,  have 
long  been  considered  indispensable  by  large  farmers.  That  it 
pays  to  grind  corn  before  it  is  fed  to  stock,  seems  to  have  been 
abundantly  proved  by  careful  experiment  and  by  the  long  ex- 
perience of  a  multitude  of  farmers.  And,  in  most  cases,  when  a 
farmer  has  a  power  by  which  it  can  be  driven,  it  will  pay  to 


FIG.    74. — VETKRAN   CORN-SHELLER. 


FIG.    75. — SHUCK-SHELLER. 


obtain  a  mill  of  his  own.  It  is  quite  an  expense  of  time  and 
money  to  get  the  grinding  done  away  from  home.  On  a  large 
farm,  which  is  principally  devoted  to  grain-growing  and  live- 
stock, a  good  mill  will  pay  for  itself  in  a  single  year.  Figure  76 
represents  a  valuable  farm-mill,  manufactured  by  Wm.  L.  Boyer 
&  Bro.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.  These  mills  will  grind  from  four  to 
six  bushels  of  corn  per  hour  when  driven  by  one-horse,  and 
twice  as  much  when  a  two-horse  power  is  used.  Corn  can  be 
ground  either  shelled  or  in  the  ear,  and  other  kinds  of  grain 
can  be  ground  fine  or  coarse,  as  may  be  desired.  As  the  grind- 
ing surfaces  are  self-sharpening,  and  the  whole  mill  very  durable, 
there  will  be  but  little  expense  for  repairs. 

A  cider  or  wine  mill,   if  used   only  as  it  should  be,  Avould 
prove  a  valuable  implement  to  quite  a  large  number  of  farmers. 


514 


FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 


FIG.  76. — boyer's  portable  farm  grist-mill. 


We  consider  pure 
cider-v  i  n  e  g  a  r  a 
valuable      article, 
and  wish  the  sup- 
ply  could    be   so 
largely    increased 
as    to    drive    out 
the      abominable, 
health -destroying 
acids  which  have 
so    largely   taken 
its  place  in  all  city 
markets.    For  this 
purpose    cider    is 
required,    and     a 
better  quality  can 
usually   be     ob- 
tained   by  using  a  small 
mill  at  home  than  will  be 
secured  if  the  apples  are 
drawn    to    a    large    mill, 
where  good  and  poor  ones 
are  mixed  and  no  special 
care  is  taken   to   make  a 
fine  grade.     But  as  far  as 
cider  and  wine  for  drink- 
ing purposes  are  concern- 
ed, we  are  strongly  oppos- 
ed to  their  manufacture. 

Wherever  roots  are 
grown  for  stock,  a  ma- 
chine for  .  cutting  them  should  be  provided.  A  simple,  but 
very  good,  machine  for  this  purpose  is  made  by  William  L. 
Boyer  &  Bro.,. Philadelphia,  Pa.,  and  represented  by  Figure  77. 


FIG.    77. — ROOT-CUTTKR. 


FARM  IMPLEMENTS. 


515 


Straw-cutters  are  also  needed  on  almost  every  farm.     By 
cutting,   steaming,   and   applying    meal,   good   straw   and   the 
poorer  qualities  of  hay  can  be  made  quite  palatable  to  stock, 
and  the  animals  will  thrive  when  fed  upon  them.     Coarse  hay 
for  bedding  ought  to  be  cut  before  it  is  used  in  cows'  stables. 
These  machines  cost   but   little.      Heavier  ones,  for  use  with 
power,  adapted  to  the  cutting  of  straw  or  corn-fodder,  are  used 
on  many  large  farms,  and  soon  pay  for  themselves.     If  only  a 
light  one  is  wanted,  and  the  cost  is  not  e.asily  to  be  met,  ao 
ingenious    farmer    can    buy   a 
knife  and  make  a  machine  which 
will  answer  his  purpose.     The 
cost  will  then  be  very  small,  and 
the  machine  will    be  likely  to 
answer    until    the    owner   be- 
comes better  able  to  buy  one. 

It    is    well    known    that   the 
efficiency  of  a  mower  or  reaper, 
as  well  as  the  degree  of  power 
required    to    operate    it,    will 
largely  depend  upon   the  con- 
dition of  the  knives.     The  best 
machine  with  dull  knives  will 
draw  hard  and  fail  to  do  first- 
class  work.     In  order  to  keep  the  harvesting  machines  working 
nicely,  the  knives   must  be  frequently  ground.     Not  only  this, 
but  they  must  be  ground  well.     They  should  be  held  upon  the 
stone  at  the  right  angle,  in  order  that  the  grinding  may  be  in 
the  right  direction,  and  also  to  prevent  an  undue  grinding  away 
Qf  the  cutters.     As  an  aid  to  the  farmer  in  grinding  the  knives 
perfectly  true,    the    implement  represented  by  Figure    78,  and 
made  by  Powell,  Stevens   &  Douglas,  Waukegan,  111.,  is  very 
useful. 

In  some  sections   of  the  country  a  Stump-Pullek  is  a  great 


FIG.    7S. — SICKLE  GRINOr.R. 


616 


FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 


riG.  80. — box's  portable  hoisting  machine. 


FARM  IMPLEMENTS. 


517 


convenience.  Figure  79  represents  a  portable  implement  of  this 
description  which  is  made  by  A.  B.  Farquhar,  York,  Pa.  It  is 
simple  and  very  strong.  By  its  aid  two  men  can  raise  twenty- 
five  thousand  pounds,  while  four  men  with  a  larger  size  can 
raise  fifty  thousand  pounds.  For  pulling  stumps  and  lifting 
rocks  this  is  a  valuable  implement. 

A  Portable  Hoisting  Machine  is  often  needed  upon  large 
farms,  and  is  frequently  useful  upon  small  ones.  There  are 
many  purposes 
for  which  such  a 
machine  is  re- 
quired, and  its 
use  would  save 
many  heavy  lifts 
and  much  hard 
labor.  Figure  80 
shows  a  machine 
which  attracted  a 
great  deal  of  at- 
tention at  the 
Pennsylvania 
State  Fair,  in 
1879,  and  which 
received  the  first 
premium  there, 
and  at  the   Mis-  ^^'  ^'" — empire  portable  forge. 

souri  State  Fair.  With  this  machine  one  man  can  lift  from  two 
to  ten  tons.  The  load  is  held  by  the  machine  at  any  point, 
but  lowers  rapidly  when  started  by  the  operator.  This  machine 
is  made  by  Alfred  Box  &  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa.  It  is  very 
strong  and  durable,  and  is  not  likely  to  get  out  of  order. 

A  good  Forge  is  a  good  thing  on  any  farm,  and  may  be  con- 
sidered almost  indispensable  to  the  man  who  owns  much  land  and 
uses  many  tools.     He  may  get  along  without  it,  but  not  without 


618 


FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 


FIG.   82. — UGHTNING  BUCK-SAW. 


FIG.  %y. 


nC.  86. — PORTABLE  PLATFORM-SCALB. 


FARM  IMPLEMENTS.  519 

incurring  considerable  loss  thereby.  The  ingenious  farmer  who 
has  a  good  forge  can  often  repair  his  wagon  in  half  the  time 
which  would  be  required  to  take  it  to  the  blacksmith.  He  can 
also  put  a  new  bolt  in  the  reaper  in  place  of  a  broken  one,  and 
thus  save  time  when  each  hour  is  of  great  value.  Many  other 
repairs  can  be  made  which  will  take  but  little  time,  and  cost  but 
little  for  material,  which  would  otherwise  have  to  be  sent  to 
town  at  considerable  loss  of  time  and  quite  a  pecuniary  expense. 
With  a  good  forge,  and  a  supply  of  bolts,  screws,  nails,  and 
small  iron  ware,  which  every  farmer  would  do  well  to  keep  on 
hand,  a  great  many  jobs  could  be  done  at  home.  There  would 
not  only  be  the  saving  of  time  and  expense  to  which  we  have 
alluded,  but  the  repairs  would  be  more  likely  to  receive  prompt 
attention  than  they  would  if  the  wagons  or  machines  were  to  be 
sent  to  a  blacksmith.  In  this  way  a  great  deal  of  useless  wear 
would  be  saved.  One  bolt  put  in  at  the  very  beginning  of  an 
indication  that  it  is  needed  is  worth  more  than  half  a  dozen 
bolts  put  in  after  the  parts  have  worn  loose  and  got  entirely  out 
of  order.  Figure  8i  represents  a  first-class  forge  for  use  on  the 
farm.  This,  with  many  other  styles,  is  made  by  the  Empire 
Portable  Forge  Co.,  Cohoes,  N.  Y. 

In  those  sections  in  which  wood  is  used  for  fuel,  saws  will  be 
needed  for  fitting  it  for  the  stove.  Figure  82  represents  a  wood- 
saw  which  is  a  very  great  improvement  over  the  old-fashioned 
style.  We  have  used  one  of  these  saws  several  years,  and 
found  it  a  valuable  implement.  .Figure  83  shows  a  saw  for 
cutting  off  logs.  Figure  84  shows  a  hand-saw  for  use  in 
pruning  trees  and  cutting  boards.  All  these  saws  are  made 
by  E.  M.  Boynton,  New  York  city. 

Scales  for  weighing  the  products  of  the  farm  are  very  impor- 
tant implements,  and  no  farmer  should  try  to  get  along  without 
them.  Without  scales  the  farmer  is  liable  to  sustain  many 
losses  in  different  ways,  and  in  the  course  of  a  year  he  will  be 
fortunate  if  he  does  not  lose  for  want  of  them  more  than  the 


620 


FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 


scales  would  cost  On  a  large  farm  scales  weighing  at  least 
two  tons  should  be  placed  in  the  barn-floor,  and  there  should  be 
small  ones  at  the  house  for  weighing  milk,  butter,  poultry,  and 

similar  articles. 
On  a  small  faim 
there  should  be 
scales  which  will 
be  convenient  for 
weighing  lambs, 
calves,  and  grain, 
while  some  light 
ones  in  the  house 
should  be  kept 
for  weighing  the 
articles  which  are 
sold  from  the 
dair}',  and  the 
lighter  class  of 
goods  from  the 
farm.  Without 
a  good  scale  it  is 
impossible  for  a 
man  to  thor- 
oughly test  the 
yield  of  his  cows, 
.  to  carry  on  care- 
ful experiments, 
and  to  do  many 
other  things 
which  the  careful 
farmer  will  desire  to  perform.  He  cannot  tell  whether  his 
grocer  deals  fairly  with  him  or  not,  will  be  obliged  to  "  guess  " 
the  weight  of  his  own  products,  and  he  will  often  be  put 
to    much    inconvenience    when    no    great    pecuniary   loss    ia 


W^^^^^^^M^ 


i'AKM  IMPLEMENJii. 


52  i 


involved.  Figure  85  represents  a  good  Family  Scale,  and 
Figure  86  shows  a  Portable  Platform-Scale  made  by  Riehle 
Brothers,  of  Philadelphia,  Pa.  Figure  87  shows  the  celebrated 
Fairbanks'  scales  in  operation  on  the  farm. 

Something  in  the  line  of  a  Pump  should  be  found  on  every 
farm,  and  it  is  desirable  that  it  should  be  a  really  good  one. 
Many  farmers  still  use  the  "  old  oaken  bucket,"  but  under  the 
most  favorable  circumstances  the  operation  of  drawing  water 
with  it  will  be  slow  and 
laborious,  while  in  cold 
weather  the  poetry  connec- 
ted with  the  bucket  will 
utterly  fail  to  compensate 
for  its  manifest  disadvan- 
tages. As  the  wife  and  i 
children  are  often  obliged 

to    draw  water   for  use   in 

the  house,  the  farmer  should 

provide  a  pump  which  will 

work  easily,  and  also  raise 

water  with     a    reasonable 

degree    of    speed.       It    is 

quite     desirable    that     the 

pump    should    be    suitable 

for    throwing   water    upon 

the  buildings  in  case  of  fire.    "°- 

Figure     88     represents     a 

double-acting  pump  which  is  adapted  for  both  surface  and  deep 

wells,  which    works    easily,  throws  water    rapidly,    and    has   a 

strong  forcing  capacity.     This  pump  is  very  useful  on  a  farm. 

As    it    is    put    together    with    bolts    it    is    easy  to    get    at   the 

valves  in  case   it  should  be  desirable  to  change  them.      This 

pump  is  manufactured  by  Cooper,  Jones  &  Cadbury,  Philadel- 

phia,  Pa. 


5. — EXCELSIOR    SUCTION    AND    KORCB- 
PUMP. 


522  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

The  class  of  household  machines  is  not  very  large.  Among 
the  best  implements  of  the  kind  are  niachines  for  washing, 
wringing,  and  ironing  clothes.  Of  Washing  Machines  there 
is  an  almost  unlimited  number,  and,  if  we  except  the  single 
implement  of  the  churn,  there  are  more  worthless  machines  of 
this  description  than  of  all  other  kinds  put  together.  There  are 
a  very  few  good  patterns.  But  most  of  the  washers  give  satisfac- 
tion for  only  a  short  time,  and  are  soon  laid  aside.  Either  in  the 
cellar  or  garret  of  a  large  number  of  farm-houses  can  be  found 


FIG.   59. — BEEBE  WASHING  MACHINE. 


one  or  more  discarded  washing  machines  which  have  been  tried 
and  proved  defective.  Farmers  have  bought  so  many  poor 
ones  that  they  have  come  to  look  with  a  great  deal  of  distrust 
upon  every  new  washer  which  is  brought  to  their  attention. 
But,  while  the  market  is  flooded  with  poor  ones,  there  are 
machines  which  are  a  real  help,  and  every  farmer's  wife  ought 
to  have  one.  Washing  is  hard  work,  and,  in  connection  with 
the  other  duties  of  the  house,  is  too  heavy  for  one  woman  to  do 
by  main  strength.     With  a  good  machine  the  work  can  be  done 


FARM  IMPLEMENTS. 


523 


m  less  time,  and  with  but  little  very  hard  work.  Figure  89 
represents  a  good  machine  which  is  made  by  A.  B.  Farquhar 
York,  Pa. 

A  Clothes-Wringer  is  considered  by  many  housekeepers  as 
far    superior   to   a   washing   machine.      There   may   be   some 
excuse    for   the   farmer   who   does  not   keep  a  good  washing 
machine,  but  the  man  who  neglects  to  provide  a  good  clothes- 
wringer  does  a  great  wrong.     Good  wringers  can  be  secured  for 
low  prices.     They  save  a  great  deal  of  time,  and  of  exceedingly 
hard  work.     They  are  not  merely  convenient  machines  for  the 
use  of  the  well-to-do  classes, 
but   they  are  necessities  to 
all  women  who  are  obliged 
to  wash,  and  who  can  pos- 
sibly  afford    the    expense. 
One  of  the  best,  as  well  as 
best  known,  styles  is  made 
by  the  Metropolitan  Wash- 
ing Machine  Co.,   of  New 
York  city,  and  is  represented 
by  Figure  90. 

To  those  who  can  afford 
to  buy  one,  and  a  great 
many  farmers  can,  a  Mangle,  or  ironing  machine,  will  prove  very 
useful.  A  good  machine  for  family  use  is  represented  by 
Figure  91.  It  is  made  by  the  Standard  Laundry  Machinery 
Co.,  of  Boston,  Mass.  The  use  of  this  machine  saves  fuel,  as  it 
irons  the  clothes  without  heat,  saves  a  great  deal  of  time  and 
labor,  and  does  not  injure  the  fabrics  as  hot  irons  always  do. 

The  Sewing  Machine  is  now  so  common  that  we  hardly 
need  to  say  much  in  its  favor.  Yet  there  are  many  farmers  in 
all  who  have  not  bought,  but  who  certainly  ought  to  furnish 
these  machines.  The  prices  have  now  been  reduced  to  a  reason- 
able figure,  and  it  would  seem  as   if  the  last  excuse  for  not 


FIG.    90. — CLOTH'eS-WRINGER, 


524 


FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 


FIG.    91. 


buying  a  sewing  machine  had  been  taken  away.  With  a  good 
machine  the  farmer's  wife  can  do  hersevving  easily  and  rapidly, 
and  will  be  able  to  occasionally  find  a  few  minutes  at  a  time  in 

which  she  can  sit  down 
to  rest  without  feeling 
that  she  is  neglecting 
some  pressing  duty. 

Such  a  list  as  we  have 
attempted  must,  in  the 
limits  assigned  for  this 
purpose,  necessarily  be 
incomplete,  but  we  have 
named  some  of  the  lead- 
ing implements  which  are  either  needed  universally,  or  else  in 
large  sections  of  the  country. 

Many  of  the  farm  machines  have  been  incorrectly  termed 
"  labor-saving  "  implements.  They  do  not  .f^rv  labor.  All  the 
work  must  be  performed  with  them  that  would  be  needed  if 
they  were  not  used.  But  the  labor  is  transferred  from  man  to  be 
performed  by  animals,  wind,  and  steam.  But  these  machines  do 
save  time,  and  crops,  and  health.  By  their  aid  the  farmer  can 
do  a  great  deal  more  than  would  be  possible  w'ithout  them,  and 
can  secure  crops  which  under  the  old  system  would  inevitably 
suffer  a  great  waste.  Then,  too,  the  saving  of  health  is  one  of 
the  greatest  of  the  various  economies  secured  by  the  use  of 
machines.  The  labor  can  be  performed  with  less  physical 
exhaustion,  and  more  time  for  rest  can  be  secured.  This  is  a 
matter  of  great  importance  both  to  the  farmer  and  his  family. 
It  is  not  only  infinitely  pleasanter,  but  it  is  a  great  deal  cheaper 
to  buy  machines  for  doing  the  work  than  it  is  to  employ 
doctors  and  purchase  medicines  in  order  to  regain  health  which 
has  been  lost  by  excessive  labor. 


LIVE-STOCK. 


(525) 


CONTENTS   ©F   Pil.BT   H. 


LIVE-STOCK   ON   THE  FARM. 
THE    HORSE. 

THE    MULE. 
CATTLE. 

THE   DAIRY; 
SOILING   CATTLE. 
ENSILAGE. 
SHEEP. 

SWINE. 

THE   INFERIOR  ANIMALS 

(526) 


LIVE-STOCK  ON   I'HE  FARM.  527 

Oir&ST0€IC  OH  THE  FmUM • 

HAT  the  live-stock  interest  is  one  of  immense  importance 
to  the  people  of  this  country  is  evident  from  the  fact 
that  they  have  more  than  one  and  a  half  billions  of 

'(3'  dollars  invested  in  domestic  animals.  This  estimate  is 
based  upon  the  actual  selling  value,  and  shows  the  importance 
of  the  live-stock  business  from  a  financial  point  of  view.  If  the 
vast  sum  of  money  which  is  represented  by  these  animals 
returns  a  fair  rate  of  interest,  they  will  give  a  large  income  to 
their  owners.  If  they  do  not  make  such  a  return,  the  money  is 
unwisely  invested. 

The  facts  that  so  large  a  sum  is  represented  by  domestic  ani- 
mals, and  that  from  them  the  interest,  if  any  is  secured,  upon 
this  great  amount  of  capital  must  come,  should  prove  a  strong 
inducement  for  the  owners  to  give  their  live-stock  the  best  of 
care  and  the  closest  attention.  It  is  in  this  way  only  that  the 
largest  possible  profit  is  to  be  secured.  For  want  of  this  care 
and  oversight  many  of  the  animals  kept  on  our  farms  prove  of 
no  benefit  to  their  owners.  Instead  of  paying  six  per  cent,  in- 
terest upon  the  capital  which  they  represent,  they  hardly  pay  the 
expenses  of  their  keeping.  Certainly  this  rate  of  interest  ought 
to  be  secured,  and  the  man  who  fails  to  receive  it  should  care- 
fully examine  his  methods  of  keeping  and  treatment  and  find 
wherein  they  can  be  improved.  In  succeeding  chapters  we  shall 
endeavor  to  point  out  the  best  and  most  profitable  systems  of 
management. 

There  are  two  special  and  several  incidental  purposes  for 
which  animals  are  useful  to  the  farmer.  They  are  valuable  for  the 
labor  which  they  perform,  and  for  the  food  which  they  supply. 
Some,  like  the  horse,  are  principally  usefjil  as  laborers.  Some, 
like  the  pig,  are  only  good  for  food ;  while  others,  like  the  ox, 
are  valuable  for  both  labor  and  food.  It  is  also  true  that  ani- 
mals are  beneficial  to  the  farmer  in  that  they  convert  the  bulky 


628  FARMING   FOR   PROrrT. 

products  of  his  land,  such  as  hay  and  grain,  into  valuable 
material  which  occupies  a  much  smaller  space,  and  thereby 
saves  a  great  expense  for  transportation.  The  Western  farmer 
can  send  his  beef  to  the  Eastern  market  and  get  well  paid,  but 
he  could  not  profitably  send  all  of  his  hay  so  far  from  home. 
The  freight  on  a  hundred  pounds  of  hay  would  be  as  high  as  it 
would  on  a  hundred  pounds  of  beef,  but  the  amount  of  money 
received  for  the  latter  would  be  five  or  six  times  as  great  as  it 
would  for  the  former.  Animals  also  convert  various  products 
of  the  soil  which  man  cannot  eat  into  some  of  the  finest  quali- 
ties of  food  for  his  support.  Man  cannot  cat  the  hay  with 
which  he  fills  his  barns,  or  the  grass  which  clothes  his  pastures, 
but  he  can  use  the  beef  and  mutton  which  are  produced  from 
them.  A  large  part  of  the  fertilizers  upon  which  the  farmers 
crops  are  fed  are  produced  by  animals.  "  No  cattle,  no  dung :  no 
dung,  no  corn,"  long  ago  became  a  proverb  among  the  best 
farmers  in  the  world.  And  though  chemical  fertilizers  have 
been  discovered  which  promise,  and  which  are  also  able  to 
perform,  great  things  in  the  line  of  agricultural  advancement,  it 
is  still  true  that  merely  for  the  production  of  manure  domestic 
animals  are  of  great  value  to  the  farmer. 

It  may  be  accepted  as  a  settled  principle  that  upon  every 
farm  one  or  more  animals  should  be  kept,  for  at  least  part  of 
the  time,  for  the  labor  which  they  are  able  to  perform.  In 
thickly  settled  countries  like  China,  where  each  man  owns  but  a 
very  small  area  of  land,  it  is  possible  to  do  by  hand  the  work 
which  the  farmers  of  this  country  need  animals  to  perform.  It 
is  all  very  true  that  a  thoroughly  spaded  garden  is,  by  means  of 
the  spading,  got  into  a  fine  condition  to  receive  the  seed.  If 
corn  fields  and  wheat  fields  could  be  treated  in  like  manner, 
very  large  crops  might  be  secured.  But  our  farmers  cannot 
afford  to  use  the  spade  for  loosening  and  fining  the  soil.  To 
attempt  to  prepare  a  good-sized  field  in  this  manner  would 
expose  a  farmer  to  the  ridicule  and  contempt  of  his  neighbors. 


LIVE-STOCK  ON  THE   FARM.  529 

and  involve  him  in  a  heavy  financial  loss.  The  work  might  be 
done  very  nicely,  but  its  cost  would  be  altogether  above  the 
highest  price  which  the  owner  of  the  land  could  afford  to  pay. 
In  this  country  operations  of  this  kind  must  be  performed  a 
great  deal  cheaper  than  they  can  possibly  be  done  by  hand.  It 
is  very  necessary  that  they  should  be  done,  and  also  be  done 
in  a  thorough  manner.  Before  a  crop  can  be  obtained,  the  land 
must  be  fitted  for  the  reception  of  the  seed.  But  as  a  means  for 
accomplishing  this  purpose,  hand-power  is  altogether  out  of  the 
question.  To  the  ordinary  farmer*  steam-power  aiso  is  wholly 
unavailable.  It  is  to  the  animals  which  God,  in  infinite  wisdom 
and  goodness,  has  given  to  man  for  his  aid  and  service  that  we 
must  look  for  the -means  of  fitting  our  land  for  the  seed,  and  for 
gathering  the  harvest  when  it  is  ripe.  Laying  aside  all  thought 
of  their  other  uses,  and  of  the  convenience  of  having  such  strong 
and  willing  servants,  we  can,  in  this  one  item  of  labor,  see  that 
without  these  animals  the  farmer  would  be  utterly  helpless. 
With  the  spade  he  could  prepare  but  little  land,  and  with  the 
sickle,  or  the  cradle,  he  could  gather  but  little  grain.  Without 
the  aid  of  the  animals  our  fields  would  be  untilled,  the  great 
prairies  of  the  West  unbroken,  and  business  of  every  kind 
would  come  to  a  speedy  end.  In  calling  attention  to  the  great 
necessity  of  help  from  the  animal  creation,  and  to  the  weakness 
of  man  without  this  aid,  we  hope  to  impress  upon  the  minds  of 
our  readers  not  only  the  fact  of  indebtedness  to  the  creatures 
which  patiently  labor  for  the  advancement  of  the  material 
interests  of  their  owners,  but  also  to  awaken  a  sense  of  duty  to 
treat  these  animals  with  the  kindness  and  consideration  which 
they  deserve. 

Of  the  animals  which  are  kept  on  the  farm  for  the  main  pur- 
pose of  being  fitted  for  food,  the  cattle,  sheep,  and  pig  are  of 
the  greatest  value.  In  certain  sections  of  the  country  it  pays 
well  to  grow  and  fatten  these  animals  for  the  market.  In  other 
places  the  winters  are  so  long  and  severe,  and  the  soil  so  poorly 


530  FARMING   FOR  FRO  FIT. 

adapted  for  pasturage  in  the  summer  that  the  expense  of  keeping 
animals  is  very  great,  and  it  does  not  pay  to  attempt  to  conduct 
the  live-stock  business  with  special  reference  to  supplying  the 
market  with  animal  food.  At  the  West,  where  the  land  is 
cheap,  corn  sells  for  an  extremely  low  price,  and  grass  and 
hay  can  be  had  in  abundance,  meat  can  be  furnished  very 
much  cheaper  than  it  can  in  New  England.  In  Texas,  with  its 
vast  territor)'-,  its  luxuriant  pastures,  and  its  mild  climate,  beef 
can  be  produced  for  a  much  lower  price  than  it  can  even  in  the 
most  favored  parts  of  the  West. 

It  is  not  wise  for  the  New  England  farmer  to  attempt,  on  a 
large  scale,  to  compete,  in  this  line  of  business,  with  the  cattle 
owners  of  Texas  and  the  West.  Twenty  years  ago  it  paid 
Eastern  farmers  well  to  fatten  oxen  for  the  New  England 
market.  But  since  the  West  and  South  have  gone  extensively 
into  the  work  of  growing  live-stock  and  sending  it  all  over  the 
countr)',  the  prices  of  various  kinds  of  meat  have  declined  and 
the  demand  has  been  more  than  supplied.  The  Eastern  farmer 
can  still  furnish  the  meat  needed  in  his  own  family  and  sell  to 
some  extent  in  the  home  market,  but  he  will  hardly  be  able  to 
compete  in  the  large  city  markets  with  stock-owners  who  are 
much  better  situated  for  its  production.  It  is  possible,  however, 
that  the  trade  in  meat  with  Gre.\t  Britain,  which  is  assuming 
large  proportions  and  now  seems  to  be  firmly  established,  will 
divert  the  surplus  products  of  the  W^est  and  South  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  open  the  Eastern  city  markets  again  for  supplies 
from  their  own  section.  If  this  prt^ves  to  be  the  case.  Eastern 
stock-owners  should  accept  the  opportunity  and  strive  to  buila 
up  a  profitable  business.  The  same  principle  which  governs  in 
the  production  of  beef,  which  as  a  matter  of  convenience  has 
been  specially  considered,  also  applies  to  the  other  kinds  or 
animal  food. 

The  live-stock  business  offers  to  almost  every  farmer  an 
opportunity   for   financial   gains.      But   these   gains   are  to  be 


THE   HORSE.  ,53  j 

secured  by  keeping  the  best  animals  and  giving  them  the  best 
of  care.  A  poor  class  of  stock  may  nearly,  or  if  not  too 
poor  may  quite,  pay  its  way.  A  great  deal  of  the  stock  kept 
on  the  farm  is  of  this  description.  But  it  should  not  be  consid- 
ered sufficient  that  the  keeping -of  the  animals  involves  no  direct 
loss.  By  careful  attention  to  the  principles  of  breeding  the 
average  farmer  can  obtain  a  better  grade  of  stock.  If  he  will 
sell  his  inferior  animals  and  fill  their  places  with  better  ones,  he 
can  effect  a  gradual  improvement  without  incurring  a  very  heavy 
expense.  By  keeping  the  best  of  his  animals  for  breeding  pur- 
poses instead  of  selling  them  to  the  butcher,  and  taking  good 
care  of  them,  the  farmer  can  soon  obtain  a  class  of  stock  which. 
will  be  sure  to  yield  him  a  fair  percentage  of  profit. 


THE  HOBS^. 

N  able  writer  has  said,  and  there  are  few  if  any  who  ques- 
tion the  truth  of  his  assertion,  that  "There  is  no  better 
beast  in  the  world  than  a  horse,  nor  any  one  which, 
though  often  most  cruelly  misused  by  man,  so  well  de- 
serves, and  so  amply,  by  his  services,  repays  the  best  usage." 
Unlike  m.ost  of  the  animals  which  promote  the  comfort  and  in- 
crease the  happiness  of  mankind,  the  horse  is  found  in  all  the 
habitable  parts  of  the  globe.  In  all  climates  and  temperatures 
where  grass  can  grow  or  man  abide,  the  horse  may  be  found  his 
willing  and  efficient  servant.  A  necessity  to  the  savage  and  the 
half-civilized  races,  he  is  also  indispensable  to  the  people  who' 
have  obtained  the  highest  culture  and  the  greatest  degree  of 
control  over  the  forces  of  nature.  The  barbarous  nations  which 
know  nothing  of  steam  or  electricity  and  who  have  no  means 
of  utilizing  the  power  so  freely  furnished  by  wind  and  V\'ater,  are 
dependent  upon  the  horse  for  the  aid  which  they  need  in  the 

work  which  they  attempt  to  perform.     But  the  civilized  races,.. 
34 


532  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

although  they  can  control  these  great  powers  of  which  the  bar- 
barian knows  nothing,  are  also  dependent,  in  a  very  great  de- 
gree, upon  the  horse  for  their  comfort  and  prosperity.  All  classes 
and  conditions  of  men  need  the  help  of  this  useful  animal.  The 
work  of  the  world  could  not  gc  on  without  his  aid.  This  fact 
should  cause  the  people  to  whom  he  is  so  invaluable  to  treat 
him  kindly,  and  supply,  with  a  liberal  hand,  the  food  and  protec- 
tion which  he  requires. 

In  this  country  we  have  horses  of  nearly  all  descriptions  and 
adapted  to  almost  ever)''  conceivable  purpose.  But  as  this 
work  is  designed  especially  for  farmers,  we  shall  confine  our 
remarks  to  the  growing  and  management  of  horses  which  are 
serviceable  on  the  farm.  By  this  we  do  not  design  to  intimate 
that  we  shall  treat  only  of  a  low  grade  of  horses.  Though  there 
are  many  very  poor  horses  kept  on  our  farms  they  ought  not  to 
hold  the  positions  which  they  now  occupy.  A  poor  horse  is  not 
suitable  for  the  farm.  While  great  speed  is  not  required,  it  is 
still  true  that  the  finest  horses  are  none  too  good  for  the  farmer's 
use.  On  a  farm,  as  truly  as  on  the  road,  the  best  horses  give  the 
best  satisfaction  and  are  the  most  profitable  to  their  owners. 
Our  farmers  have  been  too  long  contented  with  a  low  class  of 
horses,  andhave  suffered  great  and  constant  losses  by  their  quiet 
acceptance  of  an  inferior  grade  of  these  most  useful  and  valuable 
animals.  While  the  poor  horses  which  so  many  farmers  have 
kept,  and  with  which  they  have  been  so  well  satisfied,  have  been 
of  incalculable  value  and  have  made  possible  the  accomplishment 
of  an  immense  amount  of  work  for  the  performance  of  which 
no  other  class  of  animals  could  have  been  secured,  it  is  still 
true  that  if  a  better  grade  of  horses  had  been  owned,  a  still 
greater  degree  of  success  would  have  been  obtained.  It  is  not 
wise  for  the  farmer  to  buy  very  expensive  horses,  but  he  ought 
to  have  those  which  are  really  good  and  useful.  If  he  can  afford 
to  keep  a  horse  of  any  kind,  he  can  afford  to  keep  a  good  one. 
If  a  good  one  cannot  be  made  to  pay  the  expenses  of  his  keep- 


THE  HORSE.  533 

ing,  a  poor  one  will  be  almost  sure  to  involve  his  owner  in  an 
actual  loss. 

The  qualities  which  are  required  in  a  good  horse  for  the  farm 
are  a  good  disposition,  strength,  endurance,  and  activity.  It  is  also 
quite  desirable  that  the  farm  horse  should  be  nicely  formed, 
beautifully  colored,  be  a  good  traveller,  and  carry  himself 
elegantly  when  in  motion.  These  qualities  are  desirable,  but 
they  are  not  essential.  Some  of  the  best  of  farm  horses  are 
deficient  in  one  or  all  of  them.  But  in  order  to  perform  the 
best  service  for  his  master  the  farm  horse  must  possess  each  and 
all  of  the  qualities  which  are  named  in  the  list  of  requisites 
which  has  been  given. 

A  Good  Disposition  is  of  the  greatest  importance.  Without 
the  other  qualities  which  we  have  marked  as  essentials,  the 
horse  becomes  worthless  to  the  farmer,  but  without  a  good  dis- 
position he  becomes  not  merely  unserviceable  but  positively 
dangerous.  Although  a  good  horse  is  one  of  the  best  patterns 
of  kindness  and  fidelity  in  the  whole  animal  world,  a  vicious 
horse  is  one  of  the  most  violent,  revengeful,  and  unrelenting 
creatures  with  which  man  attempts  to  cope.  Until  subdued  by 
the  wonderful  skill  of  Rarey,  the  celebrated  English  stallion 
Crusier  was  a  far  more  dangerous  animal  than  a  lion.  And 
instances  in  this  country  in  which  vicious  stallions  kill  their 
grooms  and  ugly  horses  disable  or  destroy  their  owners  are  not 
very  infrequently  reported  in  our  newspapers.  Such  occurrences 
are  altogether  too  common.  They  can  be  avoided  by  following  . 
one  simple  rule — that  of  never  using  or  keeping  a  vicious  horse. 
There  is  no  other  safe  way.  The  man  who  handles  a  vicious 
horse  is  in  constant  danger.  All  may  go  well  for  years  and  yet 
in  some  unexpected  moment  the  animal  may  exercise  all  bis 
destructive  power.  If  the  owner  is  extremely  careful  he  may 
not  be  injured,  but  the  risk  is  very  great  and  ought  never  to  be 
taken.  Less  difficult  to  get  along  with  than  these  violent  crea- 
tures, but  still   unsafe  to  handle  in  the  manner  in  which  farm 


531  FARMING   J'OK   rKOf/r. 

horses  are  usually  managed,  are  the  sullen  and  sour-tempered 
horses  which  are  so  often  seen  and  which  frequently  cause  no 
small  amount  of  mischief.  These  horses  are  not  often  very 
violent,  but  are  liable  to  bite  or  kick  when  displeased  with  their 
treatment  or  surroundings.  In  many  cases  they  will  not  attack 
the  master,  but  will  wreak  their  vengeance  upon  children  or 
strangers  who  happen  to  be  near  when  things  do  not  suit  them. 
Such  horses  should  never  be  kept  on  the  farm.  They  are 
decidedly  unsafe  to  have  around  under  the  treatment  which 
farm  horses  receive.  If  used  anywhere  they  should  be  put  upon 
stage  lines,  or  horse-car  routes,  where  they  can  have  steady 
and  tolerably  severe  work,  and  where  their* evil  propensities  can 
be  more  easily  restrained  than  they  can  be  on  a  farm.  When 
the  danger  to  all  who  use  them,  and  especially  to  the  aged, 
women,  and  children,  is  considered,  it  seems  strange  that  any 
one  will  keep  a  horse  which  has  any  trace  of  viciousness  in  its 
disposition. 

That  the  farm  horse  will  require  a  great  deal  of  Strength  is 
clearly  evident  when  the  nature  of  the  work  for  the  performance 
of  which  he  is  required  is  considered.  The  fleet  carriage  horse 
v.hich  moves  so  gracefully  along  the  road  would  prove  of  but 
little  value  when  hitched  to  a  plow  which  is  to  be  drawn  through 
a  heavy  sod.  Not  only  for  plowing  but  also  for  a  large  part  of 
the  other  work  required  on  the  farm  a  high  degree  of  strength 
is  absolutely  necessary.  Even  the  harrowing  of  the  land  after 
,  it  has  been  plowed  involves  a  heavy  draft.  The  cultivation  of 
the  crops,  cutting,  and  drawing  them  to  the  stack  or  the  barn 
are  operations  which  require  a  strong  team  for  their  rapid  and 
profitable  performance.  While  it  is  possible  to  accomplish 
something  with  a  weak  team,  no  one  who  has  had  the  slightest 
experience  in  the  premises  will  doubt  that  all  the  work  which 
ii  thus  carried  on  will  be  done  at  a  great  disadvantage.  We 
have  known  farmers  to  plow  their  land  shallow  because  they  dijd 
not  have  a  team  with  strength  enough  to  plow  it  to  a  suitable 


THE  HORSE.  gor 

depth.  The  team  was  also  too  weak  to  do  all  the  harrowing 
which  ought  to  have  been  given.  In  all  the  preparatory  opera- 
tions the  team  was  inefficient,  but  when  harvest  came  it  was 
found  abundantly  able  to  draw  all  the  crops  which  with  this 
defective  system  of  culture  had  been  obtained.  The  work  which 
can  be  profitably  done  on  a  farm  cannot  be  performed  without 
the  exercise  of  a  great  deal  of  strength.  A  weak  team  will,  from 
the  very  nature  of  the  case,  prepare  the  land  for  the  production 
of  small  and  unprofitable  crops. 

It  is  not  only  important  that  a  sufficient  degree  of  strength 
should  be  provided  but  also  that  it  should  be  furnished  by  a 
small    number  of  animals.      A    great    and    constant   waste    is 
involved  in  keeping  three  horses  to  do  the  work  which  two 
ought  to  be  fully   ablo    to    perform.     Every  one  can  see  that 
such   a   course    involves   the   waste  of  considerable    hay   and 
grain,  quite  an   expense   for  shoeing   and    harnesses,  the    loss 
of  interest  on  quite  a  little  sum  of  money,  and  the  withdrawal 
of  an  amount  of  capital  equal  to  the  selling  value  of  the  animal 
from  employment  in  profitable  departments  of  the  business  of 
the  farm.      Keeping  more  horses  than  are  needed  inevitably 
involves   the  owner  in  loss.     We  do  not  here  refer  to   horses 
which  are  kept  for  pleasure-driving,  or  to  the  extra  horses  which 
some  farmers  think  that  they  can  profitably  keep  for  use  during 
the  busiest  part  of  the  .season.     But,  while  the  same  principle 
applies  pretty  generally  to  them  all,  we  now  have  in  mind  the 
horses  which  are  kept  as  extras  in  order  to  atone  for  the  deficien- 
cies of  those  which   should   form   the   farm  team.     Instead  of 
keeping  these  animals  it  is  much  better  for  the  farmer  who  has  a 
small  and  weak  team  to  sell  it  and  then  buy  a  stronger  one.     It 
will  be  a  great  deal  cheaper  to  keep  two  strong  horses  than  it 
will  to  support  three  weak  ones,  and  the  greater  convenience  of 
using  the  pair  will  be  another,  and  should  be  a  sufficient  reason 
for  making  the  exchange. 

In  selecting  horses  for  farm  work  the  buyer  must  be  careful 


536  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

to  distinguish  between  size  and  strength.  It  is  a  common 
opinion  that  large  horses  are  very  strong  and  small  horses  com- 
paratively weak.  While  it  is  true  that  when  other  things  are 
equal  a  large  horse  is  stronger  than  a  small  one,  it  is  not  always 
safe  to  assume  that  because  a  horse  is  large  he  must  be  very 
strong,  or  that  because  another  is  much  smaller  he  is  a  great 
deal  weaker.  The  greater  weight  of  the  large  horse  is  much 
in  his  favor  when  drawing  heavy  loads,  especially  over  rising 
ground,  but  strength  does  not  wholly  depend  either  upon  v/eight 
or  size,  and  a  small  horse  may  be  stronger  than  a  large  one. 
Farmers  who  judge  of  horses  merely  by  their  size  are  often 
very  badly  deceived  and  frequently  overload  their  teams.  The 
strength  of  a  horse  depends  far  more  upon  his  form  and  the  per- 
fection of  his  muscular  development  than  it  does  upon  his  actual 
size.  We  do  not  wish  to  be  understood  as  saying  that  small 
horses  are  usually  stronger  than  large  ones.  They  are  some- 
times stronger,  but  not  always.  In  proportion  to  their  weight 
when  in  the  same  general  condition  we  believe  the  medium-sized 
horses  will  prove  stronger  than  those  which  are  excessively 
large,  and  in  some  cases  a  small  horse  will  prove  much  stronger 
than  one  which  is  of  considerably  larger  size.  In  selecting  a 
horse,  size  must  be  considered,  but  it  is  not  the  only  standard 
by  which  to  test  either  his  strength  or  his  value. 

Endurance  is  one  of  the  leading  qualities  of  a  first-rate  farm 
horse.  Many  horses  are  kind  and  strong  which  cannot  endure, 
without  discomfort  and  injury,  the  hard  labor  which  at  some 
seasons  of  the  year  the  farmer  requires  his  team  to  perform. 
We  think  that  the  work  of  a  farm  is  much  more  trying  to  the 
endurance  of  a  horse  than  that  of  many  kinds  of  business  which 
are  usually  considered  much  more  severe.  The  horse-car  com- 
panies require  severe  and  protracted  labor  of  the  animals  which 
they  keep  in  use,  but  they  feed  in  the  best  possible  manner, 
while  the  hours  of  labor  are  regular  and  the  work  nearly  uniform 
in  its  demands  upon  the  strength.     But  on  the  farm  there  are 


THE  HORSE. 


6a7 


many  days  in  which  no  work  at  all  is  required,  and  periods  of 
considerable  length  in  which  but  comparatively  little  labor  is 
performed  by  the  horses  in  the  team.  But  in  the  busy  seasons 
of  seeding  and  harvest  there  is  a  very  severe  and  long-continued 
strain  upon  their  powers  of  endurance.  During  these  seasons 
many  horses  are  injured  which  would  have  performed  a  great 
deal  of  hard  labor  if  it  had  been  more  evenly  distributed 
throughout  the  year.  To  work  extremely  hard  for  two  weeks 
after  a  period  of  idleness  and  then  be  kept  in  the  barn  for  a  few 
weeks  until  another  busy  time  comes  is  a  severer  strain  upon  a 
horse  than  regular  labor  six  days  in  the  week.  The  aggregate 
amount  of  work  performed  in  the  latter  case  may  greatly  exceed 
that  under  the  former  method,  and  yet  the  horse  keep  in  better 
condition  and  be  less  likely  to  be  sick  or  injured  than  he  will 
under  the  former  system  of  less,  but  irregular,  labor.  This  is 
readily  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  one  system  is  in  accord- 
ance with,  while  the  other  is  in  violation  of  physiological  laws. 

Then,  too,  the  feeding  of  the  horse  on  the  farm  is  not  always 
managed  to  the  best  advantage,  and  the  powers  of  endurance 
of  the  horses  employed  are  severely  taxed  by  its  irregularity  or 
its  inappropriateness.  While  the  car  horse  has  regular  hours 
of  feeding,  and  a  certain  quantity  and  quality  of  food,  the  farm 
horse  is  often  fed  at  irregular  intervals,  and  is  given  the  kind  of 
food  which  it  is  the  most  convenient  for  his  owner  to  supply. 
The  horses  on  the  farm  are  sometimes  started  out  very  early  in 
the  morning,  while  on  other  days  they  have  but  little  to  do 
until  after  noon.  Sometimes  they  are  put  in  the  stables  in  good' 
season,  while  at  others  they  are  kept  at  work  until  late  in 
the  evening.  This  irregularity  of  labor  necessarily  involves  an 
equal  irregularity  of  feeding,  and  the  two  combined  bring  a 
hard  strain  upon  the  powers  of  endurance  of  the  team. 

Activity  is  one  of  the  qualities  which  the  farm  horse  should 
possess.  It  is  not  necessary,  perhaps  it  is  not  desirable,  that  he 
should  be  fleet  on  the  road.     A  good  traveller  may  be  one  of 


538  FARMING  FOR   PROSIT. 

the  poorest  of  all  horses  for  farm  work.  This  is  not  necessarily 
the  case,  but  it  often  happens.  The  first-class  travellers  are  often 
too  restive  and  nervous  to  cheerfully  submit  to  the  slc.v  and 
toilsome  processes  by  which  much  of  the  work  of  the  farm 
must  be  performed.  But  there  are  a  great  many  horses  which 
are  quiet  and  tractable  and  still  very  active.  When  required  for 
drawing  loads  they  do  not  go  by  fits  and  starts,  like  too  many 
fast  horses,  but  take  a  quiet  yet  rapid  gait  and  hold  it  until  the 
work  is  done.  Some  horses,  which  work  steadily,  go  too  fast 
It  is  hard  for  a  man  to  follow  them  with  a  plow,  and  they  are 
almost  sure  to  work  beyond  their  strength. 

We  know  of  a  pair  of  horses,  which,  with  an  ordinary  plow, 
can  plow  two  and  a  half  acres  of  land  in  a  day.  These  horses 
walk  steadily  but  very  fast.  They  do  too  much.  They  are 
neither  very  large  nor  very  strong,  and  ought  never  to  plow 
more  than  two  acres  in  a  day.  But  this  is  a  very  unusual  failing 
among  horses  which  are  kept  for  work.  But  very  ^q\\  farm 
horses  which  work  steadily  work  too  fast.  The  great  majority 
are  altogether  too  slow.  Too  many  of  the  farm  teams  not 
only  "  draw  like  oxen  "  in  point  of  steadiness,  but  also  resemble 
them  in  respect  to  the  time  required  for  the  performance  of  a 
given  piece  of  work.  While  a  slow  and  quiet  team  is  much 
better  than  one  which  is  nervous  and  unsteady,  there  is  a  mean 
between  these  two  extremes  which  is  greatly  to  be  preferred  to 
either  of  them.  There  are  many  kinds  of  work  on  the  farm 
which  require  activity  rather  than  great  strength  for  their 
profitable  performance.  In  harrowing  stubble  land,  bushing  in 
grass  seed,  and  many  of  the  lighter  kinds  of  the  work  of  the 
farm,  a  team  which  will  work  rapidly,  yet  quietly,  will  accom- 
plish a  great  deal  more  than  one  of  equal  strength  which  is 
slow.  In  the  course  of  a  year  it  makes  a  great  deal  of  difference 
with  the  progress  of  the  work  and  the  amount  performed, 
whether  the  horses  are  slow  or  active.  In  buying  a  horse  for 
farm  use  this  point  should  be  duly  considered. 


FIG.    92. 
1.  Carriage  Horse      2.  English  Rncehor- 


.Ameiir.in  Tnnter. 


THE  HORSE.  54  j 

In  the  training  of  colts  care  should  be  taken  to  teach  them 
to  step  quickly.  Many  horses  are  naturally  slow,  and  cannot, 
except  by  abuse,  be  made  very  active.  It  is  of  no  use  to 
attempt  to  teach  such  horses  to  be  spry.  They  may  be  some- 
what improved,  but  natural  tendencies  will  show  themselves,  and 
prove  difficult  to  control.  Instead  of  whipping  such  horses  to 
make  them  go  faster,  some  different  kind  of  work  which  they 
can  perform  at  their  own  gait  should  be  selected  for  them, 
and  animals  which  are  naturally  more  active  chosen  for  the 
farm.  But  many  slow  horses  were  m.ade  so  by  defective 
training  when  they  were  young.  If  they  had  been  carefully 
trained  they  would  have  been  far  more  active.  It  is  too  late  to 
attempt  to  improve  them  now,  but  care  should  be  taken  in 
training  the  colts  which  are  to  supply  the  farm  teams  in  the 
future.  If  they  exhibit  unmistakable  signs  of  dulness  they 
should  be  trained  for  slow  work.  Otherwise  they  may  be 
educated  for  the  farm  or  the  road. 

In  order  to  work  at  any  advantage  in  the  improvement  of 
farm  horses,  and  secure  a  supply  of  these  which  will  possess  the 
desirable  qualities  which  they  ought  to  have  without  the  defects 
which  characterize  so  many  of  the  animals  now  in   use,  it  will 
be  necessary  to  commence  at  the  very  beginning.     As  long  as 
the  spring  remains  unclean  it  is  wholly  useless  to  attempt  to 
purify  the  water  at  the  fountain.     And  as  long  as  the  system  of 
breeding  which  in  many  sections  has  been  adopted,  and  is  now 
prevalent,  is  pursued,   there  will   be  neither  the  hope  nor  the 
possibility  of  any  marked  improvement  in  the  character  of  our 
farm  horses.     If  we  are  to  have  good  horses  we  must  take  pains 
in  breeding  them.     There   must  be  more   care  and   a  greater 
degree  of  skill.     More  capital  must  be  invested  in  the  business. 
When  we  consider  the  quality  of  the  animals  which  have  been 
used  as  breeding  stock,  we  lose  every  particle  of  surprise  at  the 
poor  grade  of  horses  which  are  found  on  our  farms.     The  great 
wonder,  to  one  who  has  studied  the  subject,  is  that  there  are  so 


542  FARMING  I' OR   PROFIT. 

many  horses  which  are  good,  and  so  few  which  are  wholly 
useless.  A  great  many  farmers  have  used  for  breeding  purposes 
the  very  poorest  stock  they  had  on  hand.  Cases  are  numerous 
in  which  a  farmer  has  kept  a  mare  until  she  was  old  and  par- 
tially disabled,  and  then,  when  she  had  the  heaves,  and  stumbled, 
when  the  sense  of  sight  was  failing,  and  all  the  powers  of  life 
were  rapidly  on  the  decline,  used  her  for  breeding.  It  is  a 
common  remark  among  farmers  when  speaking  of  an  old, 
unsound,  and  worthless  mare,  that  she  "  will  do  to  raise  colts." 
Such  mares  often  are  used  for  this  purpose,  and  here  we  find  an 
ample  reason  for  the  low  grade  of  the  ordinary  farm  horse.  And 
what  increases  the  difficulty,  and  makes  a  matter  already  bad 
many  times  worse,  is  the  fact  that  these  mares  are  taken  to 
stallions  which  are  very  much  like  themselves.  If  the  colt 
could  have  strong  constitution  and  vigorous  blood  on  one  side 
of  its  parentage,  there  would  be  some  hope  that  he  might  be 
worth  something.  But  the  farmer  thinks  that  to  take  such  an 
old  mare  to  a  really  excellent  stallion  will  be  too  expensive. 
So  he  casts  away  all  the  best  chances  of  success,  and  obtains  a 
colt  from  a  well-mated,  but  miserably  poor,  pair  of  animals. 
There  are  cases  in  which  all  this  is  done  ignorantly.  Mk. 
Murray  has  said  that  there  is  more  than  one  man  who  hopes  to 
obtain  "  a  Dexter  or  a  Goldsmith  Maid  "  who  breeds  a  mare 
worth  less  than  fifty  dollars  to  "  a  horse  that  is  not  worth  fifty 
cents."  It  is  not  surprising  that  there  are  poor  colts  in  the 
world,  but  it  is  astonishing  that  men  will  go  on  breeding  horses 
in  such  direct  violation  of  all  physiological  laws,  and  all  the 
teachings  of  common  sense  and  experience. 

We  have  alluded  to  the  fact  that  a  great  many  farmers  do  not 
use  mares  for  breeding  purposes  until  they  are  old  and, 
at  least  partially,  disabled.  Now  old  age  alone  ought  to  be  a 
disqualification  for  breeding  purposes.  We  have  shown  that  the 
farm  horse  needs  strength,  endurance,  and  activity.  Is  the  colt 
likely  to  inherit  these  vigorous  qualities  from  a  dam  which  is  in 


THE   HORSE.  643 

the  declining  years  of  life  ?  Common  sense  answers  with  an 
emphatic  no.  It  is  useless  to  say  that  the  mare  has  been  smart, 
and  fleet,  and  strong.  It  is  not  what  the  mare  has  been,  but 
what  she  is  while  carrying  her  colt  which  is  to  determine  his 
constitutional  powers.  In  the  human  line  we  find  that  the 
children  of  aged  parents  are  deficient  in  vital  power.  It  often 
happens  that  in  the  period  of  youth  the  children  of  such 
parents  begin  to  show  the  marks  of  old  age.  Their  teeth 
decay,  their  hair  falls  out,  their  eyes  grow  dim,  and  all  the  sen- 
sibilities are  dulled.  The  same  principles  which  govern  in 
human  life  also  apply  to  the  brute  creation.  The  ordinary 
life  of  the  horse  cannot  be  said  to  exceed  twenty-five  years, 
while  man  lives  to  be  seventy.  The  children  of  parents 
fifty  or  sixty  years  of  age  will  inevitably  bear  the  marks  of 
weakness  and  premature  decline.  These  often  appear  in  infancy. 
Sometimes  they  are  delayed  but  they  are  not  prevented.  The 
offspring  of  aged  parents  bear  the  stamp  of  old  age  when  they 
should  be  in  the  vigor  of  active  life,  and  their  vital  powers  show 
signs  of  failure  when  they  ought  to  be  in  their  fullest  strength. 

Now  at  the  age  of  fifteen  the  ordinary  horse  is,  comparatively, 
as  old,  and  the  vital  powers  are  as  greatly  diminished,  as  a  man 
at  fifty.  In  a  multitude  of  cases  the  horse  is  older  at  fifteen 
than  man  at  sixty.  Yet  there  are  many  fai"mers  who  do  not 
begin  to  use  their  horses  for  breeding  until  they  are  fifteen  years 
of  age.  This  we  hold  is  a  great  mistake.  It  is  an  error  which 
entails  a  loss  of  hundreds  of  thousands  of  dollars  upon  our 
farmers.  If  the  serviceable  life  of  the  average  horse  could  be 
prolonged  five  years,  it  would  be  an  immense  benefit  to  all 
owners  of  this  animal.  Such  an  increase,  we  firmly  believe, 
might  be  secured  by  the  use  of  young  instead  of  old  mares  for 
breeding. 

Unsoundness 'is  a  very  great  obstacle  to  the  breeding  of  really 
good  horses.  There  are  many  sound  mares  which  are  used  for 
breeders,  but  the  great  majority  of  them  are  altogether  too  val- 


544  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 

uable  to  be  owned  upon  the  farm.  But  few  of  the  mares  which 
bring  the  colts  into  the  world  which  are  to  furnish  farm  horses 
are  young  and  sound.  Old  age  is  joined  with  other  dis- 
qualifications very  often.  And  when  a  farmer  is  found  using  a 
young  mare  for  breeding  purposes,  there  is  considerable  reason 
to  suspect  that  there  is  something  wrong  about  the  beast  and 
that  on  account  of  this  difficulty  she  has  been  withdrawn  from 
active  farm  labor.  There  are  exceptions  to  this  rule,  but  they 
are  very  few.  Farmers  have  not  yet  been  brought  to  realize 
the  immense  importance  of  a  sound  parentage.  All  around 
them  are  the  eviflences  of  the  transmission  of  disease.  The 
consumptive  mother  brings  forth  consumptive  children,  and  the 
scrofulous  father  taints  the  blood  of  those  whom  he  begets. 
Many  forms  of  disease  have  been  handed  down  from  father  to 
son  for  generations.  And  this  tendency  to  transmit  disease 
is  not  only  as  strong  in  animals  as  in  man,  but,  owing  to 
the  alleviating  and  counteracting  circumstances  which  the  intel- 
ligence of  men  can  bring  to  bear  upon  their  own  condition,  is 
still  more  likely  to  be  permanent.  If  a  mare  has  the  heaves,  her 
colts,  if  she  has  any,  will  almost  surely  be  weak  in  their  organs 
of  respiration.  If  she  is  lame,  even  though  the  lameness  may 
have  had  a  purely  accidental  origin,  it  is  quite  probable  that  the 
colts  will  in  early  life  also  become  lame.  If  the  lameness  is 
caused  by  disease  or  weakness,  it  will  almost  surely  be  passed 
down  to  the  colts.  Blindness  is  very  sure  to  be  handed  down  to 
succeeding  generations.  And  any  infirmity,  disease  or  defect  is 
quite  likely  to  place  its  mark  upon  the  colts  produced  by  the 
unsound  parent. 

An  animal  having  a  bad  temper  and  a  vicious  disposition 
should  never  be  used  for  breeding.  These  defects  are  not  only 
perpetuated,  but  are  very  likely  to  be  aggravated  in  the  offspring. 
It  has  been  well  said  by  Mr.  Murray  that  "It  is  a  crime  to 
breed  an  ugly  dam  either  to  an  ugly  horse  or  a  good-natured 
horse."     If  either  parent  is  cross  or  ugly  the  colt  will  be  almo.st 


THE  HORSE.  545 

certain  to  inherit  this  evil  quality,  while  if  both  parents  are  bad- 
tempered  an  ugly  colt  may  be  looked  for  with  a  great  deal  of 
certainty.  As  a  good  disposition  is  one  of  the  essential  requisites 
of  a  good  farm  horse,  it  is  not  too  much  to  assert  that  it  is  one 
of  the  important  qualities  to  be  required  in  those  animals  which 
are  to  determine  the  character  of  the  horses  which  are  to  be 
produced  in  the  future. 

The  particular  breed  of  horses  which  the  farmer  should  keep 
will  depend  upon  various  circumstances.  Figure  93  represents 
a  White  Percheron-Norman  stallion  which  was  imported  from 
France  in   1868,  and  belongs  to   M.  W.  Dunham,  Wayne,  Du 


FIG.  93. — "SUCCESS."      452. 

Page  Co.,  111.  The  Percheron  horses  have  long  been  noted  for 
their  power  and  endurance,  and  their  ability  to  move  rapidly 
with  heavy  loads.  This  breed  is  very  desirable  for  farm  and 
driving  purposes. 

The  Cleveland  Bay  is  an  excellent  English  breed  suitable  for 
the  farm  and  road.  There  are  a  few  other  breeds  which  possess 
many  good  qualities  and  prove  quite  satisfactory  for  the  general 
uses  of  the  farm. 

On  account  of  the  cost,  and  also  the  trouble  and  expense  of 
keeping  a  stallion,  most  farmers  will  feel  obliged  to  take  their 
mares  to  one  owned  by  some  dealer,  or  large  breeder  of  horses. 
There  may  not  be  just  the  breed  of  horses  which  he  would 


546  FARMING   FOR    PROFIT. 

prefer  near  enough  to  his  place  to  warrant  his  securing  the 
desired  blood.  In  such  a  case  he  must  take  the  best  which  can 
be  found  or  else  buy  a  stallion  of  the  breed  which  he  prefers. 
Most  farmers  will  choose  the  former  course.  Although  there  is 
a  great  deal  more  difficulty  in  obtaining,  in  country  towns,  a 
thorough-bred  stallion  than  there  is  in  finding  a  male  represen- 
tative of  any  particular  breed  of  cattle  which  may  be  wanted,  it 
is  not  unusual  to  find  one  which  is  well  bred,  which  possesses  a 
good,  though  not  always  perfect,  pedigree,  and  which  has  the 
reputation  of  getting  good  colts.  Then  there  are  many  more 
stallions   without   either    pedigrees   or   any   specially   valuable 


FIG.  94 — "  ELDORADO."      657. 

Black  Percheron-Norman  Stallion.    Imported  from  France,  July,  1878 

by  M.  W.  Dunham,  Wayne,  Du  Page  Co.,  111. 

traits.  The  cost  of  taking  a  mare  to  one  of  the  latter  class  is 
much  less  than  that  of  securing  the  services  of  the  better  ones. 
And  as  the  mares  which  a  large  class  of  farmers  use  for  this 
purpose  are  very  poor,  it  is  only  natural  that  the  services  of  the 
poorer  class  of  stallions  should  be  the  most  in  demand.  This 
breeding  of  worthless  dams  to  miserable  sires  is  a  cheap  way 
of  obtaining  colts,  but  the  colts  are  still  cheaper  than  the  method 
which  is  employed  to  secure  them. 

While  it  is  very  important  to  have  a  good  and  sound  mare,  it  is 
of  equal,  if  not  greater,  moment  to  have  an  excellent  sire.  It  is 
not  necessary  that  the  sire  should  be  a  thorough-bred,  though  if 


THE  HORSE.  547 

he  belongs  to  a  race  of  horses  suitable  for  the  farm  it  is  very 
desirable,  but  it  /^important  that  he  should  be  well  bred,  and  be 
able  to  transmit  the  excellencies  which  he  has  inherited.  He 
should  be  sound  and  kind,  of  good  size  and  appearance,  and 
should  possess  the  qualities  which  the  farmer  most  desires  his 
horses  to  have.  It  is  a  general,  and  probably  a  correct,  impres- 
sion that  the  strength  and  endurance  of  a  colt,  as  well  as  his 
temper  and  disposition,  are  much  more  strongly  impressed  by 
the  sire  than  they  are  by  the  dam.  This  fact  should  not  lead 
the  farmer  to  be  less  particular  than  he  otherwise  would  be 
about  the  character  of  the  mares  from  which  he  raises  colts,  but 
it  should  impress  upon  his  mind  the  fact  that  it  is  never  allow- 
able to  use  a  poor  sire.  If  it  is  impossible  to  secure  the  services 
of  a  really  good  stallion,  the  farmer  had  better  give  up  all  idea  of 
obtaining  colts  from  his  own  mares.  It  is  better  to  buy  a  good 
stallion  than  to  hire  a  poor  one.  If  he  cannot  afford  to  buy,  and 
is  shut  up  to  the  choice  of  hiring  a  poor  one  or  none  at  all, 
he  had  better  give  up  the  horse  business  and  raise  some  other 
kind  of  stock.  Poor  colts  are  a  great  deal  worse  than  none,  and 
the  wise  farmer  will  have  as  little  to  do  with  them  as  possible. 

The  mare  usually  goes  with  young  from  forty-seven  to  fifty 
weeks — sometimes  not  more  than  forty-four  weeks,  and  occa- 
sionally as  long  as  fifty-six  weeks.  It  is  very  desirable,  both  for 
the  benefit  of  the  mare  and  the  sake  of  the  colt,  that  the  foaling 
should  occur  when  the  weather  is  mild  and  there  is  an  abun- 
dance of  green  grass  in  the  pastures.  The  first  half  of  the  month 
of  June  is  the  best  time  for  this  purpose.  During  all  the  period 
in  which  she  is  with  foal,  the  mare  should  be  well  fed  and  treated 
with  extreme  kindness.  Blows,  or  even  angr)'  words,  may  cause 
her  to  slink  the  foal,  and  thereby  sustain  a  great  and  permanent 
injury.  She  should  have  roots  in  the  winter  in  connection  with 
the  best  of  hay.  In  the  summer,  she  should  have  grass  or 
green  corn  for  part  of  her  diet.  During  the  period  of  gestation, 
light  and  regular  labor  will  not  only  not  be  injurious  but  will 


548  FARMIXG   FOR   PROFIT. 

prove  a  positive  benefit.  Excessive  labor  should,  of  course,  be 
avoided,  and  when  at  \vork  the  quantity  of  food  which  she 
receives  should  be  increased.  During  the  whole  period  she  will 
need  more  and  better  food  than  she  would  under  other  circum- 
stances, as  she  is  obliged  not  only  to  sustain  her  own  life  but 
also  that  of  the  foetus.  During  the  last  few  weeks  of  pregnancy, 
the  marc  should  be  worked  only  enough  for  exercise,  and 
toward  the  last  part  of  the  time  this  should  be  very  gentle. 
Many  owners  allow  the  mare  to  run  in  the  pasture,  and  some 
allow  the  colt  to  be  dropped  there.  While  it  is  well  to  let  the 
mare  have  some  liberty,  we  do  not  think  it  best  to  leave  hei  to 
bring  forth  her  young  in  the  field.  When  the  time  for  labor, 
which  when  all  goes  well  is  short  but  very  severe,  approaches, 
she  should  be  put  into  a  large  box-stall  which  is  light  and  com- 
fortable and  the  floor  of  which  is  deeply  covered  with  straw. 
She  should  be  treated  with  kindness,  and  no  one  except  the 
owner  should  be  in  sight.  Everything  around  should  be 
kept  as  quiet  as  possible.  In  case  of  a  wTong  presentation,  or 
'any  other  difficulty,  the  services  of  an  educated  veterinary 
physician  should  be  obtained  as  soon  as  possible.  In  nearly  all 
cases,  if  the  mare  has  been  properly  treated  during  the  period 
of  gestation,  she  will  get  along  well  at  this  critical  period. 
Very  young  or  very  old  mares,  those  which  have  been  kept 
poor  and  over-worked,  and  those  which  have  been  united  with 
males  whicli,  from  their  excessive  size  or  some  other  inadapta- 
tion  were  altogether  unsuitable,  are  the  ones  with  which 
trouble  is  to  be  feared.  It  is  of  great  importance  that  the  best 
of  care  should  be  given,  as  it  may  save  the  life  and  health  of 
both  the  mare  and  her  colt. 

Care  of  the  Colt. — If  the  colt  is  strong,  as  he  will  be  likely 
to  be  if  the  directions  given  for  the  treatment  of  the  dam  have 
been  followed,  he  will  not  require  a  great  deal  of  special  atten- 
tion. It  may  be  well  to  help  him  to  get  on  his  feet,  and  get  a 
little  used  to  standing  up,  but  this  is  not  absolutely  necessary, 


Illliillill 


'^ili 


FIG.  95.— CLEVELAND  BAY  STALLION,   BAY  SPLENDOR.     Weight   1,390  lbs.,  height  16^  hands. 
Imported  by  George  E.  Brown  &  Co.,  Aurora,  111. 


THE  HORSE.  551 

and  if  the  dam  is  restive,  is  not  desirable.     If  the  foal  is  weak. 

and  can  neither  get  up  himself  nor  stand  up  when  he  is  set  upon 

his  legs,  he  must  be  attended  to  at  once.     If  let  alone,  he  may 

in  time  get  up,  but  he  will  be  about  as  likely  to  die.     If  weak,  he 

should  be  held  up   and   his  legs  rubbed  with  a  woollen  cloth, 

which  has  been   dipped    in  pretty  warm  water.     After  a   little 

time  they  should  be  rubbed  with  a  dry  cloth  and  then  with  Uie 

hand.     This  in  order  to  get  the  blood  circulating  well  through 

the  whole  system,  and  especially  to  attract  it  to  the  extremities. 

The  friction  will  also  give  strength  to  the  muscles,  and  enable 

the    colt,  unless    it    is    extremely  weak,    to    soon    stand    alone. 

While  this  rubbing  is  going  on,  or  at  intervals  during  which  it 

is  ceased,  the  colt  should  be  held  up  to  the  dam  and  allowed  to 

obtain  some  milk.    In  a  little  while  he  will  gain  strength  enough 

to  stand  alone.     For  a   few  days  the  mare  and  colt  should  be 

kept  quiet.     After  this  the  dam  may  be  put,  gradually,  to  light 

labor.     The  colt  may  go  with  her  if  desired,  though  it  is  better 

to  keep  him  in  the  stable  or  the  pasture.     It  will  be  easier  for 

the  colt  than  it  will  to  be  chasing  after  the  team,  and  he  can  be 

weaned  with  much  less  trouble  than  will  be  involved  if  he  is 

allowed  to  go  everywhere  with  the  dam.     He  should  be  weaned 

when  six  or  seven  months  old,  but  should  first  be  taught  to  eat 

fine  hay  and  oats  and  to  drink  water.     It  is  best  to  remove  him 

from  sight  and  hearing  of  the  dam,  and  if  another  colt  can  be 

put  with  him  he  will  do  much  better  than  he  will  alone. 

Now  comes  the  critical  time  in  the  life  of  the  colt,  and  it  is 

for  the  owner  to  decide  whether  he  shall   grow  into  i.  strong, 

robust,  and  energetic  horse,  or  into  a  weak  and  undeveloped 

beast.     Good  care  and  food  are  absolutely  rtetessary  if  a  good 

horse  is  to  be  grown  from  the  colt  now  in  hand.  ."  It  will  not  do 

to  leave   him  exposed  to  all  the  cold  and  snows  of  winter,  or  to 

the  burning  heat  of  the  summer  sun.     In  cold  weather  a  warm 

shed  should  be  provided  in  the  daytime,  into  which  he  can  go 

when  he  desires  to  do  so,  and  a  comfortable  stable  at  night 
35 


552  FA  RISING   FOR   PROFIT. 

His  food  should  consist  of  fine  hay,  a  few  oats  daily,  some  roots 
which  have  been  cut  fine,  and  occasionally  a  little  oat  or  rj'C 
meal.  Pure  water  should  be  furnished  in  abundance.  At  this 
time  it  is  possible  to  over-feed  the  colt,  but  the  great  majority 
of  farmers  err  in  the  other  direction.  It  is  not  well  to  stimulate 
the  production  of  a  large  quantity  of  fat,  but  it  is  best  to  keep 
the  animal  growing,  and  feed  him  so  that  he  will  constantly 
be  in  good  condition. 

In  the  summer  the  colt  should  be  turned  into  a  pasture,  in 
which  there  is  plenty  of  good  food  and  water  and  a  shed  which 
will  give  protection  from  the  burning  sun.  It  is  not  well  to  turn 
a  colt  into  a  pasture  with  cows  or  young  cattle.  Sometimes  colts 
are  hooked  and  spoiled  by  the  cows,  while  at  others  the  case  is  ' 
reversed  and  the  cows  are  kicked  and  spoiled  by  the  colts. 
Neither  is  it  best  to  put  a  colt  into  a  pasture  alone.  Two  or 
more  colts  do  much  better  in  a  pasture  together  than  they  do 
when  kept  separate  or  put  into  pastures  with  cattle. 

During  all  the  period  of  the  grozvtJi  of  the  colt  he  should  have 
good  food,  good  water,  and  the  best  of  care.  It  will  not  do  to 
take  good  care  of  him  until  he  is  two  years  old,  and  then  make 
him  shift  for  himself  From  the  hour  of  his  birth  until  he  is 
completely  developed  the  formative  stage  extends,  and  any 
neglect,  or  any  error  in  feeding,  during  any  part  of  this  time 
will  certainly  detract  from  the  value  of  the  animal  when  he 
is  matured.  If  at  any  time  the  colt  is  badly  kept  he  will 
surely  be  injured  thereby,  and  he  will  carry  the  marks  of  that 
injury  until  his  dying  day.  Once  stunted  the  colt  will  be 
damaged  for  life.  This  may  seem  a  sweeping  statement,  but  it 
represents  a  truth  which  the  vast  majority  of  horsemen  accept. 
Evidences  of  this  fact  may  be  seen  everywhere.  Sometimes  a  colt 
which  has  been  poorly  fed  comes  up  into  a  pretty  good  horse. 
"Such  a  thing  is  possible.  But  even  here  the  rule  holds  good. 
The  horse  is  better  than  might  have  been  expected,  but  he  is 
very  far  from  being  as  good  as  he  would  have  been  if  he  had 


THE  HORSE.  553 

received  the  care  and  attention  which  he  deserved.  If  a  man 
wants  to  bring  a  colt  into  a  powerful  and  hardy  horse,  he  must 
take  care  of  him  during  all  the  time  he  is  growing.  The  idea 
that  subjecting  an  animal  to  hardship  will  "  toughen"  it  is  one 
of  the  most  preposterous  which  ever  entered  the  head  of  a  man 
who  was  not  insane.  Does  a  general  fortify  a  city  by  pulling 
down  all  of  its  walls  ?  No.  He  goes  to  work  and  makes  those 
walls  as  strong  as  the  labor  of  his  most  energetic  workmen 
directed  by  the  skill  of  his  ablest  civil  engineers  renders  possible. 
And  the  breeder  who  wants  to  make  his  animals  strong  and 
hardy  must  build  up  their  constitutional  vigor  instead  of  tearing 
it  down.  He  will  find  destructive  forces  enough  with  which  to 
contend  if  he  devotes  all  his  energies  towards  strengthening 
the  vital  powers.  The  argument  for  exposure  which  many 
derive  from  the  habit  of  the  Indians  of  requiring  their  children 
to  go  barefooted  in  the  snows,  and  depriving  them  of  clothing 
even  in  the  coldest  weather  of  our  Northern  v/inter,  has  no 
weight  at  all.  This  comparison  of  the  hardy  savage  with  the 
refined  and  educated  white  man  is  not  at  all  to  the  point.  The 
physical  and  mental  constitution  of  the  savage  is  altogether 
different  from  that  of  the  civilized  man.  We  might  just  as  well 
talk  of  a  frog  as  being  "tougher"  than  a  lamb.  The  argument 
also  fails  from  the  fact  that  the  plan  is  not  a  success  even  with 
the  Indians.  The  terrible  mortality  among  their  children  does 
not  offer  much  encouragement  for  other  races  to  try  the  methods 
which  yield  such  fearful  results.  Besides,  as  the  Indian  rises  in 
the  scale  of  manhood,  he  throws  off  these  methods  of  slow 
torture  and  protects  his  children  from,  instead  of  exposing  them 
to,  the  cold.  There  is  no  possibility  of  making  a  child  or  an 
animal  better  by  unduly  exposing  him  to  extremes  of  tempera- 
ture, or  by  keeping  him  on  a  short  allowance  of  food.  All  the 
effects  and  tendencies  of  such  a  course  are  evil,  only  evil,  and 
that  continually. 

Castration. — In  this  country  and  in   England  it  has  been 


554  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

customary  to  castrate  male  colts  when  they  were  from  sijc 
months  to  two  years  of  age.  Those  designed  for  farm  work 
are  generally  castrated  at  an  earlier  age  than  the  colts  which 
are  to  be  used  for  carriage  horses.  Just  now  Mr.  Eergii,  the 
world-rcnowncd  humanitarian,  is  attracting  a  great  deal  of 
attention  by  his  efforts  to  induce  horse-owners  to  omit  this 
operation.  He  claims  that  the  horse  is  not  only  no  better,  but 
is  not  nearly  as  good  for  being  castrated,  and  that  it  is  an  abuse 
of  power  for  man  to  perform  the  operation  upon  a  helpless 
animal.  He  cites  the  fact  that  in  Orient.vl  lands  it  is  not  per- 
formed, and  asserts  that  there  are  no  better  or  more  tractable 
horses  in  the  world  than  there.  He  is  also  confident  that  there 
is  no  necessity  for  castrating  horses  in  this  country.  Much  as 
we  respect  the  gentleman  who  has  advanced  these  views,  and 
sincerely  as  we  wish  him  success  \r\.  his  efforts  to  correct  the 
abuses  to  which  so  many  horses  are  subjected,  we  must  dissent 
from  his  conclusion  upon  this  part  of  the  subject.  In  our 
younger  days  we  had  an  idea  that  it  was  worse  than  useless  to 
castrate  a  colt.  But  after  being  obliged  to  use  a  stallion  a 
while  for  farm  work  we  concluded  that  we  had  made  a  mistake. 
Stallions  are  utterly  unfit  for  farm  work,  and  should  never  he 
driven  as  ordinarj'  carriage  horses  in  cities  and  towns.  They 
are  neither  safe  nor  desirable  animals  to  use  in  these  ways,  and 
we  consider  it  a  wholly  impracticable  plan  to  allow  all  the 
male  colts  to  grow  up  entire. 

It  is  best  that  the  operation  should  be  performed  at  a  rather 
early  age,  as  it  reduces  the  strength  of  the  subject  less,  he  does 
not  struggle  as  violently,  and  is  therefore  safer  and  easier  to 
handle,  and  the  suffering  is  less  than  is  the  case  with  an  older 
colt.  While  some  farmers  practice,  and  a  few  writers  recom- 
mend the  owner  of  the  colt  to  perform,  this  operation,  we  cannot 
approve  of  such  a  course.  On  the  contrary,  we  fully  believe 
with  that  able  writer  on  the  horse,  W.  H.  Herbert  ("  Frank 
Forrester  "),  that  the  operation  of  castration  is  "  a  very  delicate 


THE  HORSE.  555 

one,  and  should  never  be  attempted  on  a  living  subject,  except 
by  a  person  of  experience  and  skill."  We  consider  it  a  great 
deal  better,  and  in  the  end  more  economical,  to  employ  an 
educated  veterinarian  than  it  is  for  the  farmer  to  attempt  the 
operation  himself,  or  call  in  the  help  of  a  "  horse-doctor  "  who 
has  neither  learning  nor  skill.  The  use  of  the  old-fashioned 
hot-iron  for  searing  the  cords  should  be  forever  abandoned. 
It  is  terribly  painful,  and  the  improved  methods  now  employed 
have  rendered  it  altogether  useless.  Chloroform  is  sometimes 
administered,  and  by  its  means  pain  during  the  operation  is 
entirely  prevented.  It  is  to  be  hoped  that  its  use  will  become 
much  more  common. 

Against  one  temptation  we  ought  here  to  warn  the  farmer. 
When  he  has  a  promising  male  colt  on  his  hands  he  is  very 
likely  to  imagine,  and  his  neighbors,  if  they  are  friendly,  are 
quite  apt  to  assert,  that  so  fine  an  animal  as  this  particular 
specimen  ought  to  be  saved  for  breeding  purposes.  In  many 
cases  this  judgment  is  correct,  but  in  the  great  majority  of 
instances  it  is  merely  a  question  whether  the  owner  will  have  an 
excellent  horse  or  an  inferior  stallion.  We  have  already  alluded 
to  the  great  importance  of  breeding  only  from  male  stock  of 
established  superiority.  The  question  is  not  simply  whether  a 
particular  stallion  has  desirable  qualities,  but,  combined  with 
this,  is  the  still  more  important  query  whether  he  has  received 
these  good  points  from  a  long  line  of  ancestors,  and  has  them  so 
firmly  established  that  he  can  transmit  them  with  a  great  decree 
of  certainty.  If  this  can  be  answered  in  the  affirmative,  the  stall- 
ion which  is  unusually  promising  sliruld  be  kept,  and  his  powers 
of  transmission  tested.  But  if  the  stallion  was  got  by  an  inferior 
horse,  and  brought  forth  by  a  mare  of  no  recognized  virtues, 
beware  of  keeping  him  for  a  breeder.  His  good  points  are 
merely  accidental,  and  there  can  be  no  more  certainty,  and  but 
little  more  probability,  that  he  will  transmit  them  than  there 
would  be  that  he  would  get  splendid  colts  if  he  were  as  much 


556  FARMING   FOR    PROFIT. 

below  the  average  as  he  now  is  above  the  common  standard.  The 
best  thorough-bred  horse,  of  a  breed  and  form  fitted  for  farm 
purposes,  is  the  best  one  in  the  whole  world  for  the  farmer  to 
use  with  his  mares.  If  the  services  of  a  thorough-bred  cannot 
be  secured,  then  a  stallion  whose  breeding  has  been  very  good 
should  be  obtained.  The  nearer  he  is  to  being  "  full-blooded  " 
the  better.  We  have  no  leanings  toward  the  race-horse  as  such. 
We  do  not  approve  of  racing.  And  we  consider  the  breeding 
of  horses  for  the  track  one  of  the  most  uncertain  and  unprofit- 
able, pursuits  in  which  a  man  can  engage.  But  for  years  we 
have  made  this  subject  of  breeding  a  study,  and  we  have  been 
forcibly  impressed  by  the  fact  that  excellencies  are  to  be  trans- 
mitted, if  at  all,  by  animals  which  have  received  them  from  a 
long  line  of  ancestors,  and  which  have  them  so  strongly  devel- 
oped that  they  will  impress  them  upon  their  offspring.  Those 
farmers  who  consider  thorough-bred  horses  as  good  for  nothing 
except  for  "  fancy  "  and  trotting,  should  heed  the  suggestion  of 
Mr.  Herbert  that  "  not  only  is  it  not  true  that  speed  alone  is 
the  only  good  thing  derivable  from  blood,  but  something  very 
nearly  the  reverse  is  true.  It  is  very  nearly  the  least  good 
thing.  That  which  the  blood-horse  does  possess  is  a  degree  of 
strength  in  his  bones,  sinews,  and  frame  at  large,  utterly  out  of 
proportion  to  the  size  or  apparent  strength  of  that  frame.  The 
texture,  the  form,  and  the  symmetry  of  the  bones — all,  in  the 
same  bulk  and  volume,  possess  double,  or  nearer  four-fold,  the 
elements  of  resistance  and  endurance  in  the  blood-horse  that 
they  do  in  the  cold-blooded  cart-horse." 

The  same  author,  than  whom  there  is  no  better  authority, 
asserts  that  in  point  of  muscular  development,  the  construction 
of  his  respiratory  organs,  and  the  formation  of  his  nervous  sys- 
tem, the  blood-horse  has  a  still  greater  degree  of  superiority. 
In  proportion  to  his  size  and  weight  the  thorough-bred  horse 
possesses  greater  vital  power,  strength,  and  endurance  than  any 
other  animal.     Not  only  is  he  superior  in  himself,  but  he  has 


THE  HORSE.  557 

the  power,  when  united  with  a  sound  and  well-formed  female, 
of  imparting  these  excellencies  to  his  colts.  The  man  who 
takes  a  good  mare  to  a  good  thorough-bred  horse  has  a  reason- 
able degree  of  certainty  that  he  will  secure  a  colt  of  great  excel- 
lence. But  if  he  takes  the  same  mare  to  a  stallion  in  whom 
these  good  qualities  are  lacking,  or  are  only  accidentally  present, 
he  will  be  almost  sure  to  obtain  a  colt  of  no  special  value. 
Therefore,  we  are  strongly  in  favor  of  using  only  the  very  best 
of  males  for  perpetuating  the  race  of  horses.  And  it  is  on  this 
account  that  we  advise  the  farmer  not  to  keep  for  breeders  the 
colts  which,  though  accidentally  good  themselves,  came  from  a 
low  and  inferior  parentage. 

Nicking  and  Docking  were  formerly  practiced  almost  uni- 
versally. The  former  process  is  now  unfashionable,  and  it  is  to 
be  hoped  will  always  remain  so.  It  is  a  barbarous  operation, 
causes  a  vast  amount  of  inconvenience  to  the  animal  and  much 
severe  pain,  and  does  no  possible  good.  It  disfigures  a  horse, 
and  ought  to  be  prohibited  by  law.  Docking  is  still  followed 
to  some  extent,  but  is  going  out  of  date.  We  shall  not  describe 
the  method,  as  we  consider  it  a  useless,  cruel,  and  unjustifiable 
operation. 

Breaking  and  Training. — Much  of  the  difficulty  which  is  so 
often  experienced  in  breaking  a  colt  is  the  result  of  neglect  and 
careless  usage.  It  is  true  that  some  cotts  are  naturally  vicious 
and  cannot  be  easily  managed.  Such  animals  should  not  be 
kept  upon  the  farm,  but  ought  either  to  be  killed  outright  or 
else  put  upon  the  stage  or  horse-car  routes,  where  the  labor  will 
be  constant  and  severe,  and  the  animal  will  be  kept  in  proper 
subjection.  There  are,  also,  some  men  who  can  train  a  colt 
much  more  successfully  than  others.  They  have  a  high  degree 
of  skill,  much  of  which  is  usually  inherited,  and  possess  a  pecu- 
liar aptitude  for  this  work.  Some  men  acquire  quite  a  degree 
of  skill  who  have  no  natural  talents  in  that  direction.  But  it  is 
not  every  man  who  is  fitte'd  to  break  a  colt,  and  the  one  who  is 


558  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

unqualified  had  better  let  him  alone.  His  attempts  will  be 
pretty  sure  to  make  the  colt  worse  and  may  prevent  his  ever 
becoming  a  good  and  well-trained  horse.  In  order  to  manage 
the  colt  aright  a  man  needs  an  unfailing  stock  of  patience  and 
must  be  uniformly  kind.  One  harsh  word  may  frigl.ten  the  colt 
and  cause  an  injury  which  can  never  be  repaired.  The  farmer 
may,  and  should,  give  the  first  lessons,  but  we  think  it  wise  to 
employ  some  kind,  experienced,  and  skilful  .horseman  to  give 
the  finishing  touches  to  the  educating  process.  This  may  seem 
a  needless  expense,  but  it  will  be  the  means  of  greatly  improving 
the  character  and  appearance  of  the  animal,  will  add  very  much 
to  the  comfort  and  safety  of  those  who  use  him,  and  will  largely 
increase  his  selling  price.  A  great  many  farm  horses  which  are 
kind  animals  and  good  to  work  are  so  awkward  and  ungainly 
that  it  is  a  trial  to  drive  them  on  the  road.  The)-  have  never 
been  half-trained,  and  their  habits  are  now  formed  so  that  they 
never  will  be.  But  the  colt  can  be  trained  well,  and  it  is  im- 
portant that  he  should  be,  at  least,  fairly  educated. 

The  educational  process  should  commence  early  in  the  life 
of  the  colt.  Familiarity  with  man  is  one  of  the  first  lessons  to 
be  learned.  There  should  never  be  any  harsh  language  used  to 
or  around  him.  He  should  be  frequently  fed  from  his  owner's 
hand,  and  often  petted  and  caressed.  When  only  a  few  months 
old  he  should  be  taught  to  lead  and  to  be  tied  up.  Nothing 
should  be  done  which  will  awaken  the  emotion  of  fear.  A 
frightened  colt  is  a  seriously  injured  animal.  It  is  necessary 
that  the  colt  should  realize  that  man  is  his  master,  but  he  must 
also  understand  that  he  is  to  be  ruled  by  kindness  and  not  by 
violence.  lie  must  learn  that  man  is  his  superior,  but  this  les- 
son must  not  be  enforced  by  blows  or  any  other  severe  method. 
The  colt  should  not  only  be  led  around  and  tied  with  a  halter, 
but  should  have  his  feet  taken  up  and  be  taught  to  lead  by  the 
forelock.  He  should  learn  to  carry  something  on  his  back.  A 
strap  with  a  thick  pad  may  be  buckle'd  aroimd  him  at  first,  and 


THE   HORSE.  559 

larger  things  put  on  after  he  has  got  well  used  to  this.  Care 
should  be  used  to  put  on  something  which  the  colt  cannot  pos- 
sibly get  off  by  his  own  exertions.  It  should  be  put  on  so 
gently  that  it  will  not  scare  nim,  but  so  firmly  that  it  will  stay 
there  until  the  trainer  sees  fit  to  remove  it.  Many  colts  have 
become  confirmed  in  a  very  bad  habit  by  being  allowed  to  shake 
off  something  which  was  laid  upon  the  back.  A  few  lessons 
will  make  a  colt  quite  expert  at  this  business  and  may  get  him 
so  that  he  will  never  be  safe  for  a  man  to  ride. 

In  all  the  processes  of  breaking  and  training  the  colt  should 
never  be  allowed  to  obtain  the  slightest  advantage.  Uniform 
kindness  and  uniform  mastery  should  never  be  separated.  The 
man  must  never,  for  a  single  moment,  allow  the  colt  to  imagine 
that  he  is  stronger  than  his  trainer.  If  care  is  taken  never  to 
frighten  him,  and  never  to  get  angry  with  him,  there  will  not  be 
much  difficulty  in  this  respect.  But  it  should  always  be  remem- 
bered that  anger  is  a  sure  sign  of  weakness,  and  that  the  colt 
will  be  very  likely  to  profit  by  any  exhibition  of  it  which  his 
teacher  may  make.  Harnessing  should  not  be  attempted  all  at 
once,  but  should  be  effected  by  degrees.  A  few  straps  should 
be  put  on  at  a  time  and  the  colt  allowed  to  get  accustomed  to 
them.  Then  a  few  more  may  be  added  until  the  whole  harness 
is  used.  When  not  more  than  one  or  two  years  old  the  colt 
may  be  harnessed  by  the  side  of  a  horse  and  gently  driven 
around.  As  he  grows  older  and  gets  used  to  going  in  the  har- 
ness the  pair  may  be  attached  to  a  light  wagon.  When  this 
lesson  has  been  well  learned  the  colt  may  be  hitched  into  a 
single  wagon  and  taught  to  drive  alone. 

One  thing  which  a  colt  should  always  be  taught  is  to  back. 
This  is  often  neglected.  In  order  that  he  may  learn  this  lesson 
easily  the  colt  should  be  taught  when  very  young  to  step  back- 
by  the  word  of  command  and  a  slight  pull  upon  the  halter. 
When  he  has  learned  to  go  in  the  harness,  this  lesson  should 
be  repeated,  using  as  a  signal  a  light  pull  on  the  reins.     After 


560  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

being  well  taught  to  draw  liglit  loads  he  should  be  attached  to 
a  wagon  and  taken  to  some  natural  incline  where  the  wagon 
will  of  itself  tend  to  run  down  hill.  Here  he  can  easily  be  made 
to  understand  the  lesson  which  is  then  in  hand.  When  he  will 
back  readily  down  an  inclined  plane  he  may  be  tried  on  level 
ground,  and,  in  time,  a  light  weight  may  be  laid  upon  the 
wagon.  The  weight  should  be  gradually  increased  as  the  colt 
learns  to  back. 

A  very  common  error  in  the  training  of  colts  is  the  drawing 
of  their  heads  too  high.  The  effort  is  made  to  induce  the 
animal  to  hold  up  his  head  and  yield  to  the  pressure  of  the  bit 
in  his  mouth.  Some  horses  are  so  formed  that  they  cannot 
carry  their  heads  high,  and  the  effort  to  force  them  to  do  so  is 
as  unmerciful  as  would  be  an  attempt  to  compel  a  child  to  walk 
upon  its  heels  or  in  any  other  unnatural  position.  No  bitting 
harness  should  be  put  on  until  the  colt  is  well  used  to  the  bit, 
and  then  the  check-rein  should  allow  him  to  carry  his  head  in 
the  natural  position.  If  the  head  is  carried  too  low,  a  gradual 
shortening  of  the  check  will,  in  a  year  or  two,  make  a  marked 
improvement.  But  this  shortening  must  be  only  a  very  little  at 
a  time,  and  should  never  be  carried  to  an  extreme.  If  it  is  not 
natural  for  the  horse  to  carry  his  head  up  let  him  hold  it  down. 
A  tight  check  is  an  injury  and  an  abuse.  The  mouth  soon 
becomes  toughened  by  the  strong  and  constant  pressure  of  the 
bit,  so  that  the  horse  cannot  be  easily  reined,  and  he  is  made  to 
suffer  an  immense  amount  of  pain  by  means  of  this  unnatural 
and  inhuman  method  of  treatment.  Instead  of  the  old  style 
bitting  harness,  some  good  trainers  place  the  colt  between  two 
pillars  in  the  stable  and  have  straps  from  the  rings  of  the  bit 
attached  to  rings  in  these  standards.  Only  a  ver}'  light  strain 
is  put  on  at  first,  and  it  is  increased  only  as  the  progress  which 
the  colt  is  making  seems  to  require.  This  is  a  much  safer 
method  and  much  easier  for  the  colt  than  the  use  of  the  bitting 
harness. 


THE  HORSE.  561 

The  Age  For  Working  a  colt  will  vary  somewhat  with  his 
strength,  size,  and  disposition.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the 
majority  of  farm  horses  are  put  at  work  too  young.  Frequently 
at  four  years  of  age  the  labor  of  a  full-grown  horse  is  required. 
We  are  well  aware  that  it  is  pretty  expensive  keeping  a  four- 
year-old  in  comparative  idleness,  but  we  believe  that  it  will  pay 
a  great  deal  better  than  it  will  to  put  him  to  hard  work.  At  . 
this  age  he  has  not  attained  his  full  size.  His  bones  are  still 
growing,  and  his  muscular  development  is  not  complete.  Rela- 
tively, he  is  in  a  condition  similar  to  a  large  boy.  If  size  were 
the  only  criterion  we  should  say  of  many  a  boy  of  fifteen  years 
of  age  that  he  could  do  the  full  work  of  a  man.  But  every  one 
knows  that  for  a  boy  to  do  a  man's  work  for  any  length  of  time 
is  utterly  ruinous.  The  same  principle  applies  fully  to  the  case 
of  the  colt.  Light  work  will  be  beneficial,  but  hard  labor  can 
only  result  in  permanent  injury.  If  a  colt  is  worked  hard  he 
will  become  an  old  horse  when  he  should  be  in  his  prime.  The 
ordinary  horse  is  not  capable  of  doing  full  work  without  being 
injured  until  he  is  about  six  years  old.  If  farmers  were  willing 
to  wait  a  little  longer  before  securing  the  reward  for  their  labor 
and  pains  they  would  receive  a  great  deal  more  in  the  end. 
Their  horses  would  be  much  better  and  would  last  several 
years  longer  than  they  do  when  hard  work  is  required  of  them 
in  early  life. 

Feeding  Horses. — There  are  not  many  ways  in  which  farm' 
horses  are  so  often  and  so  seriously  injured  as  they  are  by  im- 
proper feeding.  And  this  injury  is  almost  always  inflicted 
unintentionally  and  ignorantly.  Nevertheless  its  effects  both 
upon  the  health  of  the  horse  and  the  financial  condition  of  the 
owner  are  anything  but  satisfactory.  A  great  many  unsound 
farm  horses  are  said  to  have  worked  too  hard,  and  this  is  the 
reason  which  is  usually  given  when  inquiry  is  made  concerning 
the  cause  of  the  disease.  In  a  few  cases,  and  only  a  few,  this  is 
the  true  and  only  cause.     In  the  vast  majority  of  cases  hard 


562  FARMING   FOR  PROFIT. 

work  in  connection  with  improper  feeding  has  done  the  mischief. 
If  the  horses  had  been  carefully  fed,  they  would  have  done  all 
the  work  which  has  been  required  of  them,  and  still  have 
remained  sound.  We  have  already  alluded  to  the  fact  that  the 
hours  of  labor  of  the  farm  horse  are  very  irregular,  and  that,  on 
this  account,  he  is  fed  at  irregular  intervals.  This  unsystematic 
feeding  is  the  prolific  source  of  great  evils.  It  leads  directly  to 
indigestion  with  all  its  attendant  disorders.  Its  indirect  results 
are  also  bad  in  themselves,  and  pave  the  way  for  those  which 
are  still  worse.  Now  at  all  times,  and  especially  when  he  is  at  . 
hard  labor,  the  horse  should  be  fed  with  the  utmost  regularity. 
He  should  have  food  three  times  a  day,  and  these  times  should 
be  the  same  one  day  that  they  are  another.  If  he  is  working 
hard  he  should  receive  a  better  quality  of  food,  but  should  not 
have  it  more  frequently  than  he  does  when  he  is  idle.  This  is 
the  general  rule,  to  which  there  may  be  a  few  but  only  a  few 
exceptions.  But  it  is  a  rule  which  the  majority  of  the  owners 
of  farm  horses  never  attempt  to  apply.  Too  many  farmers  feed 
their  horses  when  and  as  they  happen  to  find  it  convenient. 
When  they  first  go  to  the  barn  in  the  morning  they  throw  a  lot 
of  hay  into  the  mangers,  and  perhaps  give  a  few  quarts  of  meal 
to  each  horse.  When  they  go  to  turn  out  the  cattle,  if  the 
horses  are  in  their  stables,  another  lot  "of  dry  hay  is  given  them. 
At  noon  the  manger  is  filled  up  again.  When  the  cattle 
are  put  up  at  night,  at  milking  time,-  and  when  the  owner 
feeds  the  cattle  in  the  evening,  the  same  process  is  repeated. 
If  the  horse  happens  to  be  in  the  barn,  he  is  kept  eating  hay  a 
good  share  of  the  time  from  morning  until  late  in  the  evening. 
He  is  fed  just  as  though  he  were  a  cow,  with  the  exception  that 
he  receives  a  larger  quantity  of  food.  But  some  days  he  is 
required  for  work.  Then  he  is  not  fed  nearly  as  often  and 
receives  much  less  food.  It  would  naturally  be  supposed  that 
the  days  when  at  work  the  horse  would  need  more  nourishment 
than  he  does  when  doing  nothing.     But  the  quality  of  his  food 


THE   HORSE.  563 

is  not  changed,  and  he  really  obtains  only  about  half  as 
much  of  it  when  at  work  as  he  would  if  standing  still  in  his 
stable. 

Not  only  does  irregular  feeding  prove  very  injurious  in  that 
the  horse  is  not  fed  at  all  according  to  its  needs,  but  the  bulky 
food  which  is  given  also  works  a  great  deal  of  mischief.  A 
horse  which  is  fed  in  the  manner  above  described  is  never  in  a 
condition  to  work  either  easily  or  safely.  When  stuffed  full  of 
dry  hay,  often  smoky  hay  at  that,  a  horse  is  no  more  fit  to 
work  than  is  a  gluttonous  man  at  the  close  of  a  three  days'  feast. 
While  in  this  condition  he  cannot  safely  draw  a  heavy  load  or 
travel  much  faster  than  a  walk.  His  lungs  have  not  room  in 
which  to  expand,  his  whole  digestive  system  is  overloaded 
and  clogged,  while  all  the  nervous  energies  are  weakened  and 
depressed.  In  this  conditi'^n  multitudes  of  farm  horses  are  taken 
from  their  stables  for  drives  and  also  for  hard  work.  And  it  is 
because  they  are  used  when  in  this  condition  that  so  many  farm 
horses  have  the  "  heaves  "  and  various  other  diseases.  A  good 
authority  has  asserted  that  at  least  one-half  of  the  diseases  to 
which  the  horse  is  liable  are  directly  caused  "  by  bad  food,  or 
good  food  badly  administered." 

In  order  to  feed  a  farm  horse  so  that  he  can  work  safely  and 
comfortably,  it  will  be  necessary  to  give  less  hay  and  more  grain 
than  most  farmers  furnish.  The  hay  should  be  cut  and 
moistened  with  warm  water.  If  meal  is  fed,  it  should  be 
sprinkled  upon  and  mixed  with  the  cut  hay.  If  oats  are  used 
instead  of  meal,  they  may  be  given  wnth  the  hay  or  after  it  has 
been  eaten.  The  feeding  should  be  regular  and  no  dry  hay 
should  be  furnished  between  meals.  When  the  horse  is  hard  at 
work,  the  quantity  of  meal  or  oats  should  be  increased,  but 
no  more  hay  should  be  given  than  usual.  A  few  roots  will  be 
a  good  addition  to  the  diet.  Carrots  are  specially  beneficial. 
After  extreme  hard  work,  a  warm  mash  may  be  given  with 
benefit.     Still,  it  is  not  best  to  drive  or  work  horses  up  to  the 


564  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

point  of  exhaustion.  It  will  certainly  injure  and  may  spoil 
them.  Pure  water,  in  a  clean  pail,  should  be  given  in  moderate 
quantities  at  least  three  times  a  day.  The  horse  is  very  sensitive 
about  the  quality  of  the  water  which  he  drinks,  and  it  is  an 
abuse  to  make  him  take  it  from  a  dirty  pail.  The  pail  used  for 
watering  the  horses  should  be  kept  just  as  clean  as  the  one 
used  in  the  house  for  holding  the  water  which  the  inmates 
drink.  The  horse  should  not  be  put  to  hard  work  for  an  hour 
after  he  has  finished  eating,  and  should  always  have  at  least  an 
hour  in  which  to  rest  at  noon.  He  should  never  be  fed,  nor 
freely  watered,  when  either  hot  or  exhausted. 

New  hay,  new  oats,  and  especially  new  corn,  should  never  be 
fed  to  a  hor.ie  except  in  very  small  quantities  if  anything  better 
can  be  obtained.  The  habit  of  some  farmers  of  feeding  soft 
corn  to  horses  is  extremely  bad,  and  this  practice  has  caused 
the  death  of  many  valuable  animals.  Old  corn  is  very  much 
safer,  and  is  better  in  every  respect.  For  most  horses  oats  are 
better  food  than  corn.  They  are  not  as  heating,  and  are  easily 
digested. 

When  a  farm  horse  is  required  to  go  a  journey,  he  should  be 
allowed  to  take  his  own  time  for  its  accomplishment.  He 
ought  not  to  be  hurried.  Travelling  is  very  different  from  the 
work  to  which  he  is  accustomed,' and  it  will  be  likely  to  prove 
very  wearisome.  The  majority  of  farm  horses  are  not  natural 
travellers,  and  their  habits  and  education,  as  well  as  their  tastes 
and  inclinations,  absolutely  unfit  them  for  fast  or  long  con- 
tinued driving.  If  it  is  necessary  to  go  a  long  distance  in  a 
day,  it  is  best  to  feed  two  hours  before  the  horse  is  wanted,  take 
an  early  start,  and  drive  moderately  until  ten  or  eleven  o'clock. 
.  Then  stop  for  two  hours.  Let  the  horse  be  unharnessed, 
curried,  rubbed  well  with  a  stiff  brush  or  a  woollen  cloth,  and 
then  allowed  to  stand  half  an  hour  and  rest.  He  may  then  be 
fed  with  a  liberal  quantity  of  clean  oats.  At  the  expiration  of 
the  two  hours  from  the  time  of  stopping,  he  may  be  started  on 


THE  HORSE.  565 

the  road,  but  for  the  first  hour  or  two  should  be  driven  slowly. 
If  the  point  of  destination  is  not  reached  early  in  the  evening, 
the  horse  should  be  again  put  in  a  stable  and  treated  as 
before.  After  a  good  rest  he  may  be  driven  a  few  miles 
farther.  Upon  reaching  the  end  of  the  journey,  the  horse 
should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  rubbed,  put  in  a  comfortable 
stable,  and  allowed  to  rest  for  an  hour.  Then  he  may  be  sup- 
plied with  food  and  water  and  left  for  the  night.  While  on  the 
road  it  is  well  to  give  the  horse  water,  in  small  quantities,  several 
times  during  the  day.  It  is  not  well  to  drive  the  farm  horse 
after  he  has  had  his  supper,  and  it  should  only  be  done  in  a  case 
of  importance.  If  he  has  travelled  all  day,  he  has  done  enough, 
and  should  be  given  the  evening  and  the  night  for  rest. 

When  at  work  on  the  farm,  horses  need  more  care  and  atten- 
tion than  they  usually  receive.  Not  only  should  their  feeding 
and  watering  be  carefully  arranged,  but  they  should  be  kept 
clean  and  comfortable  while  in  the  stable.  After  working  in 
the  mud  their  legs  should  be  washed  clean,  wiped,  and  rubbed 
until  dry.  We  are  not  much  in  favor  of  blanketing  farm 
horses.  If  the  stable  is  comfortable,  it  is  not  necessar\';  while 
if  it  is  cold,  the  blanket  does  not  give  the  desired  protection. 
The  difficulty  with  a  horse  that  is  cold  is  to  maintain  a  uniform 
circulation  of  the  blood.  If  this  could  be  effected,  the  trouble 
would  wholly  cease.  But  the  blood  does  not  go  freely  to  the 
extremities.  Put  a  blanket  on  the  body  and  the  blood  is  still 
more  strongly  thrown  to  the  chest.  The  extremities  needed 
the  blood.  There  was  already  too  much  in  the  body  and  the 
internal  organs.  Blanketing  under  such  circumstances  is  liable 
to  cause  congestion,  and  may  lead  to  very  serious  results. 
Again,  the  horse  that  has  a  blanket  in  the  stable  is  sure  to 
feel  the  cold  more  severely  when  he  is  out  of  doors.  He  is 
often  required  to  stand  around  in  the  cold  after  having  been 
worked  or  driven.  Then  he  needs  a  blanket,  and  it  should 
always  be  put  on.     But  a  blanket  is  not  needed  in  a  suitable 


566  FARMING   FOR   PROFI':. 

Stable — except  for  a  while  after  the  horse  is  put  in,  tired  and  ex- 
hausted— any  more  than  a  man  needs  to  wear  an  overcoat  while 
sittinjT  in  the  house.  Of  course,  if  a  horse  has  beconje  accus- 
tomcd  to  being  blanketed  in  the  stable,  he  will  need  to  have  the 
practice  continued.  But  in  the  case  of  a  colt,  we  think  it  better 
that  he  should  be  kept  comfortable  by  being  in  a  warm  stable 
rather  than  by  wearing  clothing.  It  is  a  common  opinion  that 
blanketing  will  make  the  hair  lie  smoother  and  give  a  finer 
appearance  to  the  "coat"  of  the  horse.  But  experience  has 
proved  that  in  order  to  make  much  improvement  in  this  direc- 
tion the  clothing  must  be  extremely  warm.  This  will  often 
prove  injurious.  But  the  same  end  can  be  secured,  not  only 
without  injury  but  with  positive  benefit,  by  rubbing  the  horse 
thoroughly  every  day,  and  being  careful  to  keep  him  perfectly 
clean.  Blanketing  for  the  mere  sake  of  appearances  should  not 
be  performed. 

The  Stable. — The  character,  value  and  eflficiency  of  a  horse 
will  very  greatly  depend  upon  the  condition  of  the  stable  in 
which  he  is  kept.  We  are  sorry  that  it  is  so,  but  it  is  a  fact 
that  three-quarters  of  the  stables  in  which  farm  horses  have 
their  homes  are  utterly  unfit  for  the  purpose,  while  many  of 
them  arc  not  good  enough  to  be  inhabited  by  hogs.  The  horse 
has  very  delicate  sensibilities,  and  is  easily  injured  in  many 
ways.  Nearly  all  stables  are  too  low,  and  the  doors  leading  to 
them  are  both  low  and  narrow.  When  a  horse  is  startled  by 
any  unusual  noise,  he  is  almost  sure  to  throw  up  his  head.  If 
he  strikes  it  against  the  beams,  or  the  floor  above,  he  will 
receive  a  direct  and  very  likely  a  severe  ihjur}'.  This  will 
frighten  him  still  more,  and  the  more  he  is  hurt  and  the  more 
frequently  he  throws  up  his  head,  the  worse  he  becomes. 
Many  good  horses  have  been  ruined  by  this  habit,  and  the 
injuries  thus  received.  No  hor.se-stable  should  be  less  than  nine 
feet  between  the  floors,  and  some  writers  recommend  twelve 
feet 


THE   HORSE.  --^ 

567 


^  The  doors  should  be  so  wide  and  high  that  the  horse  can  go 
m  and  out  with  a  harness  on,  and  not  touch  the  sides.  We 
have  used  a  horse  which  was  gentle  in  other  respects,  but  which 
would  plunge  like  a  tiger  out  of  his  den  when  he  was  led  out 
of  the  stable  door.  He  had  at  some  time  been  frightened  by 
bemg  led  through  a  narrow  door,  and  had  got  so  that  it  was 
difficult  to  get  him  through  a  wide  one  without  injury  to  him- 
self  and  the  man  who  was  leading  him.  We  tried  for  years  to 
conquer  the  habit,  but  did  not  succeed. 

The  ground  outside  of  the  stable  should  be  nearly  level  with 
the  floor  on  the  inside.  There  are  stables  in. which  the  floe, 
.3  from  one  to  two  feet  higher  than  the  ground.  Such  stables 
are  very  mconvenient  to  all  horses,  and  positively  dangerous  to 
mares  which  are  with  foal.  Many  cases  of  sprains  and  iamr- 
ness  can  be  traced  directly  to  these  high  steps,  and  many  horses 
wh,ch  go  in  and  out  of  the  door  as  if  they  were  afraid  of  some 
severe  mjury,  were  brought  into  this  habit  by  the  same  cause 

The  horse-stable  should  be  both  light  and  warm.     Too  many 
horses  are  kept  in  dark  stables.     This  is  very  unpleasant,  and 
also  mjunous.     The  sense  of  vision  is  soon  injured,  and   in 
«.me  cases  .s  destroyed.     Much  sufi-ering  is  also  caused  to  the 
horses  by  taking  them  from  dark  stables  into  the  full  glare  of 
he  strong  sunlight.     The  cost  of  windows  which  will  lighten. 
«^e  stable  will  be  slight,  and  ought  to  be  cheerfully  incurred 
Warmth  should  be  secured  by  boarding  the  frame  of  the  stable 
outs,de  and  .nside,  and  filling  the  space  between  the  boards  with 
tan-bark  or  dry  sawdust.       Warm  stables  are  not  only  more 
comfortable  but  also  more  healthful  than  cold  ones,     sfanding 
■n  a  draught  of  cold  air  when  warm  and  tired  often  induce! 
ser,ous  d.sease.     The  cost  of  keeping  will  also  be  much  less-  in, 
warm  stables  than  it  will  in  cold  ones.     The  whole  bar.  should 
be   well  ventdated,  and   plenty  of  pure  air  furnished    for   the 
horses. 

Another  requirement  is  that  the  slabIes,sHall  be  kept  clean.. 


568  FARMING   FOR    PROFIT. 

In  many  stables  there  is  a  strong  ammoniacal  odor.  This  may 
be  prevented  by  cleanliness,  and  the  use  of  plaster  each  day 
sprinkled  over  ths  floor.  Whenever  this  odor  can  be  detected, 
there  is  abundant  evidence  that  the  stable  is  in  an  unhealthy  con- 
dition. Allowing  the  horse  to  stand  upon  large  piles  of  wet 
litter  and  fermenting  manure  is  a  prolific  source  of  disease. 
The  horse  is  naturally  a  clean  animal,  and  will  neither  be  com- 
fortable nor  remain  long  in  health  if  kept  in  a  filthy  stall. 
Twice  every  day  the  stable  should  be  cleaned  and  dr>'  litter 
supplied. 

Shoeing  the  Horse  we  consider  a  sort  of  ncccssar}'  evil. 
When  badly  performed,  by  ignorant  and  brutal  smiths,  it  causes 
various  diseases  of  the  feet,  and  sometimes  spoils  the  horse. 
There  are  writers  who  advocate  the  disuse  of  shoes,  but  such  a 
course  seems  hardly  practicable.  In  the  North,  during  the 
winter,  sharp  shoes  are  necessary.  Without  them  the  animal  is 
in  danger  of  frequent  accidents.  In  warm  weather  shoes  are 
almost  as  necessary  in  all  places  where  the  land  is  stony  and 
rough.  There  may  be  a  few  horses  which  can  go  in  the 
summer  without  shoes,  but  the  great  majority  have  too  tender 
feet,  and  will  need  to  be  shod.  As  to  the  method  of  shoeing 
we  shall  have  little  to  say.  Each  smith  has  his  own  ideas  upon 
the  subject,  and  if  he  has  learned  his  trade  thoroughly,  he  is 
supposed  to  know  more  about  it  than  the  farmer.  It  does  not 
seem  to  be  just  right  for  the  farmer  to  give  instruction  to  the 
man  who  has  studied  a  subject  of  which  he  has  no  practical 
knowledge.  Still  there  are  many  ignorant  smiths — men  who 
know  less  about  the  structure  and  needs  of  the  feet  of  a  horse 
than  they  do  about  physiology,  of  which  they  know  nothing  at 
all.  Such  men  should  never  be  allowed  to  shoe  a  horse.  But 
there  are  many  good  shoers,  men  who  are  kind,  and  work  intel- 
ligently. They  are  the  ones  who  should  be  employed.  To 
shoe  a  horse  well  a  man  needs  knowledge  and  experience. 
Any  one  can  shoe  a  horse  badly,  but  there  is  danger  that  the 


THE   HORSE.  5^9 

bungling  work  of  an  ignorant  shoer  will  ruin  the  horse.  As  to 
exact  methods  scientific  workmen  are  not  fully  agreed.  There- 
fore it  must  not  be  taken  for  granted  that  a  man  does  not  shoe 
well  because  he  does  not  follow  the  plan  of  some  other  shoer 
who  was  known  to  be  good.  But  when  a  smith  does  not  use 
common  sense,  when  he  is  harsh  and  brutal,  and  when  horses 
are  lame  or  go  badly  after  he  has  shod  them,  there  is  sufificient 
evidence  that  some  other  workman  should  be  employed. 

Diseases  of  the  Horse. — To  treat  fully  of  the  diseases  of 
the  horse  would  require  a  whole  volume,  and  should  be  the 
work  of  an  experienced  veterinarian.  Some  work  upon  this 
subject  should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  man  who  owns  a  horse. 
Dadd's  Modern  Horse  Doctor,  Law's  Farmer's  Veterinary 
Adviser  (treating  also  of  diseases  of  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine) 
are  both  excellent  books.  There  are,  also,  many  others  which 
possess  a  great  deal  of  merit. 

To  treat  a  sick  animal  safely  and  successfully  requires  not 
only  a  knowledge  of  the  name  of  the  disease  with  which  it  is 
affected  but  also  a  clear  understanding  of  the  whole  animal 
structure,  of  physiological  laws,  and  of  the  uses  and  various 
action  of  remedies.  When  a  horse  is  merely  out  of  health,  he 
should  be  carefully  fed  and  allowed  to  rest.  When  he  is 
attacked  by  an  acute  disease,  a  veterinary  physician  should 
be  sent  for  at  once.  Delay  will  be  dangerous,  and  the 
administration  of  powerful  rernedies  by  the  farmer  or  by  some 
ignorant  "  horse-doctor "  will  be  likely  to  make  a  cure  utterly 
impossible.  For  farmers  who  are  far  removed  from  a  good 
veterinarian  we  recommend  the  purchase  of  the  sets  of  remedies, 
which  are  put  up  by  Homceopathic  physicians  of  acknowledged 
ability  and  skill,  for  the  various  diseases  to  which  the  horse  is 
subject.  With  each  set  there  are  full  directions.  The  quan- 
tities required  are  small  and  the  sets  are  not  expensive.  They 
can  probably  be  obtained  of  wholesale  druggists  in  any  of  our 
large  cities. 


570  FARMIA'G   FOR   PROFIT. 

There  are  a  few  diseases  for  which  a  description  of  the  reme- 
dies which  are  commonly  employed  by  those  who  keep  no  stock 
of  medicines  on  hand  should  be  given. 

Of  these,  Colic  is  one  of  the  most  violent  and  dangerous. 
It  comes  on  suddenly,  the  pain  is  very  severe,  there  are  intervals 
of  rest,  and  the  horse  remains  strong  and  is  usually  very  violent 
in  his  movements.  It  is  important  that  remedies  should  be 
given  immediately.  If  attended  to  at  once  the  following  treat- 
ment proves  beneficial :  One  tablespoonful  of  chloroform  mixed 
with  a  gill  of  whiskey  and  a  pint  of  warm  water  is  to  be  given. 
Then  inject  a  pint  of  warm  soap-suds.  If  the  chloroform  cannt  t 
be  had,  use  a  pint  of  very  warm  water  in  which  as  much  salt  ;is 
possible  has  been  dissolved.  In  case  the  treatment  has  been 
long  delayed,  bleeding  must  be  resorted  to  before  the  above 
remedies  are  given.  The  medicine  can  be  given  by  means  of  a 
long-necked  bottle,  though  a  drenching-horn  is  better.  For 
bleeding,  a  fleam  should  be  used,  unless  the  one  who  attempts 
it  is  a  practiced  surgeon,  in  which  case  a  lancet  may  be  better. 
The  horse  must  be  blindfolded  on  the  side  from  which  the 
blood  is  to  be  taken.  Then  at  a  point  on  the  neck,  about  two 
inches  from  the  angle  of  the  jaw,  the  jugular  vein  should  be 
found,  the  hair  moistened  and  smoothed  and  a  gentle  pressure 
applied  with  the  fingers  of  the  left  hand  in  which  the  instrument 
should  be  held.  The  vein  will  enlarge  at  once.  The  edge  of 
the  fleam  is  to  be  placed  in  a  direct  line  with  the  course  of  the 
vein  and  over  its  centre.  It  may  be  struck  with  a  stick,  or  the 
fist,  but  the  blow  must  not  be  so  hard  as  to  cut  the  opposite  side 
cf  the  vein.  A  good-sized  blade  should  be  used,  as  a  small 
quantity  of  blood  drawn  quickly  is  more  beneficial  than  a  larger 
one  which  flows  slowly.  When  a  sufficient  amount  of  blood 
has  been  taken,  the  edges  of  the  wound  should  be  brought 
exactly  together,  a  small,  sharp  pin  passed  through  to  keep 
them  in  place,  and  a  few  hairs  from  the  mane  of  the  horse 
wound  around  the  ends  so  as  to  completely  cover  the  wound. 


THE  HORSE.  571 

The  horse  must  then  be  fastened  so  that  he  cannot  rub  the 
wound.  In  twenty-four  hours  the  pin  may  be  carefully  with- 
drawn. Such  -are,  substantially,  the  directions  given  by  the 
celebrated  Youatt  for  bleeding  the  horse.  There  are  times 
when  bleeding  is  necessary,  but  in  the  great  majority  of  cases  it 
is  injurious.  The  blood  is  equivalent  to  the  life,  and  its  with- 
drawal must  have  a  very  depressing  effect  upon  the  vital  forces. 

Very  similar  in  many  of  its  symptoms  to  colic,  and  sometimes 
mistaken  for  that  disease,  is  Inflammation  of  the  Bowels. 
There  is  this  difference,  however,  which  will  enable  any  careful 
observer  to  distinguish  between  them.  In  an  attack  of  colic  the 
legs  and  ears  are  of  the  natural  temperature,  relief  is  obtained 
by  rubbing  the  belly,  and  from  motion,  there  are  intervals  of 
ease,  and  the  horse  retains  his  strength.  But  in  a  case  of 
inflammation  of  the  bowels  the  legs  and  ears  are  cold,  the  belly 
tender  and  painful  to  the  touch,  there  is  constant  pain  which  is 
increased  by  motion,  and  the  strength  is  greatly  diminished. 
For  inflammation  of  the  bowels  bleeding  must  be  resorted  lo  at 
once.  Six  or  seven  quarts  of  blood  may  be  taken  at  first,  and, 
if  relief  is  not  soon  obtained,  two  or  three  quarts  more  should  be 
drawn.  Injections  of  thin  gruel  in  which  half  a  pound  of  epsom 
salts,  or  half  an  ounce  of  Barbadoes  aloes,  has  been  dissolved 
should  be  given.  Warm  gruel  should  be  given  for  drink,  and 
once  in  six  hours  warm  water  with  a  drachm  or  two  of  aloes. 
The  belly  should  be  blistered  with  tincture  of  cantharides,  and 
the  legs  kept  warm  by  rubbing  and  bandaging.  For  a  few  days 
the  horse  should  be  kept  on  gruel  and  bran-mashes.  As  he 
gets  better  he  may  be  very  slowly  returned  to  his  oats  and  hay. 
This  is  a  very  violent  and  dangerous  disease,  and  we  do  not 
recommend  the  farmer  to  treat  it  when  a  competent  physician 
can  be  obtained.  But  there  must  be  no  delay,  and  the  owner 
may  very  properly  bleed  the  animal  and  give  injections  while 
his  hired  man  is  gone  for  the  doctor. 

CosTiVENESS   is   not  immediately  dangerous,  but   it   leads   to 


572  FARMING   J- OR   PROFIT. 

many  diseases  which  sometimes  have  a  fatal  endmg.  Mild 
cases  can  be  readily  subdued  by  feeding  roots  and  giving  bran- 
niashes.  Obstinate  constipation  will  require  more  powerful 
action.  Aloes  is  the  best — indeed,  Herbert  declares  it  to  be 
the  only  safe  purgative  for  a  horse.  It  should  be  new,  as  it 
loses  its  strength  by  age.  Its  administration  should  be  pre- 
ceded by  the  use  of  bran-mashes  for  two  or  three  days — these 
being  the  only  food  which  the  horse  is  to  receive.  After  this 
preparation,  a  light  dose,  four  or  five  drachms,  of  aloes  will  be 
very  effective.  Aloes  may  be  mixed  with  olive  oil  and  molasses 
into  the  form  of  a  ball,  which  the  horse  can  be  made  to  swallow 
as  follows  :  Tie  the  horse  in  the  stall  with  his  head  well  up,  draw 
the  tongue  out  gently  with  the  left  hand,  and  hold  it  there  by 
pressing  the  fingers  against  the  side  of  the  lower  jaw.  "  The 
ball  is  then  taken  between  the  tips  of  the  fingers  of  the  right 
hand,  the  arm  being  bared  and  passed  rapidly  up  the  mouth,  as 
near  the  palate  as  possible,  until  it  reaches  the  root  of  the 
tongue,  when  it  is  delivered  with  a  slight  jerk,  the  hand  is  with- 
drawn, and  the  tongue  being  released,  the  ball  is  forced  down 
into  the  oesophagus."  If  it  does  not  pass  immediately  down  the 
throat,  which  can  be  readily  seen  by  watching  the  left  side,  a 
light  tap  under  the  chin  will  cause  the  horse  to  swallow  it  at 
once.  It  is  not  well  to  give  either  castor  or  linseed  oil  alone  to 
a  horse.  Olive  oil  is  very  inefficient.  Salts  frequently  prove  of 
little  power,  except  in  doses  which  render  the  medicine  almost 
as  dangerous  as  the  disease. 

Worms  often  prove  a  source  of  irritation  to  a  horse,  and  in 
large  numbers  are  quite  injurious.  To  remove  them,  give  a 
ball  containing  two  drachms  of  tartar  emetic,  one  scruple  of 
ginger,  and  molasses  and  linseed  oil  enough  to  get  the 
materials  into  good  shape  for  administration.  One  of  these 
balls  should  be  given  every  other  morning  half  an  hour  before 
the  horse  is  fed.  Only  a  few  doses  will  be  required.  We  have 
known  saleratus  to  be  used  with  success  even  in  bad  cases.     A 


THE  HORSE.  gy^ 

teaspoonful  given  with  the  cut  feed  each  morning  will  be  likely 
to  effect  a  cure  in  from  one  to  three  weeks.     Simpler  than  either 
of  the  above  remedies,  and  much  to  be  preferred  if  it  will  prove 
efficient,  is  the  plan  of  keeping  the  horse  for  three  or  four  days 
upon  corn-fodder.     If  the  ears  are  not  all  taken  off,  it  will  be  all 
the   better.     No   other  kind  of  food   should  be  given,  and  the 
horse  should  not  be  worked  or  driven  hard  while  kept  in  this 
manner.     We  had  no  faith  in  this  remedy,  but,  after  witnessing 
Its  good    result   in   a   case  which  had  obstinately  resisted  the 
ordinary  remedies,  we  must  say  that  it  is  worthy  of  a  fair  trial. 
To  remove  the  small  worms  which   irritate  the  large  intestine, 
an  injection  of  an  ounce  of  aloes  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  warm 
water  will  be  useful. 

Stoppage  of  the  water  can  usually  be  remedied  by  giving 
sweet  spirits  of  nitre  in  one-half  ounce  doses.  In  mild  cases 
only  one  dose  will  be  needed.  If  this  proves  ineffectual,  repeat 
in  a  few  hours.  Should  this  fail  to  give  relief,  and  the  animal  is 
in  considerable  pain,  a  competent  veterinarian  should  be  called 
at  once. 

We  do  not  think  it  necessary  to  describe  all  the  diseases  to 
which  the  horse  is  liable,  or  give  a  list  of  all  the  remedies  which 
are  used  therefor.     Except  in  the  manner  already  indicated,  the 
farmer  is  in  no   condition  to  doctor  a  horse  that  is  sick.     He 
can  give  the  Homceopathic  remedies  to  which  we  have  referred, 
or  pursue   the  treatment  specially  indicated  for  the  particular 
diseases  we  have  named.     But  unless  he  has  read  much  upon 
the  subject,  he  is  not  qualified  to  treat  acute  diseases,  and  his 
experiments  will  usually  make  a  bad  matter  worse.     The  horse- 
owner  needs  to  have,  and  to  study,  some  book  devoted  specially 
to  the  diseases  of  the  class  of  animals  in  which  he  is  interested 
And    we    feel    the  more   strongly  disposed   to   pass   this  point 
hghtly  from  the  fact  that  if  the  directions  which  we  have  given 
for  taking   care  of,  and  feeding,  working  and  driving,  are  fol- 
lowed, but  very  few  horses   will  get  out  of  health.  "\ve  fully 


574  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

believe,  with  a  writer  already  quoted,  that,  "  if  a  horse  be  of 
good,  sound  constitution,  and  be  judiciously  fed,  regularly 
worked,  warmly  yet  not  too  warmly  clothed  and  stabled,  in  a 
building  properly  ventilated  and  aerated ;  and,  above  all,  if  he 
be  kept  scrupulously  and  religiously  clean,  there  will  for  him  be 
but  little  need  of  medicine  of  any  kind."  In  the  vast  majority 
of  cases,  the  loss  occasioned  by  the  sickness  of  a  horse  is  a 
direct  tax  upon  the  owner  for  his  want  of  care  and  skill  in 
using  and  feeding.  Accidents  excepted,  a  good  horse  can 
almost  invariably 'be  kept  well  and  strong  if  he  is  properly  man- 
aged and  cared  for. 

We  ought  not  to  close  this  chapter  without  a  few  words  upcn 
the  treatment  of  old  and  disabled  horses.  It  is  a  custom  alto- 
gether too  well  established  for  the  farmer  to  keep  a  good  horse 
until  he  gets  well  along  in  years  and  then  sell  the  faithful  crea- 
ture to  a  jockey,  who  will  trade  him  to  some  one  of  that  large 
class  of  men  who  are  too  poor  to  own  a  good  horse,  but  who 
always  keep  some  half-starved  animal  which  they  both  abuse  and 
n(.'glect.  Many  a  noble  horse  after  a  long  life  of  patient  toil, 
which  has  fairly  earned  for  him  the  right  to  an  honorable  dis- 
charge, has  been  traded  around  by  jockeys  and  idlers,  and  been 
compelled  to  drag  out  a  miserable  and  painful  existence.  It  is 
absolutely  cruel  and  unjust  for  a  farmer  to  treat  the  animals 
which  God  has  given  for  his  service  in  such  a  manner.  The  few 
dollars  which  are  obtained  in  such  a  case  are  the  price  of  cruelty, 
ingratitude  and  neglect.  This  course  has  often  been  pursued 
thoughtlessly,  but  even  this  fact  cannot  be  considered  a  valid 
excuse.  We  hope  the  custom  will  not  long  be  tolerated.  Let 
the  jockeys  understand  that  when  a  horse  has  faithfully  ser\'ed 
his  master  through  a  long  and  useful  life  he  is  not  to  be  put 
into  their  hands.  Let  the  horse  perform  labor  adapted  to  his 
strength  as  long  as  it  pays  to  keep  him.  Then  get  some  good 
marksman  to  lead  him  into  a  field,  and  with  a  well-directed 
rifle-ball  end  his  days  in  a  quiet^  decent  and  painless  manner. 


THE   MULE.  575 

Give,  the  body  a  decent  burial,  and  consider  the  approval  of 
conscience  worth  infinitely  more  than  the  few  dollars  which 
some  brute  of  a  man  would  have  paid  for  the  noble  horse. 


.9^ 


•« 


THE  STOEiE* 

)6^N  this  country  the  mule  has  not  yet  become  a  very 
popular  animal.  Though  there  are,  in  all,  a  great 
many  mule  teams,  they  are  very  few  when  compared 
with  the  horse  teams.  There  is  a  strong  prejudice 
against  the  mule,  but  he  is  winning  his  way  in  the  South  and 
West,  is  frequently  found  in  the  Middle  States,  and  occasion- 
ally in  New  England.  Although  he  has  some  peculiarities 
which  sometimes  make  him  unpleasant  to  handle,  he  also  has 
some  positive  merits — enough  to  justify  a  brief  consideration  of 
the  animal  in  this  work. 

It  is  not  every  man,  even  though  he  may  be  pretty  intelligent, 
who  can  tell  just  exactly  what  a  mule  is,  and  whence  he  sprung. 
The  parentage  of  the  mule  and  the  hinny  is,  to  many  people, 
riither  obscure.  The  niule  is  the  offspring  of  the  male  ass, 
usually  called  a  jack,  and  the  female  horse  or  mare.  The  hinny 
is  the  offsprmg  of  the  male  horse  or  stallion,  and  the  female  ass. 
The  mule  resembles  the  ass  in  form,  temper  and  voice,  though 
often  larger  than  either  parent.  The  hinny  resembles  the  horse 
in  all  these  respects  much  more  closely  than  the  ass.  The 
hinny  has  certain  merits,  but  they  are  not  equal  to  those  of 
either  the  horse  or  the  mule,  and  it  is  not  a  profitable  animal  to 
breed  in  this  country.  Neither  does  it  pay  to  keep  the  ass  for 
any  purpose  except  to  cross  with  mares.  Not,  by  any  means, 
because  the  ass  is  a  worthless  animal,  but  because  there  are 
other  kinds  which  will  be  more  profitable. 

The  mule  is  a  hybrid,  and  cannot  breed  either  with  its  own 
or  with  other  classes  of  animals.  This  is  the  almost  invariable 
rule.    Consequently  it  is  necessary  either  to  breed  or  import  the 


576  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

ass  in  order  to  keep  good  the  stock  of  mules.  It  has  been  a 
common  custom  to  use  anything  in  the  shape  of  an  ass,  no 
matter  how  inferior,  for  breeding  purposes.  This  has  proved 
very  injurious  to  the  quality  of  the  offspring,  and  is  a  practice 
which  ought  to  be  speedily  reformed.  Some  breeders  have 
made  a  move  in  this  direction,  and  have  been  well  rewarded. 
Probably  it  will  be  better  to  grow  breeding  stock  here  than  it 
will  to  import  it  from  foreign  lands.  It  has  been  thought  by 
competent  judges  that  by  selecting  the  best  from  the  stock  now 
on  hand,  or  by  importing  a  few  fine  animals,  and  using  care  and 
skill  in  their  mating,  and  the  development  of  their  offspring, 
"  a  superior  jack  to  any  now  existing  for  American  breeding 
purposes  "  might  be  secured. 

In  all  cases  the  best  jack  which  can  be  obtained  should  be 
used.  The  quality  of  the  jack  seems  to  have  a  great  deal  more 
to  do  with  the  character  of  the  mule  than  that  of  the  mare.  A 
fine  jack  and  a  decent  mare  will  almost  invariably  produce  a 
better  mule  than  a  merely  passable  jack  and  the  finest  mare 
which  can  be  found.  Consequently  it  pays  well  to  obtain  a 
first-class  jack,  but  it  is  a  great  loss  to  use  fine-blooded  mares 
for  the  production  of  mules.  A  mare  possessing  superior  blood 
should  be  used  for  breeding  horses,  if  anything.  If  coupled 
with  a  jack  she  will  bring  forth  a  mule  which  will  never  be 
worth  half  as  much  as  a  colt  from  a  good  stallion,  and  the  con- 
nection with  the  jack  will  be  very  likely  to  prevent  her  ever 
giving  birth  to  a  pure  colt.  If  bred  to  a  stallion  after  having 
produced  a  mule,  the  mare  will  be  almost  sure  to  have  a  colt 
marked,  to  quite  a  degree,  like  the  ass.  This  fact  alone  should 
be  sufficient  to  deter  owners  of  superior  mares,  from  which  they 
hope  some  time  to  obtain  colts,  from  breeding  them  with  the 
jack. 

A  good,  medium-sized  mare,  that  has  done  service  on  the 
farm,  and  proved  a  good  worker,  should  be  chosen.  Extra  size 
is  not  desirable,  and  a  bad  temper,  or  any  tendency  toward  a 


THE   MULE.  577 

vicious  disposition,  is  a  full  disqualification.  The  best  blood  to 
be  sought  in  a  mare  is  the  Norman.  A  half-blood  mare  of 
this  stock,  or  even  a  good  Canadian,  if  used  with  a  first-rate 
jack,  will  be  very  likely  to  bring  excellent  mules.  But  the 
absence  of  this,  or.  any  other  particular,  blood  need  not  be  con- 
sidered as  excluding  a  mare  from  this  use.  If  she  is  really  good 
in  temper  and  for  work,  sound,  and  of  suitable  size  and  form, 
she  may  be  made  available  for  this  purpose. 

We  have  treated  of  this  point  more  at  length  than  we  should 
have  done  if  the  common  practice  had  been  more  nearly 
correct.  Breeding  lies  at  the  very  foundation  of  the  busines,';. 
A  mistake  here  will  be  permanent  in  its  effects.  If  any  kind  (»f 
a  mare,  no  matter  how  poor,  is  bred  to  any  sort  of  a  jack,  there 
will  be  no  reasonable  ground  for  expecting  anything  very  goad 
from  their  offspring.  But  if  men  want  mules  at  all  they  want 
good  ones.  They  can  raise  good  horses,  and  had  much  better 
do  it  than  to  spend  their  time  and  invest  their  capital  in  the 
effort  to  secutse  a  poor  class  of  mules. 

When  fully  matured  the  mule  is  a  remarkably  hardy  animal, 
but  in  his  earliest  years  he  does  not  seem  to  possess  this  excel- 
lent quality.  While  young  he  needs  as  good  care  as  the 
common  colt.  The  custom  of  keeping  the  mule  colt  half- 
starved  is  to  be  strongly  condemned.  He  does  not  need  corn 
and  oats  as  much  as  the  horse  colt,  but  he  should  have  good 
hay  in  abundance,  plenty  of  pure  water,  shelter  from  storms,  and 
protection  from  great  extremes  of  temperature.  While  pam- 
pering would  prove  injurious,  good  feeding  will  be  well  repaid. 
If  castration  is  to  be  performed,  it  should  be  attended  to  early. 
This  is  ver}'  important — much  more  so  than  in  the  case  of  the 
horse.  It  should  be  done  before  the  mule  is  six  months  old, 
'  and  it  will  generally  be  better  to  attend  to  it  as  soon  as  the 
subject  reaches  the  age  of  four  months.  The  operation  should 
be  performed  with  the  same  degree  of  care  and  skill  which  has 
been  advised  for  the  colt.     A  good  mule  colt,  from  good  stock. 


57g  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

should  be  fully  as  valuable  as  a  horse  colt,  and  the  same  degree 
of  care  ought  to  be  taken  to  keep  him  from  injur)',  and  make 
him  useful. 

Breaking  and  Training. — As  the  mule  is  not,  ordinarily, 
used  for  travelling  on  the  road,  he  does  not  require  as  complete 
a  course  of  training  as  the  horse.  But  as  far  as  it  goes  the 
education  should  be  as  thorough  as  possible.  The  mule  need 
not  be  taught  as  much  as  the  horse,  but  what  he  is  taught  ought 
to  be  perfectly  done.  Here  is  where  the  great  trouble  with  the 
mule  is  usually  found,  and  it  is  on  account  of  the  neglect  of  this 
principle  that  he  has  obtained  a  bad  name.  Let  the  same  treat- 
ment be  given  the  horse  for  ten  generations  which  has  been 
given  to  the  mule  during  the  same  period,  and  at  the  end  of  the 
course  the  horse  will  be  as  ugly  as  the  mule  is  at  the  present 
time. 

Not  merely  for  generations  but  for  ages  the  ass  has  been 
abused  and  neglected  by  those  whom  he  has  faithfully  served. 
II.  is  not  strange  that  this  treatment  has  had  a  bad  effect  upon 
his  character,  and  made  him  obstinate,  with  a  strong  inclination 
to  be  vicious.  But  he  is  not  as  bad  as  might  have  been 
expected,  and  will  almost  invariably  yield  to  kind  treatment  if  it 
is  given  early  and  uniformly.  Except  when  the  parents  are 
vicious  the  mule  colt  will  be  pleasant,  and  if  treated  as  kindly 
a^  has  been  advised  for  the  horse  colt  will  never  show  an  ugly 
disposition.  Handle  him  early  and  often.  Begin  before  he  is 
an  hour  old  and  accustom  him  from  that  time  to  be  handled  and 
talked  to.  Teach  him  to  lead,  to  be  tied  up.  to  have  things  put 
upon  his  back,  and  to  feed  from  the  hand  of  the  owner.  Never 
get  out  of  temper  and  never  yell  at  him.  Show  him  that  you 
are  friendly  and  have  no  desire  to  hurt  him.  Be  careful  not  to 
frighten  him,  and  never  give  him  any  occasion  to  distrust  his 
trainer. 

In  this  way  the  mule  can  be  taught  almost  as  readily  as 
the  horse.      But  the  men  who  use  only  a  club  or  a  whip  will 


CATTLE.  579 

find  considerable  opposition.  They  ought  to.  When  a  man 
becomes  a  brute  and  attempts  to  cope  with  animals  on  their  own 
ground  he  places  himself  at  a  great  disadvantage.  He  not  only 
demeans  himself  but  the  violence  of  his  methods  makes  it 
impossible  that  he  shall  be  successful.  The  mule  colt  which  is 
always  kindly  treated  will  grow  into  a  kind  animal,  but  the  one 
which  is  always  abused  will  be  obstinate  and  may  become 
dangerous. 

The  points  of  superiority  of.  the  mule  over  the  horse  are 
greater  physical  strength  and  the  ability  to  perform  an  immense 
amount  of  labor.  The  mule  is  a  longer-lived  animal  than  th<^ 
horse,  and  will  endure  hard  labor  twice  as  many  years.  He  can 
endure  greater  extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  it  costs  less  to  keep 
him  shod,  and,  while  he  ought  to  be  well  fed,  the  expense  cif 
keeping  is  very  much  below  that  of  the  horse.  On  thesiii* 
accounts  he  is,  if  properly  treated,  a  valuable  animal  for  use  on 
the  farm. 

'O  mankind  in  a  civilized  state  cattle  are  absolute  neces- 
sities. They  utilize  a  great  amount  of  material  which 
would  otherwise  be  wasted,  perform  a  great  deal  of 
l^bor,  and  furnish  an  immense  amount  of  food.  They 
supply  many  pressing  wants  of  the  individual,  and  add  largely 
to  the  national  wealth.  The  income  now  obtained  from  cattle 
in  this  country  is  very  large,  and  by  judicious  management  can 
be  greatly  increased. 

By  means  of  careful  selection  carried  on  for  a  long  series  of 
years  a  great  improvement  in  the  character  and  appearance  of 
cattle  has  been  effected.  In  this  way  several  distinct  and 
valuable  breeds  have  been  formed,  and  their  representatives 
have  been  sent  to  all  countries  in  which  the  live-stock  interest  is 
largely  developed.     The  principal  improved  breeds  which  are 


580  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 

kept  in  this  country  are  the  Short-Horn,  Ayrshire,  Jersey 
and  Devon.  There  are  also  niany  animals  belonging  to  the 
Hereford,  Dutch,  Holstein,  Alderney,  and  Guernsey,  and  a 
few  of  the  Swiss.  Brittany  and  other  less  common  races. 
Each  breed  has  certain  characteristics  which  are  strongly 
marked,  and  which  separate  it  clearly  from  any  and  all 
other  races.  Each  one  has,  for  a  long  time,  been  bred  with 
reference  to  the  permanent  establishment  of  certain  qualities 
which  their  owners  have  desired  to  perpetuate. 

To  discuss  the  question  which  is  the  best  breed  would  be  an 
utter  waste  of  time  and  space.  Probably  there  is  no  really  best 
breed,  i.  e.,  a  breed  that  everywhere  and  under  all  circumstances 
will  prove  better  than  any  other  with  which  it  comes  in 
competition.  One  breed  is  best  for  certain  places  and  purposes, 
while  for  opposite  conditions  another  v/ill  prove  much  better. 
The  most  zealous  advocate  of  the  Jersey  cattle  would  not  think 
of  favorably  comparing  them  with  the  Short-Horns  for  beef. 
And  it  is  no  discredit  to  the  Jersey  stock  that  it  is  inferior  in 
this  respect.  The  race  has  been  bred  carefully  and  skilfully  for 
its  milking  qualities,  and  the  desired  end  has  been  secured. 
The  man  who  wants  beef  should  not  buy  Jerseys,  but  if  he  wants 
rich  milk  and  nice  butter,  he  will  be  pretty  sure  to  obtain  them 
from  cows  of  this  breed. 

As  it  is  impossible  to  get  the  heavy  farm  horse  and*  the  fleet 
carriage  horse  in  one  animal,  so  it  is  useless  to  attempt  to  get 
extraordinary  excellence  in  the  two  diverse  departments  of  flesh 
and  milk  in  any  one  breed  of  cattle.  The  two  qualities  are,  in  a 
measure,  antagonistic  and  cannot  be  combined,  in  perfection,  in 
any  one  race  of  animals.  Therefore,  instead  of  attempting  to 
decide  which  is  the  best  breed  of  cattle,  we  will  describe  the 
various  characteristics  of  the  breeds  now  common  in  this 
country,  and  endeavor  to  point  out  both  their  excellencies  and 
their  defects  so  that  the  individual  farmer  will  be  able  to  chose 
intelligently  the  one  which  will  be  the  best  for  him  to  keep. 


CATTLE.  581 

We  shall  not  give  the  historical  matter  which  generally  accom- 
panies such  descriptions.  What  the  practical  farmer  wants  to 
know  is  not  who  bred  a  cow  of  a  certain  name  to  a  particular 
bull  one  hundred  years  ago,  but  what  are  the  merits  and  demerits 
of  the  breeds  of  the  present  day.  In  order  to  obtain  the  prac- 
tical advantages  resulting  from  the  wonderful  improvement  of 
live-stock  which  has  been  effected  during  the  past  century,  it  is 
not  necessary  to  trace  all  the  steps  which  were  taken  to  secure 
it.  To  the  general  principles  which  should  govern  the  breeder 
we  shall  allude  at  the  proper  time,  but  with  the  exception  of 
illustrating  and  enforcing  these  principles  we  shall  deal  with  the 
present  in  preference  to  the  past  and  show  what  the  different 
breeds  are  rather  than  how  they  were  formed,  and  what  they 
have  been  in  the  progress  of  their  development. 

The  Short  Horn. — This  breed  has  many  excellent  qualities. 
It  is  an  old  and  well-established  race,  and  for  a  hundred  years 
has  probably  been  mor6  popular  with  the  people  at  large  than 
any  other  breed.  It  is  a  large  breed,  but  matures  reasonably 
early,  and,  with"  good  feeding  and  care,  proves  very  profitable. 
Good  pastures  in  summer  and  liberal  feeding  in  winter  are  essen- 
tial to  success  in  developing  the  best  qualities  of  this  breed. 
Perhaps  the  same  might  be  said  of  every  other  valuable  race  of 
cattle.  Still,  we  think  that  there  are  breeds  which  will  be  much 
more  productive  and  profitable  when  poorly  kept  than  the  Short 
Horn.  In  the  splendid  blue  grass  region  of  Kentucky  this 
breed  finds  everything  adapted  to  its  perfect  development,  and 
the  animals  grown  here  are  unsurpassed  in  excellence.  In  Ohio 
and  Illinois  many  fine  herds  of  Short  Horns  are  kept,  and 
there  are  some  fine  representatives  of  this  breed  in  nearly  all  the 
Western  and  Middle  States  and  New  England.  While  they 
thrive  when  well  cared  for,  they  will  not  endure  neglect  and 
short  feed  combined.  Either  one  will  soon  tell  disastrously  upon 
them.  We  have  seen  some  splendid  animals  of  this  breed  in  Mas- 
sachusetts and  Vermont,  and  on  the  best  farms  in  New  England 


582  FAKM/XG   FOR    PROFIT. 

they  do  very  well.  But  there  are  many  intelligent  farmers 
who  claim  that  a  more  hardy  breed,  which  is  smaller  and  which 
can  subsist  on  less  food,  is  better  adapted  to  the  North.  We 
have  no  doubt  that  in  those  sections  in  which  nature  has  been 
profuse  with  her  bounties,  the  Short  Horn  is  justly  entitled  to 
stand  at  the  head  of  all  races  of  cattle.  But  in  those  localities 
where  the  pastures  are  poor  and  the  hay  crop  small,  some  other 
breed  may  give  better  returns. 

When  properly  kept  and  cared  for,  the  Short  Horn  cattle  are 
excellent  for  all  the  purposes  which  this  class  of  animals  is 
designed  to  serve.  For  beef  this  breed  has  no  superior.  This  w;U 
probably  be  admitted  by  all.  No  better  beef,  either  in  point  oi 
quality  or  in  perfection  of  form,  can  be  found  than  is  produced 
by  a  weil-bred  Short  Horn  steer.  The  animals  belonging  to 
this  breed  can  be  grown  to  a  large  size.  A  fat  ox  of  this  race 
will  weigh  several  hundred  pounds  more  than  one  equally  fat 
from  a  herd  of  Avrsiiires.  It  probably  costs  considerable  more 
to  fatten  the  Short  Horn  than  it  does  the  Ayrshire,  but  the 
difference  in  cost  is  much  more  than  compensated  by  the 
increase  in  value. 

Many  breeders  of  this  race  of  cattle  have  sadly  neglected  the 
milking  qualities  of  the  stock,  and  it  has  by  this  means  come  to 
pass  that  some  of  the  finest  cows  in  the  world  for  beef  and  the 
production  of  beef  cattle  are  very  inferior  milkers.  Other 
breeders  h.i\  _  not  pushed  their  efforts  for  success  in  fattening  so 
far  as  this,  but  have  kept  sight  of  the  milking  qualities  while 
also  striving  to  develop  the  fattening  tendencies.  Still  another 
class  have  bred  particularly  for  the  development  of  the  milking 
powers  and  have  succeeded  in  obtaining  very  good  results.  Thus 
it  has  come  to  pass  that  there  are  three  classes  of  Short  Horns: 
those  which  have  been  bred  particularly  for  beef  production, 
those  in  which  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  combine  both  the 
fattening  and  the  milking  qualities,  and  those  in  which  the 
capacity  for  the  secretion  of  milk  has  been  fully  developed. 


CATTLE.  585 

The  first  class  are  among  the  finest  animals  in  the  world  for 
beef,  the  second  are  excellent  for  beef  and  very  good  for  milk, 
while  the  third  are  very  fine  milkers  and  quite  good  for  beef 
All  these  classes,  however,  need  a  good  quality  of  food  and 
plenty  of  it.  This  breed  possesses  a  great  advantage  over  some 
others  in  the  fact  that  if  the  cows  prove  to  be  poor  milkers  they 
are  worth  considerable  for  beef.  Also  in  the  fact  that  their 
calves  are  worth  more  to  the  butcher  than  those  of  the  smaller 
breeds  which  are  kept  distinctively  as  milking  stock. 

In  some  sections  of  the  country  oxen  are  used  for  farm  work, 
and  it  is  important  to  have  a  breed  of  cattle  from  which  good 
workers  can  be  obtained.  For  this  purpose  the  thorough-bred 
Short  Horn  is  not  v^ry  desirable.  He  grows  very  fast,  and,  if 
kept  as  he  should  be,  will  soon  become  too  heavy  to  work  on  soft 
land.  He  is  naturally  slow  and  cannot  easily  walk  fast.  In  tbe 
deep  snow  with  which  a  Northern  winter  covers  the  land  he  is 
unwieldy,  and  in  the  summer  he  does  not  endure  the  heat  very 
well.  Still,  there  are  many  splendid  ox-teams  of  Short  Horn 
blood.  In  many  respects  the  oxen  are  good,  but  they  are  not 
as  good,  as  far  as  work  is  concerned,  as  those  of  some  other, 
breeds. 

The  Ayrshire. — The  breeders  of  this  race  of  cattle  claim  that' 
it  is  excellent  for  the  double  purpose  of  furnishing  milk  and 
beef.     But  it  has  been  bred  almost  exclusively  for  milk,  and  this 
is  its  strong  point     The  Ayrshire  cattle  will  thrive  on  shorter 
pastures  than  the  Short  Horns.     They  are  a  smaller  breed,  are 
pretty  hardy,  and  seem  to  adapt  themselves  to  the  climate  and 
conditions  of  this  country  very  readily.     They  are  inclined  to  ■ 
be  irritable,  and  this  fact  not  only  makes  it  important  to  handle 
the  cows,  and  especially  heifers,  with  care  and  treat  them  with 
uniform   kindness,  but   is   also   an   objection   to   the   oxen   as 
workers.     The  great  excellence  of  this  breed  lies  in  its  capacity 
for  milk  production.     Give  a  representative  cow  of  this  breed  a 
good  pasture,  and  feed  her  well  in  the  wtnter,  and  she  will  yield  1 
37 


586  FARMING   FOR  PROFIT. 

a  quantity  of  milk  which  a  -u.v  from  no  other  breed  will  be 
likely  to  surpass,  and  which  cows  from  only  one  or  two  breeds 
will  very  nearly  approach.  Feed  her  on  poor  hay  in  the  winter, 
and  keep  her  in  a  miserable  pasture  in  the  summer,  and  the 
quantity  of  milk  which  she  will  give  will  not  be  excessive,  but 
it  will  far  exceed  that  of  the  cows  from  the  other  breeds  which 
attain  an  equal  size. 

The  Jersey. — No  breed  of  cattle  has  had  more  opposition  in 
this  country  than  the  Jersey,  and  no  breed  has  grown  more 
rapidly  in  popular  favor.  It  is  pre-eminently  a  breed  for  milk. 
The  animals  of  this  race  are  too  small  for  beef,  and,  on  account 
of  their  diminutive  size  and  consequent  want  of  strength,  wholly 
unfit  for  working.  Oxen  are  seldom  kept,  and  there  is  no 
inducement  for  any  one  to  experiment  with  them.  In  this  breed 
it  is  the  cow,  and  the  cow  alone,  which  possesses  special  value. 
Whether  she  is  tender  or  hardy  is  a  question  which  receives  a 
great  deal  of  discussion  in  New  England,  where  the  climate  is 
so  severe  and  many  of  the  pastures  so  inferior  that  it  is  very 
desirable  for  the  farmers  to  secure  cows  which  will  be  at  least 
moderately  hardy.  Many  breeders  assert  that  the  Jersey  cow 
is  as  hardy  as  need  be,  but  the  popular  impression  is  that  she  is 
rather  tender.  She  is  quite  small  in  size  and  may  seem  more 
;frail  than  she  really  is.  There  is  no  doubt  that  if  properly  cared 
for — treated  as  well  as  the  Short  Horn,  Ayrshire,  or  even  an 
extra  native  should  be — the  Jersey  will  get  along  without  any 
special  inconvenience  on  account  of  her  want  of  vigor. 

The  Jersey  cow  is  very  small,  and,  therefore,  will  not  require 
as  much  hay  as  a  Short  Horn.  But,  in  order  to  do  her  best, 
■she  must  have  all  the  food  she  wants  and  the  food  must  be  of 
good  quality.  It  would  be  absurd  to  keep  a  Jersey  cow  on 
swamp  hay  and  expect  her  to  give  as  much  and  as  rich  milk  as 
the  pet  cows  of  the  breeders  produce.  The  better  the  food  the 
better  the  product — a  rule  which  will  apply  to  other  breeds  as 
\well  as  to  the  one  now  under  consideration. 


CA  TTLE.  537 

The  quantity  of  milk  given  by  the  ordinary  Jersey  is  not 
large.  In  this  respect  she  is  surpassed  by  the  other  improved 
breeds,  and  even  by  the  better  class  of  natives.  But,  thou<yh 
small  in  quantity,  the  milk  of  the  Jersey  cow  is  exceedino-ly 
rich  and  more  than  makes  up  in  the  superiority  of  its  quality 
the  deficiency  in  amount.  The  great  use  of  the  milk  of  these 
cows  is  for  the  manufacture  of  "  gilt-edged  "  butter.  The  best 
butter  sold  in  the  country  is  made  from  the  milk  of  Jerseys,  and 
the  price  obtained  is  very  much  higher  than  can  be  secured  for 
a  fine  quality  which  is  made  from  other  cows.  The  finest 
Jersey  butter  not  only  presents  a  beautiful  appearance,  but  it 
also  possesses  a  nutty  flavor  which  makes  it  superior  to  other 
kinds. 

The  value  of  the  Jersey  cow  as  a  butter  producer  has  been 
widely  recognized,  and  even  the  Short  Horn  dairymen  of 
Great  Britain,  who  consider  their  favorite  breed  almost  per- 
fection, often  keep  one  or  two  Jerseys  in  their  herds  for  the 
acknowledged  purpose  of  giving  the  butter  a  better  flavor  and  a 
finer  appearance  than  it  would  otherwise  possess.  In  this 
country  the  superior  quality  of  the  Jerseys  for  butter  produc- 
tion is  readily  acknowledged.  They  easily  stand  at  the  head 
of  all  breeds  in  this  respect,  and  certainly  ought  to  be  found 
upon  a  large  number  of  our  dairy  farms. 

The  Devon. — This  is  one  of  the  most  clearly  defined  and 
purely  bred  races  of  cattle  in  the  world.  It  has  long  held  a 
high  place  in  the  estimation  of  intelligent  breeders  of  live-stock, 
and  it  possesses  sufficient  merit  to  assure  its  permanence.  Of 
medium  size,  beautiful  form,  and  good  temper,  the  cows  are  well 
fitted  for  the  dairy  and  the  oxen  for  the  yoke  or  for  beef  The 
Devon  will  thrive  on  shorter  pastures  than  some  of  the  larger 
breeds,  and  seems  particularly  adapted  to  the  mountainous 
regions. 

For  all  purposes  for  which  cattle  are  wanted  on  the  farm  they 
have   no   superior.     They  are   valuable   for  beef,  as   they  gain 


583  FARMIXG   FOR    PROFIT: 

rapidly  and  mature  at  an  early  age.  It  has  been  claimed  by 
competent  writers  that  "  more  meat  can  be  made  from  them, 
with  a  given  amount  of  food,  than  from  any  other  breed."  The 
quality  of  the  beef  is  also  superior,  and  well-fed  Devon  steers 
generally  command  the  highest  market  price. 

For  work  on  the  farm  the  Devon  oxen  are  the  best  which  can 
be  found.  They  are  hardy,  very  strong,  remarkably  active  when 
at  work,  and  also  good  tempered,  quiet  and  docile.  In  the  sec- 
tions where  oxen  are  largely  used  as  workers  this  breed  ought 
to  be  kept  for  the  purpose  of  supplying  this  need.  The  Devon 
oxen  are  so  much  quicker  in  their  movements  than  the  native, 
or  even  the  Short  Horn,  that  they  will  do  a  great  deal  more 
work  in  a  given  time.  They  do  this  extra  work  without  fretting, 
and  if  well  fed  will  perform  considerable  labor  and  gain  flesh  at 
the  same  time. 

For  milk  the  Devon  cow  holds  only  a  medium  rank.  This  is 
not  so  much  due  to  the  want  of  capacity  for  a  high  rate  of  milk 
secretion  as  it  is  to  the  fact  that  the  efforts  of  breeders  have 
been  mainly  devoted  to  an  altogether  different  purpose.  The 
Devon  has  been  bred  for  beef  and  work.  As  a  natural  and  in- 
evitable result  the  milking  properties  have  been  kept  in  the 
background.  But  the  quality  of  the  rnilk  obtained  is  very 
good  and  there  are  families  which,  having  been  bred  more  care- 
fully for  this  purpose,  are  noted  for  the  quantity  which  they  pro- 
duce. On  short  feed  they  will  probably  do  better  than  cows 
from  larger  breeds  or  from  races  which  are  more  noted  for  their 
milking  qualities. 

The  Hereford  is  an  excellent  breed  for  beef  It  has  no 
specia;!  excellencies  as  milking  stock,  and  therefore  is  not  fitted 
for  the  dairy  districts.  As  the  oxen  arc  very  large  and  heavy 
they  cannot  compare  favorably  with  the  Devons  for  working 
purposes.  Their  strong  point,  and  their  chief  point  of  superi- 
ority is  in  their  fattening  qualities.  They  take  on  flesh  rapidly 
and  make  a  good  quality  of  beef     They  need  good  keeping 


ft  ^ 


CATTLE.  59  J 

and  are  not  well  adapted  to  the  short  pastures  or  the  mountain- 
ous regions  of  New  England.  In  Ohio,  Illinois,  and  Ken- 
tucky they  grow  into  splendid  animals.  It  is  claimed  by  the 
breeders  of  Hereford  stock  that  this  animal  is  more  hardy 
than  the  Short  Horn  and  superior  to  all  other  breeds  for  cross- 
ing with  native  stock  for  the  production  of  beef.  The  grade 
Herefords  of  Colorado  sell  higher  than  any  other  cattle  from 
that  section,  and  it  is  thought  that  in  the  Rocky  Mountain 
country  on  the  east  and  the  States  and  Territories  west  of 
this  great  range  the  Hereford  will  fully  meet  the  requirements 
of  cattle-owners. 

The  Dutch. — These  cattle  are  very  large,  and  their  colors, 
which  are  black  and  white,  set  off  their  massive  proportions  to 
good  advantage.  In  their  own  country  the  cows  are  great 
milkers,  and  many  animals  have  been  imported  in  the  hope  of 
securing  a  breed  which  would  present  the  same  characteristic 
here.  These  cattle  have  been  bred  particularly  for  milk  produc- 
tion, and  the  country  in  which  they  have  lived  is  one  of  the  very 
finest  for  dairy  purposes  of  any  in  the  world.  As  a  natural 
consequence  the  change  from  the  mild  climate  and  luxuriant 
pastures  of  Holland  to  the  variable  climate  and  still  more 
variable  pastures  of  large  sections  of  our  own  country  does  not 
prove  favorable,  but  exerts  a  depressing  influence.  Still,  it  is 
claimed  by  their  owners  here  that  the  Dutch  cows  yield  an  im- 
mense amount  of  milk  from  which  a  large  quantity  of  butter 
can  be  made.  These  cows  are  also  said  to  be  especially  adapted 
to  the  cheese-producing  districts. 

For  beef  the  Dutch  cattle  are  quite  good,  but  not  better  than 
several  other  breeds,  while  inferior  to  some.  The  same  may  be 
said  concerning  working  oxen.  The  animals  reach  an  excessive 
size,  but  as  they  mature  rather  slowly  they  are  not  likely  to 
prove  as  popular  as  some  other  breeds. 

The  Holstein  cattle  are  similar  to  the  Dutch,  and  the  two 
names  are  often  used  to  represent  the  same  cattle.     The  distinc- 


592  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

tion  between  the  Dutch  and  the  Holstein  is  that  the  former 
name  stands  for  the  common  breed  of  cattle  in  Holland,  while 
the  latter  represents  the  breed  kept  in  the  Northern  part  of  the 
country  which  is  called  Holstein.  The  Holstein  cattle  are  so 
nearly  like  the  Dutch,  they  need  no  separate  description. 
Their  breeders  call  them  far  superior,  but  this  claim  is  rejected 
by  the  owners  of  the  Dutch. 

The  Alderney. — This  breed  is  so  similar  to  the  Jersey  as  to 
require  no  separate  notice.  Many  Jersey  cows  are,  improperly, 
called  Alderney.  In  reality  there  are  but  very  few  genuine 
Alderney  cows  brought  to  this  country. 

The  Guernsey. — This  breed  also  resembles  the  Jersey,  with 
the  exception  of  being  considerably  larger.  It  is  an  excellent 
breed  for  milk,  though  not  as  popular  as  the  Jersey.  These 
three  breeds,  Jersey,  Alderney,  and  Guernsey,  are  obtained 
from  the  British  Channel  Islands,  bearing  these  names, 
lying  off  the  coast  of  France.  The  Jersey  is  the  best  known, 
and  for  use  in  this  country  is  much  more  promising  than  the 
others. 

The  Swiss  cows  in  their  native  land  are  very  good  milkers 
and  prove  quite  profitable  to  their  owners.  There  have  been 
only  a  few  importations  into  this  country.  The  owners  of  these 
cattle  claim  that  they  have  positive  merits  which  entitle  them  to 
a  fair  and  extensive  trial.  But  they  do  not  become  popular  and 
are  not  likely  to  supplant  the  breeds  which  are  now  well  estab- 
lished. While  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  Swiss  are  good  cattle, 
it  is  a  question  whether  it  is  best  to  continue  the  multiplication 
of  breeds  to  a  great  extent.  It  may  pay  better  to  take  care  of 
the  kinds  of  cattle  already  secured  than  it  will  to  seek  for  others 
whose  merits  are  likely  to  be  inferior  to  those  of  some  races 
which  are  already  acclimated. 

The  same  principle  applies  to  the  Bkittany  cattle  as  well  as 
the  Swiss,  with  this  exception,  however,  in  favor  of  the  former. 
For  the  Brittany  there  is  a  place  which  no  other  breed  exactly 


CATTLE.  595 

fills.  Being  very  small  these  cattle  are  neither  useful  for  work 
nor  for  beef,  but  in  short  pastures,  and  hilly  districts,  the 
cows  may  be  made  to  supply  their  owners  with  milk.  They 
are  so  very  small  that  it  is  useless  to  think  of  making  them  pay 
in  good  daily  regions.  The  only  animals  we  have  ever  seen  of 
this  and  of  the  Swiss  breed  were  kept  for  a  while  at  the  Massa- 
chusetts Agricultural  College.  After  a  fair  trial  with  other 
breeds  they  were  both  discarded.  The  milk  of  the  Brittany 
was  rich,  and  its  quantity  much  greater  than  the  diminutive  size 
of  the  cow  would  lead  a  stranger  to  expect.  Still,  when  com- 
pared with  other  breeds,  the  Brittany  was  not  profitable. 

Native  Cattle. — All  the  breeds  which  we  have  described 
had  their  origin  in  Europe,  and  most  of  them  have  been  in  the 
process  of  formation  and  development  for  at  least  a  hundred 
years.  In  our  own  country,  the  efforts  which  have  been  made 
for  the  improvement  of  cattle  have  been  by  means  of  an  infusion 
of  this  foreign  blood.  All  "  thorough-bred  "  cattle,  so  called, 
must  trace  to  importations  on  both  sides  of  their  families.  But 
there  are,  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  a  great  many  cattle  which 
belong  to  no  particular  breed,  and  which  are  usually  denomi- 
nated "  natives."  The  better  class  of  the  common  cattle  are 
called  grades — a  term  which  indicates  that  on  one  side  of  the 
family  there  has  been  a  thorough-bred  ancestor.  But  with  the 
possible  exception  of  Texas  and  vicinity,  we  have  no  genuine 
native  cattle  in  the  United  States. 

The  original  "  cattle  "  of  this  country  were  the  Buffaloes, 
which  under  a  wasteful  and  wicked  system  of  management  have 
been  nearly  exterminated.  But  the  so-called  native  cattle  of  the 
older  settled  States  are  descended  from  cattle  imported  by  the 
colonists  and  their  immediate  successors.  The  men  who 
settled  the  States  came  from  nearly  all  parts  of  Europe  and 
brought  cattle  from  their  own  homes.  Many  cattle  were  also 
imported  from  the  West  Indies.  At  that  time  the  principles  of 
breeding  were  less  understood  than  they  are  at  the  present  day, 


596  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT 

and  the  colonists  in  their  efforts  to  subdue  the  wilderness,  clear 
the  forest,  and  protect  themselves  from  the  Indians,  had  little 
time  and  but  few  opportunities  to  improve  their  stock.  In  the 
course  of  time  it  very  naturally  came  to  pass  that  the  leading 
distinctions  which  the  various  breeds  had  possessed  were  lost, 
and  the  cattle  which  were  produced  by  so  much  intermixing  of 
different  bloods  came  to  bear  no  resemblance  to  their  pro- 
genitors, and  to  present  but  little  similarity  among  themselves. 
Although  very  far  below  the  "  thorough-bred,"  many  of  our 
native  cattle  have  good  blood  in  their  veins,  and  are  capable  of 
great  and  rapid  improvement. 

The  Texan  cattle  have  been  long  in  the  country,  and  are 
nearer  alike  than  the  so-called  natives  of  any  other  section. 
Their  greater  resemblance  to  each  other  may  be  accounted  for 
on  the  supposition  that  while  the  cattle  of  the  other  sections  are 
descended  from  several  distinct  breeds,  which  were  brought 
from  many  different  countries,  the  Texans  had  their  origin  in  a 
single  race  of  Spanish  cattle,  many  representatives  of  which 
were  brought  into  Mexico  (to  which  Texas  then  belonged) 
some  three  hundred  and  fifty  years  ago. 

The  native  cattle  of  the  Southwest  are  now  sent  in  large 
numbers  to  our  Northern  and  Western  markets.  They  are 
very  coarse,  and  greatly  inferior  to  all  other  races  of  cattle 
known  in  the  country.  They  ought  to  be  superseded  by  some 
of  the  improved  breeds.  Perhaps  it  would  be  possible  to 
improve  them,  but  it  would  require  a  great  deal  of  time  to  bring 
up  these  ungainly  animals  to  a  respectable  position.  Half-way 
measures  might  help  some,  but  it  would  take  a  great  while  to 
secure  anything  like  satisfactory  results. 

Such  are  some  of  the  characteristics  of  the  different  breeds  of 
cattle  which  are  the  best  known  in  this  country.  From  the 
description  given,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  no  one  breed  will  be 
profitable  in  all  places,  and  that  no  one  breed  is  the  best  for  all 
purposes.     The  breed  which  will  pay  the  Kentucky  farmer  the 


CATTLE.  597 

best  may  be  one  of  the  very  poorest  of  all  for  the  farmer  in 
Maine.  Again,  the  bieid  which  will  be  the  most  profitable  for 
the  farmer  who  njakes  a  specialty  of  beef  will  be  likely  to  prove 
unprofitable  to  the  one  who  is  engaged  in  making  butter  or 
selling  milk.  The  choice  of  breeds  must  be  made  with  reference 
to  the  character  and  condition  of  the  pastures  in  which  the 
animals  are  to  be  kept  in  summer,  and  the  quality  of  the  food 
which  they  can  have  during  the  cold  weather,  together  with  the 
particular  purpose  which  they  are  designed  t3  serve.  A  large 
and  hearty  breed  should  not  be  selected  for  short  pastures,  and 
an  extra  breed  for  beef  should  not  be  chosen  for  the  dairy.  It 
is  not  well  to  have  many  breeds  represented  in  one  herd. 
When  this  is.done,  som^  of  the  classes  must  be  much  better, 
either  intrinsically  or  by  adaptation,  than  others ;  the  poorer 
ones  will  not  pay  as  well  as  their  companions,  and  thus  the 
average  profit  from  the  herd  will  be  reduced.  Besides,  there  is 
some  difficulty  in  keeping  several  breeds  together,  and  it  occa- 
sionally happens  that  in  a  dairy  the  difference  in  the  quality  of 
the  milk  of  different  breeds  of  cows  proves  a  positive  disadvan- 
tage. This  is  not  always  the  case,  but  it  does  sometimes  occur. 
The  question,  "Are  thorough-breds  required  ?  "  is  often  asked 
by  dairymen,  and  by  farmers  who  are  anxious  to  obtain  as  large 
a  percentage  of  profit  from  their  live-stock  as  can  be  secured. 
It  is  a  question  in  which  every  man  who  keeps  cattle  of  any 
description  is  interested,  and  which  he  certainly  ought  to  con- 
5»ider.  There  is  a  great  deal  of  prejudice  in  many  places  against 
thorough-bred  stock,  but  it  is  almost  wholly  founded  upon  a 
misapprehension.  The  idea  which  some  farmers  have  that  the 
blooded  stock  is  superior  only  in  the  possession  of  a  pedigree  is 
erroneous.  Thorough-bred  stock  is  valuable  in  and  of  itself, 
while  the  pedigree  is  useful  only  as  a  certificate  of  careful 
breeding.  The  thorough-bred  has  inherited  many  good  quali- 
ties from  his  progenitors.  Good  animals  were  chosen  at  first, 
and  for  many  generations  no  poor  ones  have  been  permitted  to 


598  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

come  into  the  family.  The  good  points  are  strengthened  and 
intensified  in  each  generation,  and  in  time  they  become  firmly 
fixed.  They  are  then  transmitted  with  a  great  deal  of  certainty. 
It  is  true  that  there  are  a  few  exceptions.  There  are  exceptions 
to  every  rule.  There  have  been  some  thorough-bred  cows, 
even  in  breeds  which  excel  in  their  milking  qualities,  which 
were  very  poor  milkers.  These  cows  never  should  have  been 
used  for  breeding  purposes.  They  ought  to  have  been  fattened 
just  as  soon  as  possible  after  the  discover)'  was  made  that  they 
were  not  good  milkers.     Many  breeders  follow  this  course. 

But  some  men  insist  that  a  thorough-bred  is  a  thorough-bred, 
and  that  though  an  occasional  individual  may  be  poor,  yet  the 
defective  one  may  transmit  the  good  qualities  of  its  progenitors 
instead  of  its  own  deficiencies.  This  is  not  a  safe  course  to 
pursue,  and  the  fact  that  it  is  followed  to  some  extent  has 
brought  blooded  stock  into  discredit  with  many  farmers  who 
would  have  been  glad  to  obtain  it  if  it  had  been  properly  bred. 
In  a  massive  stone  tower  it  is  not  enough  that  the  great 
majority  of  the  granite  blocks  are  large  and  perfect.  Every  one 
must  be  right  or  the  safety  of  the  whole  structure  is  endangered. 
One  poor  block  may  ruin  the  whole.  So  with  blooded 
stock.  The  glory  of  this  stock  is  that  it  will  breed  true.  If  a 
man  has  a  native  cow,  he  may  obtain  good  calves  from  her  or 
he  may  secure  poor  ones.  The  calf  from  a  good  native  cow 
may  inherit  the  good  qualities  of  the  dam,  but  is  fully  as  likely 
to  possess  the  evil  ones.  But  in  the  case  of  properly  managed 
thorough-breds  tl.erc  is  but  very  little  risk.  Tlie  calf  of  a  good 
blooded  cow  is  almost  sure  to  be  good,  and  to  have  the  good 
qualities  of  the  parents  so  strongly  impressed  that  it  can  trans- 
mit them  with  a  great  degree  of  certainty.  There  can  be  no 
possible  doubt  that  for  breeding  purposes  thorough-breds  are 
greatly  superior  to  either  natives  or  grades. 

Admitting  that  they  are  better,  the  farmer  is  still  brought  face 
to  face  with  a  great  difficulty  in  obtaining  thorough-bred  cattle. 


CATTLE.  601 

The  expense  of  filling  his  yard  with  this  kind  of  stock  puts  it 
wholly  out  of  the  question.  Besides  there  are  not  animals 
enough  of  this  kind  in  the  country  to  supply  one  farmer  in  a 
hundred  if  he  should  attempt  to  keep  them  exclusively.  The 
plan  of  stocking  our  farm-yards  with  thorough-bred  cattle  is 
wholly  impracticable.  But  a  large  proportion  of  the  benefits  to 
be  secured  from  this  kind  of  stock  are  still  within  reach  of  the 
ordinary  farmer. 

We  have  shown  that  the  great  superiority  of  thorough-breds 
lies  in  the  fact  that  they  breed  almost  absolutely  true  to  the 
good  qualities  which  they  possess.  Now  let  the  farmer  select 
from  his  own  herd,  or  buy  of  his  neighbors,  the  best  native  cows, 
and  commence  the  process  of  improvement.  If  he  wants  to 
raise  beef  cattle,  he  should  select  cows  which  have  a  strong  ten- 
dency to  fatten.  If  he  wants  to  sell  milk,  the  cows  which  give  the 
greatest  quantity  of  milk  should  be  taken  for  this  purpose.  If  he 
desires  nice  butter,  let  him  select  the  cows  which  now  furnish 
the  richest  cream.  Then  let  him  obtain  a  thorough-bred  bull, 
of  a  breed  noted  for  the  particular  purpose  which  he  has  in  view 
(an  Ayrshire,  if  he  wants  to  sell  milk,  and  a  Jersey,  if  he  wants 
nice  butter),  and  mate  him  with  the  cows  he  has  selected.  The 
first  cost  of  a  two  years  old  bull  will  not  be  very  great,  and  he 
can,  for  a  f^w  years,  breed  quite  closely  without  bad  results. 
Then  he  can  exchange  with  some  other  farmer  who  is  going 
through  the  same  course.  The  blooded  bull  usually  imparts 
his  own  character'stics  in  a  great  degree  to  his  calves  by  native 
cows,  and  it  is  to  be  expected  that  the  stock  thus  obtained  will 
be  nmch  superior  to  the  dams.  The  bulls  should  not  be  kept 
for  breeding,  but  the  heifers,  even  though  they  do  not  look  very 
promising,  should  be  carefully  tested.  If  they  prove  to  be 
without  special  merit  they  should  be  fattened,  but  if  they  are 
good,  as  most  of  thp-n  will  be,  they  should  be  kept  until  some- 
thing still  better  can  be  secured.  Their  calves  will  be  likely  to 
show  a  still  gi^ater  improvement,  and  if  the  process  is  repeated 


602  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

with  successive  generations,  the  time  will  come  when  the  stock 
will  be  almost  pure  in  blood,  and,  except  for  breeding,  will  be 
just  as  good  as  that  which  is  purely  bred.  The  number  of  poor 
animals  in  a  herd  will  rapidly  decrease  with  each  generation 
until  the  proportion  will  be  but  little  greater  than  it  is  in  those 
which  are  strictly  pure. 

Although'  it  was  once  thought  that  "  in  and  in  "  breeding 
would  prove  ruinous  to  the  herds  in  which  it  was  practiced,  it 
has,  in  intelligent  hands,  proved  the  means  of  securing  the 
finest  animals.  All  the  celebrated  breeds  have  been  formed  in 
this  way,  and  by  this  means  the  careful  farmer  may  greatly 
improve  his  stock.  But  it  should  be  carried  to  extremes  only 
by  the  most  skilful  breeders.  The  farmer  may  safely  use  the 
same  bull  for  two,  or  possibly  for  three  generations,  but  it  will 
usually  be  better  to  exchange  with  another  farmer  or  breeder 
than  to  carry  it  any  farther. 

If  the  farmer  keeps  but  few  cows  and  does  not  feel  able  to 
either  buy  or  keep  a  bull,  he  may  be  able  to  get  some  of  his 
neighbors  to  unite  with  him  in  the  purchase,  and  to  help  pay 
the  expenses  of  keeping.  In  this  way  the  cost  to  the  individual 
may  be  brought  very  low,  and  yet  nearly  all  the  benefits  of  sole 
ownership  may  be  obtained.  In  all  cases  when  a  bull  is  bought 
for  the  purpose  of  improving  native  stock  a  good  one  should  be 
obtained.  Not  merely  a  good-looking  one  but  one  from  a  good 
family,  and  one  which  is  clearly  marked  with  the  peculiar  points 
which  distinguish  the  breed  to  which  he  belongs.  A  poor  bull 
should  not  be  tak^n  as  a  gift.  On  the  other  hand  it  is  not 
necessary  to  obtain  members  of  the  fashionable  families. 
Animals  from  herds  which  are  just  as  good  for  milk  or  beef, 
and  which  will  breed  with  an  equal  degree  of  certainty,  can  be 
had  for  moderate  prices,  and  will  prove  just  as  good  for  the 
purpose  of  improving  the  cattle  with  which  they  are  used.  A 
thoroughly  good,  but  not  fancy,  bull  should  be  obtained  from 
an  honest  and  intelligent  breeder.    Then  the  wayVill  be  opened 


CATTLE.  603 

for  a  rapid  and  permanent  improvement  of  the  cattle  kept  on 
the  farm. 

Probably  no  one  will  question  the  fact  that  thorough-bred 
cows  are  much  better  for  milk  and  butter  than  the  average 
natives,  but  there  may  be  some  who  doubt  whether  it  would 
pay  to  get  blooded  stock  merely  for  the  purpose  of  producing 
beef  If  they  would  read  the  reports  of  the  sales  of  beef  at  any 
of  the  principal  markets  in  the  country,  and  trace  the  difference 
in  the  blood  of  the  steers  there  sold,  their  doubts  would  vanish. 
They  would  find  that  grade  steers  not  only  average  much 
heavier  in  weight  than  natives,  but  also  that  they  frequently  sell 
considerably  higher  per  pound.  The  beef  cattle  which  have 
been  sent  to  England  have  shown  the  same  variation  in  price. 
Those  which  were  well  bred  have  sold  for  from  one-half  to  two- 
thirds  more  per  pound  than  those  of  poorer  quality.  Thus 
there  is  a  double  gain  in  using  high  grade  steers  for  beef 
They  fatten  much  more  readily  than  the  natives  and  sell  for  a 
higher  rate  per  pound. 

In  order  to  obtain  really  good  animals  it  is  necessary  to  give 
them  care  and  attention  from  their  earliest  hours.  Good  blood 
is  an  immense  advantage,  but  it  cannot  atone  for  want  of  food 
and  care.  Many  of  the  native  cattle  are  far  inferior  to  what 
they  would  have  been  if  they  had  been  suitably  attended  to 
while  they  were  young.  It  pays  to  care  for  stock  during  all 
stages  of  its  existence,  but  care  seems  a  greater  necessity  in  the 
dependent  period  of  early  life  than  it  does  after  that  time  of 
weakness  has  passed. 

Feeding  with  reference  to  the  perfect  development  of  the 
animal  should  commence  even  before  its  birth.  During  preg- 
nancy the  cow  should  be  fed  with  a  more  liberal  hand  than  at 
any  other  period.  Not  only  is  the  waste  of  her  own  system  to 
be  sustained,  and  her  usual  quantity  of  milk  to  be  furnished  for 
several  months,  but  the  calf  must  be  nourished,  and  its  growth 
be  made  from  food  supplied  to  the  cow.     It  is  not  well  to  feed 


$04  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

the  COW  so  that  at  the  time  of  parturition  she  will  be  very  fat, 
yet  it  is  still  worse  to  keep  her  on  such  short  rations  that  she 
will  be  very  poor.  Good  food  in  abundance,  but  not  in  excess, 
should  be  supplied. 

The  length  of  time  which  she  should  go  dry  will  depend  upon 
the  milking  qualities  of  the  cow  herself  Some  cows  dry  off 
three  months  before  calving.  These  animals  are  generally  un- 
profitable. Others  give  quite  a  quantity  of  milk  until  within 
about  two  months  of  the  time  to  calve.  There  are  a  few  cows 
which  continue  to  give  milk  until  the  very  time  of  calving.  It 
seems  to  be  best  for  both  the  cow  and  her  calf,  as  well  as  most 
for  the  interest  of  the  owner,  that  there  should  be  a  period  of 
from  six  to  eight  weeks  during  which  the  cow  should  go  dry. 
Most  cows  will  gradually  diminish  the  quantity  of  milk  which 
they  give  and  the  flow  will  finally  cease  of  itself  But  there  are 
some  cows  in  which^the  milking  qualities  are  so  fully  developed 
that  a  special  effort  must  be  made  to  induce  a  cessation  of  the 
flow  of  milk.  The  best  method  for  accomplishing  this  result  is 
to  draw  the  milk  at  irregular  intervals.  This  is  very  much 
better  than  the  common  practice  of  taking  only  part  of  the  milk 
at  a  time.  When  the  latter  course  is  followed,  the  milk  which 
remains  becomes  thick  and  putrid  and  frequently  leads  to  inflam- 
mation and  other  serious  evils.  The  period  between  the  milk- 
ings  may  be  gradually  lengthened,  and  should  not  be  at  all 
regular,  but,  when  the  milking  is  done,  it  should  be  as  thor- 
oughly performed  as  at  any  other  time.  For  some  weeks  after 
the  cow  is  thought  to  be  dry  the  udder  should  be  frequently 
examined,  as  milk  is  often  secreted  in  small  quantities  after  the 
owner  supposes  the  process  to  have  ceased. 

If  the  cow  has  been  properly  fed  and  cared  for  she  will  be 
pretty  sure  to  go  through  the  time  of  calving  without  great 
diflficulty.  Still,  there  are  some  cases  of  wrong  presentation  of 
the  foetus  and  of  certain  other  diflficulties.  In  these  cases  a 
veterinarian  should  be  employed.      He  may  be  able   to  save 


CATTLE.  605 

the  life  of  both  cow  and  calf  No  ignorant,  brutal  help  should 
be  accepted.  It  is  not  well  to  allow  the  cow  to  calve  in  the 
pasture.  She  should  be  turned  into  a  box-stall  in  which 
there  is  a  large  quantity  of  bedding,  or  .else  under  a  comfortable 
shed. 

Whether  the  cow  should  be  allowed  to  eat  the  "  after-birth  " 
is  a  question  upon  which  intelligent  owners  are  disagreed. 
Some  strongly  advocate  its  removal,  while  others  just  as  strongly 
insist  that  the  cow  should  be  allowed  to  follow  her  natural  in- 
stinct. We  have  often  tried  each  plan  and  have  never  known 
either  to  be  attended  by  bad  results.  Immediately  after  drop- 
ping the  calf  the  cow  should  have  a  warm  bran-mash.  This 
will  tend  to  produce  an  easy  separation  of  the  after-birth.  If  it 
proves  ineffectual,  tie  a  weight  of  one  or  two  pounds  to  the  pro- 
truding part.  If  no  progress  has  been  made  after  a  lapse  of  ten 
hours,  a  dose  of  salts,  four  ounces,  and  ginger,  two  ounces,  may 
be  given.  In  case  this  does  not  secure  the  removal  of  the  after- 
birth within  twenty-four  hours  after  calving  it  must  be  taken 
away  by  force.  The  right  hand  (the  hand  and  arm  being  well 
smeared  with  oil,  or  fresh  lard)  should  be  introduced  into  the 
womb  and  the  membrane  separated  with  the  thumb  and  fingers 
from  its  various  connections.  A  great  deal  of  care  must  be  used 
in  performing  this  operation,  and  considerable  time  may  be 
required.  All  violent  pulling  endangers  the  life  of  the  cow,  and 
many  fine  animals  have  been  killed  by  ignorant  or  brutal  opera- 
tors. For  a  few  days  after  this  operation  the  cow  should  be  fed 
on  warm  mashes  and  fine  hay,  have  warm  water  to  drink,  and 
be  carefully  protected  from  cold  and  storms. 

No  cold  water  should  be  given  to  a  cow  for  several  days  after 
she  has  calved,  even  though  she  may  have  got  along  well.  She 
should  have  water  frequently,  in  small  quantities,  but  it  should 
be  warmed  sufficiently  to  take  off  the  chill.  Neglect  of  this  is 
very  likely  to  cause  an  attack  of  milk  fever,  and  by  this  means 
many  nice  cows  have  been  lost 


606  FARMIXG  FOR   PROFIT. 

Care  of  the  Calf. — The  calf  will  usually  be  able  to  stand, 
and  to  secure  tlic  milk  which  it  needs  without  aid,  but,  in  case 
of  weakness,  it  should  be  held  to  the  cow  until  it  gets  iis  food. 
In  any  case  the  calf  should  be  allowed  to  stay  with  the  cow  for 
three  or  four  days  and  take  as  much  milk  as  he  wants.  The 
remainder  of  the  milk  should  be  drawn  by  hand  at  least  twice 
a  day. 

If  the  calf  is  designed  for  veal,  he  may,  at  the  end  of  the  time 
stated,  be  tied  with  a  strap  around  the  neck.  At  morning  and 
night  he  should  have  access  to  the  cow.  If  she  does  not  give 
all  the  milk  the  calf  wants  he  may  be  taught  to  eat  a  little  meal. 
If  Indian  meal  is  given  it  should  be  cooked.  Oat  meal  may  be 
fed  either  cooked  or  raw.  Some  live-stock  owners  prefer  oil 
meal.  Only  a  small  quantity  should  be  given  at  first,  and  the 
increase  in  amount  should  be  very  gradual. 

If  the  calf  is  to  be  raised,  it  should  be  taken  from  the  cow  .it 
the  end  of  the  third  or  fourth  day  and  tied  in  a  stall  which  is 
well  out  of  her  sight.  It  should  be  taught  to  drink,  and,  for 
several  weeks,  should  have  new  and  warm  milk.  Then,  as  most 
farmers  consider  this  food  altogether  too  expensive  for  perma- 
nent use,  the  new  milk  may  be  gradually  diminished  and  the 
quantity  kept  good  by  the  addition  of  milk  that  has  been 
skimmed.  After  a  while  skimmed  milk,  which  should  always 
be  warm  when  fed,  with  the  addition  of  a  little  oat  meal,  may 
be  used  to  the  exclusion  of  new  milk.  If  the  weather  is  warm 
the  calf  should  have  a  nice  yard  out  of  doors  where  it  can  stay 
during  the  daytime,  and  in  which  it  can  learn  to  eat  grass  and 
drink  water.  At  night,  and  during  hard  storms,  the  calf  should 
be  tied  in  a  clean  stall  in  the  barn.  The  milk  and  meal  should 
be  continued  until  the  first  of  winter,  and  in  the  case  of  late 
calves  still  longer. 

If  the  weather  is  cold,  so  that  the  calf  cannot  be  kept  out  of 
doors  without  discomfort,  it  should  be  tied  in  a  warm  stall  in 
the  barn,  and,  in  addition  to  the  milk  and  meal,  should  be  sup- 


CATTLE.  607 

plied  with  rowen  hay.  During  the  first  year  or  two  of  its  life, 
the  calf  should  not  be  yarded  with  cows  and  large  cattle.  It  is 
the  best  way  to  keep  two  or  more  calves  together,  and  allow 
them  a  small  yard  of  their  own.  In  summer,  after  they  are  two 
years  old,  they  can  run  in  the  same  pasture  with  the  cows,  if  a 
shelter  is  provided  to  protect  them  from  storms  and  from 
extreme  heat.  Many  farmers  send  their  young  stock  to  an 
"  outland  "  pasture.  This  is  often  many  miles  from  home,  and 
the  young  cattle  do  not  receive  the  attention  which  they  need. 
If  the  season  is  favorable  they  may  get  food  enough,  but  if 
there  is  a  severe  drought  the  grass  will  be  of  poor  quality  if  not 
insufficient  in  quantity,  and  there  is  danger,  in  many  pastures,. 
of  suffering  for  want  of  water.  It  is  also  the  custom  to  turn 
into  the  pasture  a  "  scrub  "  bull,  and  by  him  the  heifers  are  got 
with  calf  From  an  ordinary  specimen  of  this  stock  no  one 
has  the  right  to  expect  a  decent  calf.  There  is  a  direct  loss  on 
the  first  calf,  and  the  heifer  is  injured  for  the  production  of  good' 
stock  by  the  service  of  the  scrub. 

Not  only  are  small  and  coarsely  made  bulls  put  into  these 
pastures,  but  sometimes  those  with  still  worse  defects  are 
employed.  We  knew  one  case  in  which  a  badly  deformed  bull 
was  used.  It  ought  to  be  a  principle  with  the  farmer  never  to 
allow  a  poor  bull  to  serve  one  of  his  cows  or  heifers.  If  he 
does  allow  it,  he  throws  away  the  chance  of  obtaining  a  good, 
calf,  and  allows  the  cow  to  be  permanently  injured. 

Castration. — Male  calves,  which  are  not  desirable  to  keep  for 

breeders,  should  be  castrated  when  two  or  three  months  old — 

always  before  they  reach  the  age  of  six  months.     Good  weather 

should  be  selected  for  the  operation.     The  directions  given  by 

Mr.  Allen   in  his  work  on  American  Cattle  are  excellent. 

We   quote  them,   as   follows  :  "  Grasp  the  scrotum   in  the  left 

hand,  and  bring  the  testicles  down  to  the  foot  of  the  bag;,  then,  ' 

with  the  other  hand,  and  a  sharp,  small  knife — a  sharp-pointed 

jack-knife  is  as  good  as  any — cut  a  perpendicular  slit  in  the: 
38 


gO^  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

back  or  rear  side  of  each  testicle,  close  to  the  bottom,  and  long 
enough  for  the  released  testicle  to  pass  through  ;  then  cut 
through  the  skin,  and  the  inner  case  enclosing  it ;  push  out  the 
testicle,  and  gently  draw  the  cord  attached  to  it  out  one  or  two 
inches,  and  cut,  or  scrape,  it  off,  and  the  work  is  done.  Serve 
the  other  in  the  same  way.  Then  put  in  a  little  salted,  soft 
greese,  and  push  it  upwards  towards  the  belly  with  the  finger. 
If  the  weather  be  hot,  a  few  drops  of  spirits  of  turpentine  mixed 
with  water  may  be  washed  just  within  and  around  the  outside 
cut  of  the  scrotum  to  keep  off  flies,  and  the  calf  may  be  set  at 
liberty."  If  the  scrotum  becomes  swollen  and  badly  inflamed, 
the  calf  should  be  caught  and  the  incisions  opened  sufficiently 
to  allow  the  matter  which  has  formed  to  be  discharged.  Care 
should  be  taken  to  protect  calves  which  have  been  castrated 
from  storms,  and  they  should  have  plenty  of  good  food. 

Steers,  which  are  designed  for  wurk,  should  be  handled  and 
trained  at  an  early  age.  They  should  never  be  allowed  to  get 
wild,  or  to  fear  in  the  slightest  degree  the  presence  of  man. 
While  they  are  calves  they  should  be  accustomed  to  being  led 
•with  a  halter,  and  should  be  tied  in  the  barn  at  night.  If  this  is 
done,  the  "breaking"  process  will  be  short  and  easy.  Quiet 
and  submissive  oxen  will  also  be  secured.  But  if  all  handling 
and  training  is  neglected  until  the  steers  are  three  years  old,  it 
will  be  a  very  difficult  matter  to  "  break  "  them,  and  they  will 
be  likely  to  be  violent  and  intractable  in  all  their  after  lives.  A 
small  yoke  should  be  obtained,  and  the  steers  brought  under  it 
as  soon  as  th_'y  are  a  year  old.  Some  good  trainers  begin  at  a 
still  earlier  age.  If  care  is  used  not  to  scare  them,  and  a  rope  is 
'put  around  their  horns  so  that  the  driver  can  guide  them  a 
little,  the  steers  will  soon  learn  the  lesson  required.  When 
they  are  well  taught  to  walk  around  where  the  driver  wishes, 
they  may  be  put  in  front  of  some  large  cattle  which  are 
attached  to  a  cart  and  given  a  few  lessons.  Then  they  may  be 
fastened  to  a  very  light  wagon  and  driven  alone.     They  should 


CATTLE.  609 

be  taught  to  back,  as  it  is  often  a  very  great  advantage  tc 
have  oxen  which  will  go  backwards  as  well  as  forwards.  The 
method  of  teaching  is  precisely  the  same  as  that  which  has 
been  recommended  for  horses. 

Steers  should  never  be  hitched  to  a  heavy  load  until  they 
have  been  thoroughly  taught  to  draw  and  have  become  large 
and  strong.  Most  of  the  cattle  that  are  not  good  to  work  have 
been  made  inferior  by  neglect  of  training,  bad  training,  or  by 
having  been  overloaded  when  they  were  young.  For  quite  a 
while  after  the  steers  have  been  taught  to  draw  a  cart  but  little 
weight  should  be  added.  When  they  are  well  used  to  this,  part 
of  a  load  may  be  put  in  the  cart,  and  this  may  be  gradually 
increased,  as  the  steers  gain  strength  and  skill,  until  a  full  load 
is  readily  drawn.  The  training  should  be  so  thorough  that  one 
man  can  readily  use  the  oxen  for  plowing.  One  of  the  greatest 
wastes  of  labor  which  we  have  seen  in  New  England,  where 
things  are  usually  viewed  from  an  economical  stand-point,  is 
the  use  of  a  yoke  of  oxen  which  required  the  time  and  labor  of 
a  man  to  drive.  Plowing  in  this  manner — one  man  driving  a 
single  yoke  of  oxen,  and  another  holding  the  plow — is  a  very 
expensive  operation.  There  is  no  necessity  for  using  such 
inefficient  cattle.  If  well  taught  when  they  are  steers,  and 
decently  used  afterwards,  cattle  can  be  driven  by  the  man  who 
holds  the  plow.  Not  only  this,  but  they  can  be  driven  as  easily 
and  as  well  as  an  ordinary  horse  team.  There  are  many  such 
oxen,  and  we  are  sure  that  many  of  those  which  are  now 
awkward  and  unmanageable  would  have  been  good  workers,  if 
they  had  only  been  properly  trained  and  used. 

The  Bull  should  be  well  fed  and  cared  for,  but  should  not  be 
forced  either  to  grow  or  fatten.  While  it  is  very  bad  to  keep 
such  a  calf  half  starved,  it  is  also  bad  to  keep  him  stuffed  and 
crowded  with  stimulating  food.  He  ought  to  grow  up  naturally, 
and  be  developed  at  the  time  and  in  the  manner  which  nature 
indicates.     If  this  plan  is  followed,  he  will  not  look  as  well  as 


glQ  FARMIN-G    FOR   PROFIT. 

.one  of  the  same  degree  of  merit  which  has  been  forced  to  make 
an  excessive  growth,  and  whose  defects  are  well  covered  with 
fat,  but  at  two  years  of  age,  and  from  that  time  through  life,  he 
will  be  a  more  vigorous  and  serviceable  animal. 

The  bull  should  be  used  but  very  little  for  breeding  until  he  is 
two  years  old.  Earlier  service  would  prove  injurious  to  him,  and 
his  calves  would  not  be  as  strong  and  fine  as  they  ought  to  be. 
At  two  years  of  age  he  may  safely  serve  from  fifty  to  eighty 
cows  during  the  season.  After  that,  until  he  is  ten  or  twelve 
years  old,  and  his  powers  begin  to  fail,  he  may  serve  one 
hundred  cows  per  season.  If  kept  in  a  stable,  he  should  be 
led  around  the  yard  for  a  while  each  day  for  exercise.  It  is 
better  to  keep  him  in  a  stable  and  small  yard,  and  allow  hifn  to  go 
from  one  to  the  other  at  will.  He  should  not  be  turned  into  the 
common  pasture  with  the  cows.  He  ought  to  be  well  fed,  but 
not  kept  very  fat.  During  the 'first  year  of  his  age,  a  copper 
ring  should  be  put  in  his  nose.  A  light,  strong  stick,  seven  or 
eight  feet  long,  w^ith  two  links  of  chain  and  a  snap  at  the  end, 
should  be  used  for  leading  him.  A  rope  tied  into  the  rin^  is 
not  safe,  as  the  leader  has  nothing  to  prevent  the  bull  from 
rushing  upon  him. 

Sometimes  a  bull  that  has  always  been  kind  will  have  a 
sudden  turn  of  frenzy,  and,  if  he  is  unprepared  for  an  attack,  the 
keeper  will  be  seriously  injured  or  even  killed.  Such  cases  are 
not  very  rare.  Therefore,  no  matter  how  pleasant  the  bull  may 
be,  7icvcr  try  to  lead  him  without  a  stick  fastened  to  a  ring,  or 
some  good  substitute,  in  his  nose.  We  have  seen  a  "bull-leader" 
which  could  be  instantly  put  in  position  or  removed,  and  which 
does  not  require  a  hole  to  be  made  in  the  cartilage  of  the  nose, 
or  a  ring  to  be  inserted.  It  is  very  convenient,  and  if  the  keeper 
will  remember  and  use  it  when  the  bull  is  pleasant  as  well  as 
when  he  appears  to  be  vicious,  it  may  be  an  improvement  on 
the  common  ring. 

Some,  though  not  all,  bulls  which  are  cross  are  made  so  by 


CATTLE.  611 

violent  treatment.  At  all  times,  from  the  first  day  of  his  exist- 
ence, the  bull  should  be  treated  kindly.  Still  he  must  be 
managed  with  a  firm  hand.  The  keeper  must  not  let  the  bull 
think  that  he  is  afraid.  Nevertheless  he  should  be  constantly 
on  the  watch  lest  the  treacherous  animal  make  an  attack  when 
least  expected.  If  a  bull  becomes  decidedly  vicious,  he  should 
be  sent  to  the  butcher.  No  one  will  be  safe  in  caring  for  him, 
and  his  calves  will  be  liable  to  inherit  his  bad  disposition. 

If  he  is  a  good  animal,  a  sure  stock-getter,  and  is  not  cross, 
the  bull  may  be  kept  until  he  begins  to  fail  from  age.  This  will 
usually  be  at  from  ten  to  twelve  years.  Most  farmers,  and 
many  breeders,  fatten  their  bulls  when  four  or  five  years  old. 
But  the  best  age  for  the  bull  as  a  breeder  is  when  he  is  from 
five  to  ten  years  old.  Then  he  is  fully  matured,  and  his  powers 
are  well  developed.  He  will  get  stronger  and  better  calves  than 
one  which  is  very  young.  In  order  that  he  may  retain  his 
powers,  the  bull  should  never  be  overworked.  The  practice  of 
turning  a  bull  and  cow  into  a  yard  and  leaving  them  together 
during  the  day  is  to  be  strongly  condemned.  One  perfect  ser- 
vice is  not  only  just  as  good,  but  is  a  great  deal  better  than  half 
a  dozen.  When  regularly  serving  many  cows  the  food  of  the 
bull  should  be  increased,  and  he  should  be  well  fed  at  all  times. 

Winter  Management. — In  a  large  part  of  the  country  it  is 
necessary  to  give  special  care  to  cattle  during  the  cold  season. 
And  we  think  that  in  that  belt  of  country  lying  between  the 
cold  region  on  the  North,  and  the  warm  one  on  the  South, 
where  there  is  but  little  snow,  and  cattle  can  be  kept  out-of- 
doors  nearly  all  of  the  time,  it  would  pay  well  to  give  more 
attention  to  the  cattle  during  the  winter  months.  Although 
cattle  can  live  outside  of  the  barns  (and  the  barns  even  are 
wanting  in  many  places),  yet  they  would  thrive  a  great  deal 
better,  and  give  much  larger  returns,  if  they  were  protected  from 
the  storms,  and  could  be  properly  fed  when  the  grass  in  the 
pastures  fails.     At  the  extreme  South  the  farmer  can  furnish 


gl2  FARMING   I- OR    PROFIT. 

excellent  pasturage  during  the  winter.  The  kinds  of  grass 
suited  for  this  climate  and  purpose  have  already  been  indicated. 
The  expense  of  supplying  this  pasturage  is  very  small  when 
compared  with  that  of  wintering  cattle  at  the  North,  and  it 
should  be  cheerfully  borne. 

The  Stable. — It  is  a  matter  of  great  importance  from  an 
economical  as  well  as  a  humanitarian  point  of  view,  that  the 
stables  for  cattle  should  be  light  and  warm,  and  that  they 
should  be  kept  clean.  We  have  already  shown  that  animals 
which  have  warm  stables  are  much  more  productive,  with  the 
same  amount  of  food,  than  those  which  are  placed  in  cold 
quarters.  The  advantage  of  a  light  stable  over  a  dark  one  is 
evident.  Cleanliness  is  necessaiy  in  order  to  make  the  cattle 
healthy  and  keep  them  in  comfort.  The  floors  should  be  strong 
and  frequently  examined.  When  cattle  break  through  a  weak- 
floor,  the  owner  usually  has  to  sustain  quite  a  loss.  We  like  a 
double  floor  under  the  cattle.  Plank  the  floor  in  the  usual  way, 
and  then  lay  short  planks  (four  and  a  half  or  five  feet  long)  the 
other  way.  These  will  be  just  long  enough  for  the  cattle  to 
stand  on,  the  manure  will  fall  behind  the  short  planks  upon  the 
long  ones,  and  this  arrangement  will  tend  to  keep  the  cattle 
clean.  The  floor  overhead  should  be  high  enough  so  that  a 
tall  man  need  not  stoop  in  the  stable  even  when  he  has  on  a 
tall  hat. 

The  mangers  should  be  well  made,  so  that  there  will  be  no 
waste  of  the  meal  fed  in  them.  Between  their  tops  and  the 
floor  above  a  strong,  smooth  stick  should  be  placed  in  order  to 
keep  the  cattle  from  climbing  into  them.  The  fastenings  should 
be  strong  and  safe,  but  also  as  comfortable  for  the  cattle  as 
possible.  Bows  around  the  neck  do  well  for  young  cattle,  while 
stanchions,  or  chains  around  the  neck,  are  preferable  for  larger 
animals.  We  like  these  methods  better  than  tying  with  a  rope 
around  the  horns. 

Plenty  of  bedding  should  be  used  on  the  floors.     If  the  floor 


,  CATTLE.  GX3 

descends  a  little  from  the  mangers  towards  the  back  of  the  stable 
it  will  prove  a  help  in  keeping  the  cattle  clean.  In  all  respects 
while  they  are  in  the  stables  the  cattle  should  be  made  just  as 
comfortable  as  possible. 

An  easy  way  of  getting  into  and  out  of  the  stables  should 
always  be  provided.  There  are  many  cases  in  which  this  is 
wholly  neglected,  and  the  cows  have  to  climb  steep  steps  every 
time  they  go  into  the  stable.  In  some  cases  they  are  obliged  to 
wade  through  mud  and  manure  from  one  to  two  feet  in  depth, 
and  then  take  a  long  step  to  get  to  the  stable  floor.  We  have 
seen  cows  hesitate  long  before  they  would  take  a  step  which  re- 
quired so  much  exertion.  This  method  of  getting  into  the  stable 
is  very  injurious  to  all  animals.  It  is  especially  dangerous  for 
cows  which  are  with  calf,  and  is  quite  likely  to  cause  abortion 
with  all  of  its  attendant  evils.  There  should  be  good  steps 
whenever  the  surface  of  the  yard — and  by  surface  we  mean 
something  which  will  give  a  good  foundation — is  more  than  ten 
inches  lower  than  the  stable  floor.  It  ought  to  be  just  as  easy 
for  the  cattle  to  go  into  the  stable  as  it  is  to  walk  on  the  floor 
after  they  are  in  there.  The  entrance  to  many  stables,  in  mud 
time,  and  when  there  is  ice  on  the  ground  and  steps,  is  positively 
dangerous,  and  many  animals  which  receive  no  more  serious 
injury  are  made  lame  by  trying  to  pass  from  the  yard  to  the 
stable. 

Although  the  Northern  winters  are  very  long,  it  pays  well 
to  commence  feeding  cattle  quite  early  in  the  season.  If  the 
animals  are  kept  out  in  the  fields  until  snov/  comes,  there  will 
be  quite  a  time  during  which  they  are  very  poorly  fed.  The 
grass  becomes  spoiled  by  the  hard  frosts,  and  long  before  the 
quantity  of  food  begins  to  fail  its  quality  is  seriously  impaired. 
Some  farmers  seek  to  mitigate  the  evil  by  throwing  corn-stalks, 
or  coarse  hay,  into  the  fields  or  the  yards.  This  is  well  as  far 
as  it  goes,  but  it  is  very  far  from  removing  the  difficulty.  It  is 
much  better  to  put  the  cattle  in  the  barn  and  feed  them  once  a 


gl4  FARMIXG   FOR   PROFIT. 

day  when  the  grass  begins  to  fail.  As  it  grows  poorer,  feed 
them  twice  a  day,  and  when  the  frost  has  killed  it,  feed  the  cattle 
entirely  in  the  barn.  This  course  requires  more  hay  than  the 
one  commonly  pursued,  but  it  keeps  the  cattle  in  so  much 
better  condition  that  it  proves  more  profitable.  Cows  which 
are  kept  short  for  a  few  weeks  decrease  the  quantity  of  milk 
which  they  secrete,  and  it.  is  difficult  to  bring  them  back  to  the 
original  yield.  Young  cattle  which  come  to  the  barn  thin 
in  flesh  are  likely  to  go  out  in  the  spring  in  poor  condition. 
Here  as  elsewhere  a  good  start  is  a  great  help  to  a  successful 
ending. 

The  quantity  of  food  given  to  domestic  animals  must  depend 
upon  their  age,  condition,  and  several  other  considerations. 
Some  animals  will  need  more  in  proportion  to  their  size  than 
others.  The  quality  of  the  food  will  also  greatly  n-odify  the 
quantity  which  is  to  be  given.  But  all  neat  cattle  should  have 
food  enough.  None  should  be  kept  hungry.  This  because  it 
is  both  wrong  and  unprofitable  to  keep  animals  without  giving 
them  sufficient  food.  It  is  much  better,  in  every  sense  of  the 
term,  to  keep  a  smaller  number  of  creatures  and  give  them  all 
they  want  to  eat,  than  it  is  to  keep  a  large  herd  on  short 
rations. 

Cattle  should  be  fed  several  times  a  day,  and,  while  they 
should  have  all  they  will  eat,  care  must  be  taken  not  to  give  too 
much  at  a  time.  If  the  mangers  are  filled  too  full  the  cattle  will 
eat  what  they  want  at  that  time  and  will  breathe  upon  and  work 
over  the  remainder  in  such  a  manner  as  to  render  it  unfit  to  eat. 
In  this  way  careless  feeding  causes  quite  a  waste  of  fodder. 
The  feeding  should  be  done  at  regular  hours.  If  cattle  get  in 
the  habit  of  eating  at  certain  times  of  the  day  they  will  be  ready 
to  eat  when  those  times  come,  but.  if  they  are  fed  irregularly, 
they  will  not  know  when  to  expect  food  and  will  not  gain  as 
much  from  its  use  as  they  would  from  the  same  amount  if  it  was 
given  at  stated  times.    We  usually  feed  cattle  twice  in  the  morn- 


CATTLE.  615 

ing  and  twice  at  night  in  the  barn,  and  once  a  day  in  the  yard. 
The  latter  feeding  is  with  corn-stalks,  which  are  given  when  the 
cattle  are  turned  out  in  the  morning.  When  the  weather  is  bad 
we  feed  more  hay  in  the  barn  and  do  not  put  out  the  stalks. 
Many  farmers  feed  their  cattle  in  the  evening.  We  believe  it  is 
an  excellent  plan  to  go  to  the  barn  just  before  bcdcime  and  see 
that  everything  is  right,  but  we  are  not  sure  that  it  is  well  to 
feed  thi  cattle  at  this  time.  The  animals  will  be  lying  down 
quietly  for  their  night's  rest  and  it  hardly  seems  best  to  disturb 
them.  The  owner  can  see  that  they  are  all  right  without  start- 
ing them  up.  If  he  does  not  feed  them  they  will,  certainly  after 
they  get  used  to  his  coming,  remain  wholly  undisturbed.  We 
believe  it  is  better  to  leave  them  quiet  than  it  is  to  get  them  up 
and  feed  them. 

The  quality  of  food  which  animals  should  receive  will  depend 
upon  many  and  varying  circumstances.  When  an  ox  is  at  work 
he  should  have  a  liberal  allowance  of  meal  in  addition  to  a  suffi- 
cient quantity  of  hay.  If  he  is  to  be  fattened  he  should  have 
more  meal  and  less  hay  than  he  does  while  at  worlc.  If  he  is 
kept  idle  he  should  have  plenty  of  hay  and  a  few  roots  daily. 
Cows  giving  milk  need  a  better  quality  of  food  than  those  which 
have  no  such  drain  upon  their  productive  powers.  Young 
cattle  need  a  good  quality  of  hay  and  a  few  roots.  A  little  oat- 
meal may  also  be  given  with  good  results. 

The  idea  that  anything  which  will  distend  the  stomach  is  good 
enough  for  young  cattle  is  wholly  erroneous,  and  has  involved 
the  large  class  of  farmers  who  have  held  it  in  a  heavy  loss.  If 
there  is  ever  a  time  when  good  feeding  pays,  if  is  when  the 
animal  is  growing.  At  this  time  the  ordinary  wastes  of  the 
system  must  be  met,  and  the  whole  body  ought  to  be  rapidly 
increased  in  size.  The  meat  and  bones  which  should  be  formed 
must  be  made  from  the  food  if  they  are  made  at  all.  If  that  is 
of  poor  quality  the  animal  can  gain  but  little,  if  any,  because 
nearly  all  the  food  is  needed  to  supply  the  waste.     We  do  not 


(516  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 

think  it  well  to  force  animals  at  this  stage  of  their  growth.  The 
use  of  large  quantities  of  meal  for  their  food  is  not  wise.  But 
good  food  and  plenty  of  it  is  necessary  to  keep  young  cattle 
growing,  as  well  as  to  keep  them  in  good  health  and  condition. 

Pure  water  ought  to  be  furnished  in  abundance  and  at»  a  place 
where  all  the  cattle  can  easily  have  access  to  it.  We  have 
already  treated  of  the  importance  of  a  full  supply  of  water  oh 
the  farm,  but  a  few  words  upon  this  subject  with  special  refer- 
ence to  the  live-stock  interest  will  not  be  out  of  place.  In  every 
yard  in  which  cattle  are  kept  there  should  be  a  tub,  or  trough, 
for  holding  the  drinking  water  of  the  stock.  This  tub  should 
always  be  kept  clean  and  well  filled.  It  should  be  placed  in  a 
sheltered  position,  and  so  arranged  that  the  stronger  cattle  can- 
not keep  the  weaker  ones  from  the  water.  In  some  yards  both 
of  these  points  arc  disregarded.  The  tub  is  placed  where  the 
wind  sweeps  with  the  greatest  power,  and  where  the  strongest 
animal  can,  and  often  does,  stand  guard  and  keep  the  others 
away.  In  this  manner  the  weaker  ones  suffer  from  thirst,  and, 
after  they  have  had  access  to  the  tub,  they  feel  still  worse  on 
account  of  having  drank  to  excess.  Where  the  tub  is  located 
so  that  one  or  two  of  the  animals  keep  the  others  away  it  will 
pay  to  move  it  to  a  place  in  which  there  will  be  a  fairer  chance 
for  all.  If  this  cannot  be  done,  the  animals  which  make  the 
trouble  should  be  kept  in  the  yard  only  long  enough  to  drink. 
As  soon  as  they  have  drank  in  the  morning  they  should  be  put 
in  the  stable  and  kept  there  until  the  others  are  put  in  for  the 
night.  Then  they  may  be  allowed  to  drink  again.  This  will 
prove  somewhat  injurious  to  the  ones  which  are  kept  shut  up, 
but  it  is  better  that  they  should  suffer  a  little  than  that  they 
should  compel  all  the  rest  of  the  herd  to  suffer  a  great  deal 
worse. 

At  all  times  cattle  should  have  a  plentiful  supply  of  salt 
Some  writers  assert  that  this  is  unnecessary,  but  the  best  physi- 
ologists consider  it  indispensable  to  the  health  and  comfort  of 


CATTLE.  617 

animals.  It  is  well  known  that,  in  their  wild  state,  animals 
make  long  journeys  for  the  sole  purpose  of  obtaining  salt,  and 
that  under  domestication  they  do  not  lose  the  craving  for  this 
inexpensive  article.  From  many  trials  which  we  have  made,  as 
well  as  from  reports  of  other  trials,  we  are  fully  convinced  that 
salt  is  not  merely  a  luxury  to  cattle,  but  is  absolutely  necessary 
to  their  thrift  and  comfort.  The  fact  that  when  used  in  excess 
it  gives  bad  results  is  not  proof  that  it  is  injurious.  Too  much 
green  clover  induces  an  attack  of  hoven  and  may  kill  the 
strongest  animal.  It  has  destroyed  a  great  many  very  fine 
cattle.  But  no  one  claims  that  green  clover  must  not  be  fed  to 
cattle.  All  sensible  people  know  that  if  it  is  not  used  in  exces- 
sive quantities  it  is  highly  beneficial.  The  same  principle 
exactly  applies  to  the  use  of  salt. 

If  cattle  have  not  had  a  supply  for  a  long  time  they  should 
be  gradually  accustomed  to  its  use.  A  small  quantity  should 
be  given  each  day  until  they  exhibit  no  special  desire  for  it. 
Then  put  a  few  quarts  in  a  box  under  a  shed  to  which  they  can 
have  access  daily  and  they  will  eat  it  as  they  feel  the  need  of 
its  peculiar  properties.  In  this  box  a  supply  of  salt  should  be 
kept  constantly.  The  cattle  will  enjoy  it  and  it  will  do  them 
good. 

Lice. — These  little  parasites  cause  an  immense  amount  of 
suffering  to  the  animals  upon  whom  they  prey,  and  a  heavy  loss 
to  the  owners  of  the  cattle  which  are  infested  with  them.  Some 
farmers  estimate  the  actual  damage  caused  to  the  owner  of  the 
cattle  by  these  pests  to  be  not  less  than  five  dollars  per  year  for 
each  animal  that  is  covered  with  them.  This  we  do  not  con- 
sider an  excessive  estimate.  The  cow  that  is  obliged  to  support 
an  army  of  lice  must  give  less  milk  and  keep  in  poorer  order 
than  she  would  if  free  from  her  tormentors.  With  a  calf  the 
case  is  still  worse,  as  he  has  less  strength  with  which  to  combat 
the  evil. 

It  has  often  been  asserted  that  lice  were  caused  by  neglect 


618  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

and  poor  keeping  of  the  animals  on  which  they  appear.  While 
they  are  more  frequently  found  in  neglected  herds  than  in  those 
which  are  well  cared  for,  and  upon  animals  which  are  weak  and 
thin  in  flesh  than  upon  those  which  are  strong  and  fat,  it  is  still 
true  that  they  frequently  make  their  appearance  upon  thrifty 
animals  and  in  well-kept  herds.  These  pssts  are  readily  trans- 
ferred from  one  animal  to  another,  and  are  often  introduced  into 
a  fine  herd  by  one  or  more  affjcted  animals  which  the  owner 
has  purchased. 

As  there  is  a  constant  liability  that  cattle  will  be  troubled 
with  lice,  they  should  be  frequently  examined.  Calves  and 
young  cattle  need  still  more  careful  oversight  than  cows  or 
oxen. 

The  remedies  which  have  been  employed  are  various,  and 
some  of  them,  while  very  effective,  have  proved  more  dangerous 
to  the  cattle  than  the  lice  which  they  destroyed.  Many  cattle 
have  been  killed,  and  many  others  injured,  by  lapping  off  the 
poisonous  ointments  which  have  been  applied  to  themselves  or 
to  some  animal  in  the  same  herd.  The  use  of  these  remedies 
is  dangerous.  If  they  are  so  applied  that  cattle  cannot  lap  them 
off  from  themselves,  some  other  cattle  may  do  it  for  them  and 
be  poisoned.  Even  if  it  remains  with  the  animal  to  which  it 
was  applied,  it  may  be  absorbed  and  cause  serious  injur\'. 
There  is  no  necessity  for  using  such  preparations,  as  safer 
remedies  will  be  equally  effectual. 

A  mixture  of  Scotch  snuff  and  lard  rubbed  along  the  back, 
on  top  of  the  head,  around  the  flanks,  and  between  the  hind  legs, 
will  answer  the  purpose  without  injuring  the  animal.  Tobacco 
smoke  is  also  effectual,  but  requires  the  use  of  a  fumigator  to 
render  it  pleasant  or  safe.  Even  with  this  instrument  the  work 
should  be  done  in  the  open  air.  in  order  to  prevent  sickening 
the  operator,  and  also  to  avoid  all  danger  of  firing  the  buildings. 
When  this  method  is  pursued,  the  animal  must  be  blanketed  for 
a  while  after  the  operation,  and  the  process  must  be  repeated  in 


CATTLE.  gl0 

a  week  or  ten  days,  in  order  to  destroy  the  lice  which  hatch  out 
after  the  first  one  is  performed.  In  mild  weather,  a  wash  com- 
posed of  one  part  carbolic  acid  and  three  parts  of  water  proves 
both  harmless  to  the  animal  and  effectual  for  killing  lice.  It 
should  be  freely  rubbed  along  the  back,  between  the  horns, 
and  around  the  tail. 

Diseases. — Cattle  are  subject  to  various  diseases,  but  nearly 
all  of  them  are  caused  by  some  error  in  feeding  or  manage- 
ment. The  animals  which  are  kept  poor  and  half-starved,  and 
those  which  are  highly  pampered,  are  much  more  subject  to 
sickness  of  various  kinds  than  those  which  are  well  fed  and 
cared  for,  but  are  not  too  rapidly  pushed.  Several  of  these 
diseases  are  to  be  successfully  treated  only  by  an  educated 
veterinarian  or  physician.  Of  these  we  shall  make  no  mention, 
except  to  say  that  they  can  almost  universally  be  prevented, 
and  that  the  great  hope  of  the  farmer  is  in  the  use  of  preventive 
measures.  Curing  severe  disease  in  animals  is  very  doubtful, 
and  the  attempt  to  cure  will  be  very  much  more  expensive  than 
the  measures  which  would  have  prevented  an  attack.  A  few 
common  diseases  and  accidents  should  be  briefly  mentioned  in 
this  connection. 

Abortion. — In  some  sections  this  disease  is  very  prevalent, 
and  causes  an  immense  loss  to  farmers  and  dairymen  every 
year.  In  this  disease,  the  cow  calves  before  her  full  time.  The 
calf  is  lost,  and  the  sickness  of  the  cow  renders  her  nearly 
useless  for  several  months.  In  many  cases,  the  cows  die  at 
once.  As  a  rule,  when  a  cow  loses  her  calf  she  will  never  be  a 
safe  breeder  afterwards,  but  will  be  very  likely  to  have  the  same 
trouble  with  every  calf  The  disease  is  not  always  confined  to 
the  cow  first  attacked,  but  frequently  spreads  through  the 
whole  herd.  It  is  not  contagious,  but  is  almost  as  likely  to 
spread  as  any  disease  with  which  cows  are  affected.  Conse- 
.quently,  upon  its  appearance  the  greatest  care  should  be  used 
to  prevent  its  increase.     The  affected  cow  should  be  secluded 


620  FARMING   FOR    PROFIT. 

from  all  the  others  as  soon  as  there  is  evidence  that  she  is  about 
losing  her  calf.  The  calf  itself,  and  the  after-birth,  should  be 
deeply  buried,  and  the  cows  should  not  be  allowed  to  get  sight 
of  them  at  any  time.  In  the  stable  in  which  the  sick  cow  is 
confined  disinfectants  should  be  freely  used.  This  is  verv 
important,  as  it  is  largely  by  reason  of  the  foul  smell  and  the 
consequent  excitement  of  the  cows  that  the  disease  is  spread. 
There  are  cases,  however,. in  whicK  the  disease  spreads  because 
it  is  due  to  some  general  cause  to  which  all  the  herd  are 
expcfsed.  In  such  instances,  while  care  should  be  taken  of  the 
individual  cows,  the  cause  of  the  difficulty  must  be  removed 
before  the  trouble  will  cease. 

After  a  cow  has  lost  her  calf,  she  should  be  fed  well  and  care- 
fully protected  from  extremes  of  temperature.  She  ought  not 
to  be  allowed  to  have  a  calf  for  a  long  time,  and  if  not  an  extra 
cow  had  better  be  fattened  at  once.  When  a  cow  once  gets 
into  the  habit  of  losing  her  calf,  she  will  not  be  profitable  in 
herself  and  her  presence  will  endanger  the  whole  herd. 

The  principal  causes  of  abortion  are  injuries  or  frights — often 
caused  by  the  brutal  men  or  boys  who  milk  and  drive  the  cows, 
the  use  of  impure  water  from  stagnant  ponds,  the  presence  in 
the  pastures,  or  near  the  yards,  of  putrefying  animal  substances, 
and  the  use  of  hay  which  is  mouldy  or  which  contains 
poisonous  weeds.  Sometimes  one  of  these  things,  or  something 
similar,  and  sometimes  two  or  more  of  them  combined,  bring 
on  an  attack.  The  owners  of  cows  should  be  careful  to  avoid 
all  exciting  causes,  and  do  all  that  they  can  to  prevent  the 
introduction  of  this  disease. 

Choking. — This  is  an  accident  to  which  cattle  are  liable  and 
which  often  causes  death  in  a  short  time.  It  is  usually  caused 
by  an  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  animal  to  eat  roots,  fruit,  or 
vegetables,  too  fast.  When  apples  are  plenty  in  the  pasture  the 
strong  animals  frequently  drive  the  weak  ones  from  under  the 
trees.     As  they  are  leaving  they  seize  one  or  more  apples  and 


CATTLE.  621 

run.  In  their  haste  they  attempt  to  swallow  these  apples  without 
chewing  and  get  choked  in  their  efforts.  When  roots  are  fed  to 
cattle  in  the  yards,  or  without  being  cut,  there  is  the  .same  danger. 
All  such  things  should  be  fed  in  the  mangers,  when  the  cattle 
are  tied  in  the  stables,  and  should  be  cut  before  being  given. 

When  an  animal  is  choked  the  very  best  way  with  which  we 
are  acquainted  is  to  turn  down  a  pint  of  sweet  oil.  The  old 
fashioned  "whale  oil,"  or  even  lard  oil,  effects  the  purpose  just 
as  well,  but  is  not  very  palatable  to  the  animals.  This  treatment 
will  prove  effectual  in  nearly  all  cases  and  is  the  safest,  as  well 
as  be.st,  of  the  common  remedies.  Those  stock-owners  who 
relieve  a  choked  animal  by  holding  up  its  head  and  pushing  the 
obstruction  down  the  throat  with  a  broom-handle  ought  to  be 
choked  themselves  and  "relieved"  in  the  same  way.  W^ith  a 
good  probang  the  careful  operatcy  can  successfully  accomplish 
the  desired  result.  If  the  oil  fails  and  no  probang  is  at  hand  a 
very  smooth,  flexible  stick  may  be  used.  But  to  use  a  straight 
and  large  stick  is  barbarous.  Some  farmers  fire  a  gun  under 
the  animal  and  say  that  the  fright  will  cause  a  sudden  spring 
and  the  removal  of  the  offending  substance.  Others  tie  up  one 
fore-foot  and  make  the  creature  hop  around  on  three  feet.  There 
are  various  other  methods,  but  the  ones  described  we  think  will 
answer  every  purpose.  Here  the  old  proverb  about  prevention 
being  better  than  cure  has  a  very  direct  application.  Most  cases 
of  choking  might  have  been  prevented  and  the  suffering  of  the 
animals  and  the  trouble  and  loss  of  their  owners  all  been  saved. 

Garget. — This  is  a  disease  to  which  cows  are  subject  and 
which,  as  far  as  milking  purposes  are  concerned,  spoils  a  great 
many  good  animals  every  year.  In  moderate  cases  it  is  a  local 
inflammation  affecting  one  or  more  quarters  of  the  udder.  In 
severe  cases  the  whole  system  becomes  involved.  It  is  caused 
in  various  ways.  Neglect  when  a  cow  is  drying  off  is  very 
likely  to  produce  it.  Neglect  just  before,  and  for  a  few  days 
after,  calving  is  still  more  certain  to  induce  an  attack.     When 


622  I'ARMJXG   FOR   PROFIT. 

the  udder  is  very  much  distended,  and  is  hot  and  feverish,  the 
cow  should  be  milked  even  though  slie  has  not  dropped  her 
calf.  The  udder  should  be  washed,  often  and  thoroughly,  with 
warm  water  in  which  a  small  quantity  of  Indian  meal  has  been 
stirred.  Rubbing  is  very  efficacious.  If  there  are  hard  bunches 
in  the  udder,  and  the  rubbing  and  the  u.se  of  the  water  and  the 
meal  do  not  reduce  them,  a  liniment  composed  of  equal  parts 
of  tincture  of  iodine  and  ammonia  may  be  used  in  connection 
with  them.  This  may  be  well  rubbed  in  two  or  three  times  a 
day.  Only  a  little  should  be  used  at  a  time,  as  a  large  quantity 
would  cause  a  great  deal  of  soreness.  This  is  an  excellent 
remedy  and  is  also  valuable  for  sprains  and  rheumatism.  If  the 
colorless  tincture  of  iodine  is  used,  the  mixture  is  excellent  for 
rheumatism  and  neuralgia  in  human  subjects.  We  kno\v  of  no 
other  external  application  wljich,  in  all  respects,  is  its  equal  for 
these  purposes.  In  addition  to  the  treatment  already  indicated 
the  calf  should  be  allowed  to  run  with  the  cow.  Draw  part  of  the 
milk  so  as  to  keep  the  calf  quite  hungry  and  thus  induce  him  to 
suck  and  "bunt"  as  much  as  possible.  This  is  rather  hard  treat- 
ment of  the  calf,  but  it  need  be  practiced  only  a  few  days  and 
will  do  the  cow  an  immense  amount  of  good. 

If  the  inflammation  becomes  general,  a  high  fever  sets  in  and 
shivering  fits  come  on,  give  five  or  six  ounces  of  gin,  or  whiskey, 
in  three  or  four  quarts  of  warm  water  and  cover  the  whole  body 
with  a  quilt  wrung  out  of  hot  water.  Over  this  cover  some  dr)'- 
blankets,  which  should  be  tied  so  as  to  keep  in  place,  and  give 
injections  of  warm  water.  This  ought  to  induce  a  profuse  per- 
spiration. After  the  cow  has  sweat  for  half  an  hour  the 
blanket  should  be  removed,  the  skin  rubbed  dry,  and  the  animal 
then  covered  with  a  dry  blanket.  In  order  to  relieve  the  local 
inflammation  a  rubber  sack,  made  for  the  purpose,  which  will  fit 
the  udder,  3hould  be  filled  with  moderately  warm  water  and 
fastened  with  a  strap  over  the  back  of  the  cow  so  that  the 
udder  can  be  kept  constantly  wet.     When  the  water  becomes 


CATTLE.  623 

very  warm  it  should  be  changed.  Instead  of  the  water  some 
writers  recommend  the  use  of  a  poultice,  with  holes  for  the 
teats,  fastened  in  the  same  way.  Upon  the  poultice  a  little  bel- 
ladonna should  be  sprinkled  in  order  to  relieve  the  pain.  With 
this  treatment  injections  of  warm  water  must  be  used.  Some- 
times matter  forms  in  the  swollen  places.  This  should  not  be 
left  to  be  absorbed  into  the  system  and  injure,  perhaps  destroy, 
the  cow.  The  sores  should  be  opened  with  a  sharp  knife.  This 
will  give  relief  to  the  cow  and  may  save  her  life. 

We  think  that  after  an  attack  of  this  disease,  the  cow  is  ever 
after  predisposed  to  it  whenever  she  calves.  Some  old  cows 
which  have  had  it  lightly  several  times  are  almost  sure  to  be 
attacked  at  every  time  they  calve,  and  they  are  likely  to  grow 
worse  each  time.  It  is  not  best  to  keep  a  cow  that  is  subject  to 
this  disease,  and  a  great  deal  of  care  should  be  taken  of  heifers. 
when  they  are  about  to  calve  in  order  to  prevent  an  attack.. 
The  idea  that  a  cow  will  give  as  much  milk  from  three  teats  as. 
she  does  from  four  is  wholly  erroneous,  and  the  men  who  are: 
keeping  cows  which  have  lost  one-quarter  of  their  udders  from 
attacks  of  garget,  are  suffering  a  constant  loss.  The  nearer- 
perfect  a  cow  is  the  better,  and  no  owner  should  allow  his  cows 
to  suffer  from  garget  when  he  can  prevent  it.  Even  a  slight- 
attack  involves  a  direct  loss,  and  a  severe  one  is  quite  likely  to 
destroy  the  usefulness  of  the  cow  for  milking  purposes. 

HovEN. — This  disease  is  caused  by  eating  too  large  a  quantity 
of  green  food,  especially  of  clover,  at  a  time.  The  stomach  is 
overloaded,  indigestion  results,  rummation  is  prevented,  and' the 
food  rapidly  decomposes.  By  this  change  a  large  quantity  of 
gas  is  generated,  and  in  a  severe  case,  if  relief  is  not  quickly- 
obtained,  the  animal  will  die  in  a  short  time.  With  this  disease 
medicines  are  useless,  unless  given  in  the  very  first  stages.  If 
attended  to  at  once,  the  administration  of  four  di-achms  of 
chloride  of  lime  in  a  little  water  may  give  relief.    Or  two  ounces 

of  ammonia  in  a  quart  of  soft  water  given. every  fifteen , minutes . 
39 


g24  I.IRM/XG   rOR   rROFIT. 

may  be  tried.  Injections  of  warm  water  arc  also  in  order,  and 
cloths  wrung  out  in  hot  water  and  applied  to  the  skin  may  aid 
in  giving  relief.  But  in  case  there  is  no  change  for  the  better  in 
a  short  time,  an  opening  must  be  made  into  the  stomach,  and 
the  gas  allowed  to  escape.  Veterinarians  use  an  instrument 
called  a  trocar,  which  consists  of  a  sharp-pointed  stilet,  and  a 
sheath.  This  is  the  best  thing  to  use,  but  if  one  cannot  be 
obtained  soon  (for  there  is  not  much  time  to  lose  in  a  severe 
case  of  this  disease),  a  sharp-pointed  knive  will  answer  the 
purpose.  The  opening  must  be  made  on  the  left  side.  Mr. 
\\'iLL.\RD  gives  the  position  as  follows:  "The  place  of  punc- 
ture is  in  the  flank,  about  three  inches  below  the  spinal  column, 
and  mid-way  between  the  last  rib  and  the  hip."  At  this  point  a 
small  opening  should  be  made.  Into  this  opening  a  quill  should 
be  placed,  and  through  this  the  dangerous  gas  will  soon  escape. 
.After  the  gas  has  been  removed,  the  edges  of  the  wound  in  the 
jskin  ought  to  be  fastened  together  with  a  stitch  of  strong  silk. 

The  prevention  of  this  disease  is  easy  and  simple.  It  consists 
in  never  giving  animals  an  opportunity,  to  gorge  themselves 
.with  succulent  food.  They  should  never  have  a  sudden  change 
of  food,  but  should  be  gradually  brought  from  hay  to  grass. 
When  turned  into  the  "  fall  feed  "  (a  bad  practice,  as  has  been 
.indicated,  but  still  a  very  common  one)  they  should  be  allowed 
to  stay  only  a  short  time.  After  feeding  for  a  while  they  should 
.either  be  turned  into  the  pasture  or  else  shut  up  in  a  yard.  By 
allowing  them  in  the  rank  grass  only  an  hour  in  the  morning 
and  the  same  length  of  time  at  night,  for  the  first  two  or  three 
days,  and  gradually  extending  the  time  as  they  become  accus- 
tomed to  the  fresh  food,  the  dan-ger  of  an  attack  of  hoven  may  be 
entirely  avoided.  It  is  much  better  for  the  cattle,  aside  from  con- 
siderations respecting  this  particular  disease,  that  all  changes  in 
the  quality  of  the  food  given  to  them  should  be  gradual,  and 
particularly  that  the  changes  from  dry  fodder  to  green  grass, 
and  from  short  pastures  to  luxuriant  meadows,  should  be  slowly 


CA  TTLE.  625 

effected.  Neglect  of  this  precaution  has  caused  the  loss  of  a 
multitude  of  valuable  animals,  and  the  serious  injury  of  many 
more. 

Horn  Ail. — ;This  is  an  imaginary  disease  about  which  we 
used  to  hear  a  great  deal,  and  which  is  still  the  "  standby  "  of 
the  ignorant  cattle  "  doctor "  when  he  is  called  to  a  case 
which  he  does  not  at  all  understand.  This  name  has  done 
service  among  these  "  doctors "  for  a  great  while.  It  has 
answered  for  all  complicated  forms  of  disease,  as  well  as  for 
some  simple  maladies,  and  for  the  results  of  neglect  and  poor 
keeping.  That  cattle  which  have  been  doctored  for  "  horn  ail  " 
have  been  sick  we  do  not  question,  but  the  idea  that  the  horns 
were  the  seat  of  disease  is  wholly  without  foundation.  The 
fact  that  the  horns  are  either  cold  or  hot  when  an  animal  is 
sick,  is  not  proof  that  the  disease  is  of  a  local  nature.  When  a 
man  has  a  high  fever  his  feet  will  be  hot,  but  the  doctor  who 
should  say  that  the  feet  were  diseased,  and  that  in  order  to 
effect  a  cure  they  must  receive  special  attention,  and  that  all 
remedies  which  are  given  should  be  selected  with  reference  to 
their  action  upon  the  feet,  would  be  justly  considered  a  quack 
or  a  fool.  The  whole  system  is  diseased,  and  if  remedies  are  to 
do  any  good  they  must  affect  the  whole  body.  All  merely 
local  efforts  to  control  the  disease  will  be  of  no  benefit,  and  may 
make  the  matter  worse.  Now  when  a  horned  creature  is  sick, 
and  the  horns  appear  to  be  of  an  unnatural  temperature,  it 
will  be  worse  than  useless  to  bore  holes  in  them,  and  stuff  in  the 
remedies  which  are  often  recommended.  Let  the  horns  alone 
and  doctor  the  animal  for  fever.  If  the  nose  is  dry,  the  legs 
cold,  the  breathing  short,  and  the  bowels  constipated,  the  horns 
will  be  pretty  sure  to  be  hot.  The  use  of  wet  blankets  and 
warm  water  injections  as  described  for  garget  will  usually  give 
relief,  if  tried  soon  enough.  If  the  bowels  do  not  move  freely,  a 
dose  of  salts  (four  to  six  ounces)  with  a  little  molasses  may  be 
given.     If  this  does  not  relieve  the  patient,  send  for  a  competent 


626  FARMhXG   FOR   PROFIT. 

veterinarian.  There  are  plenty  of  other  things  which  the 
farmer  can  do,  but  he  had  better  not  experiment  farther. 

In  typhoid  fever  there  is  usually  a  diarrhoea  and  great 
soreness  of  the  bowels.  These  cases  should  be  treated  by  a 
veterinarian.  But  if  the  farmer  wants  to  experiment  he  can  try 
the  water  treatment  above  recommended,  and  give  one-fourth 
ounce  each  of  Cayenne  pepper  and  ginger  in  a  little  oat  meal 
gruel. 

Milk  Fever. — This  disease  carries  off  many  fine  cows  ever^ 
year.  Many  others  are  seriously  injured.  We  have  never 
known  a  cow  to  do  well  for  a  year  after  an  attack,  and  in  many 
cases  the  animal  is  spoiled  for  a  milker.  As  a  rulo  this  disease 
can  be  easily  prevented.  A  little  care  at  the  right  time  will  be 
very  sure  to  keep  it  off.  If  it  appears  it  should  be  treated  at 
once.  Violent  cases  must  be  helped  very  soon  or  not  at  al). 
Mild  cases,  if  neglected,  often  become  unmanageable  in  tvvo  or 
three  days. 

The  causes  of  this  disease  are  various.  Cows  which  are  very 
fleshy,  or  which  have  been  kept  high  for  a  few  weeks  before 
calving,  are  more  likely  to  be  attacked  than  those  which  are 
thin  in  flesh  and  which  have  not  recently  been  fed  with  meal  or 
allowed  to  run  in  luxuriant  pastures.  A  cow  that  is  suffering 
from  costiveness  is  also  liable  to  have  an  attack.  But  we  think 
that  nine  cases  out  of  ten  which  occur  in  farm-yards  are  the 
result  of  undue  exposure.  As  a  rule  farmers  do  not  realize  the 
great  disturbance  to  the  system  of  the  cow  caused  by  calving, 
and  have  no  idea  that  for  a  {^.w  days  afterwards  she  is  in  a 
condition  which  makes  her  peculiarly  susceptible  to  attacks  of 
disease.  Our  own  knowledge  upon  this  subject  was  gained  at 
considerable  expense,  and  we  came  ver\'  near  losing  a  valuable 
cow  by  carelessness  when  we  thought  all  danger  was  passed. 

Many  farmers  allow  their  cows  to  calve  in  the  barn-yard  in 
which  there  is  an  abundance  of  water.  In  the  winter  this  w^ater 
is  ice-cold.     The   cow  is  always  feverish  at  this  time,  and,  of 


CA  TTLE.  627 

course,  quite  thirsty.  There  is  nothing  to  keep  her  from  drinking 
all  the  water  she  wants.  She  does  drink,  and  thereby  renders 
herself  very  liable  to  a  violent  attack  of  milk  fever.  Many  cows 
are  turned  into  wet  yards.  When  the  weather  is  cold  this  is  a 
great  exposure.  Even  in  warm  weather  it  involves  considerable 
risk.  Sometimes  the  cow  is  cared  for  a  day  or  two  and  is  then 
turned  into  the  yard,  in  all  sorts  of  weather,  to  fare  the  same  as 
the  rest  of  the  herd.  Exposure  to  a  storm  at  such  a  time  may 
prove  fatal.  It  is  true  that  many  cows  treated  in  this  way 
escape  the  fever,  and  that  many  have  it  lightly.  But  a  great 
many  die  very  soon,  and  those  which  recover  are  injured  for  one 
season  certainly  and  perhaps  for  life.  The  disease  is  dangerous 
and  should  be  prevented  whenever  prevention  is  possible. 

Prof.  Law  gives  the  symptoms  of  this  disease  as  follows  : 
"  Dulnsss,  languor,  uneasy  movements  of  the  hind  limbs,  a  full, 
bounding  pulse  red  eyes,  hot  head  and  horns ;  soon  the  cow 
becomes  weak  on  its  hmbs,  unable  to  rise,  lays  the  head  back 
on  the  flank  or  dashes  it  on  the  ground,  breaking  the  horns  if 
the  surface  is  hard,  and  struggles  convulsively  with  its  limbs." 
These  are  the  indication  of  the  disease  in  its  first  stage.  There 
is  another  form  in  which  "  the  heat  of  the  head,  delirium,  and 
violence  may  be  almost  entirely  wanting,  the  prominent  symp- 
toms being  the  fever,  accelerated  pulse  and  breathing,  elevated 
temperature,  loss  of  power  over  the  limbs,  paralysis  of  sensation, 
inappetence,  torpor  of  bowels  and  bladder.  Both  forms  of  this 
disease  are  exceeding  fatal,  almost  all  attacked  within  two  days 
after  calving  perishing,  and  a  large  proportion  of  those  taken  ill 
during  the  first  week." 

The  treatment  of  this  disease  is  to  be  commenced  as  soon  as 
possible.  When  the  verj'  first  symptoms  appear,  if  violent,  send 
at  once  for  a  good  veterinarian.  If  the  attack  is  mild,  give  the 
cow  eight  ounces  of  salts  with  half  an  ounce  of  Cayenne  pepper, 
give  warm  water  injections,  and  use  wet  blankets.  If  no 
veterinarian  or  physician  can  be  had,  and  it  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary for  the  farmer  to  treat  a  bad  case,  and  he  has  none  of  the 


g28  FARMING   FOR  PROFIT. 

Ho.MCEOPATHic  remedies  put  up  ready  for  use,  he  may  try  the 
following  course  recommended  for  such  cases  by  Prof.  Law  : 
"  If  the  animal  is  seen  before  it  goes  down,  bleed  four  or  six 
quarts  from  the  jugular,  but  never  after  the  pulse  has  lost  its 
fulness  and  hardness ;  apply  ice-cold  water,  bags  of  ice  or  a 
solution  of  an  ounce  each  of  nitre  and  sal-ammonia  in  a  quart 
of  water  to  the  head  round  the  base  of  the  horns,  give  a  power- 
ful purgative  (two  pounds  Epsom  salts,  one-half  ounce  car- 
bonate of  ammonia,  one-half  drachm  nux  vomica) ;  apply  friction 
to  the  limbs,  draw  the  milk  off  at  frequent  intervals,  and  repeat 
the  ammonia  and  nux  vomica  every  four  hours.  The  nux 
vomica  may  be  replaced  by  strychnia,  one  grain  with  two  or 
three  drops  of  vinegar  in  a  teaspoonful  of  water  and  injected 
under  the  skin  twice  with  four  hours  interval,  or  ergot  of  rye 
may  be  used  instead.  The  fever  may  often  be  materially 
reduced  by  enveloping  the  whole  body  in  a  sheet  wrung  out  of 
cold  water,  and  covering  up  with  one  or  several  dry  ones 
according  to  the  season.  In  the  second  or  torpid  form  of  the 
disorder  there  is  often  no  call  for  cold  applications  to  the  head, 
while  purgatives  and  nux  vomica  are  especially  demanded." 

In  leaving  this  subject  we  cannot  do  better  than  to  again  urge 
the  importance  of  preventive  measures  for  keeping  off  disease, 
and  of  good  care  for  keeping  domestic  animals  thrifty  and 
making  them  profitable.  The  farmer  who  is  careless  with  his 
animals  thereby  takes  away  all  opportunity  for  making  them 
profitable,  and  runs  the  risk  of  frequent  and  heavy  losses  by 
means  of  disease.  Cattle  that  are  strong  and  vigorous  can  resist 
depressing  influences  which  would  completely  prostrate  those 
which  are  poor  and  weak.  Young  cattle  should  be  fed  in  such 
a  manner  as  to  keep  them  constantly  growing,  and  those  which 

f 

are  mature  should  be  kept  well  and  strong.  There  is  no 
branch  of  farm  business  in  which  care  and  skill  are  better  in- 
vested than  in  the  live-stock  department.  Neither  is  there  one 
in  which  neglect  and  ignorance  are  more  severely  punished. 


THE  DAIRY.  632 

THE  ©iilHir, 

lURING  the  past  twenty  years  the  dairy  business  has  been 
rapidly  increasing  in  extent.  Year  by  year  its  propor- 
^  tions  have  been  enlarged  until  it  has  become  an  interest 
of  great  national  importance.  Not  only  is  it  a  business 
in  which  the  country  has  an  interest,  but  it  is  also  one  in  which 
the  individual  farmer  holds  a  share.  Almost  every  farmer,  even 
the  one  who  finds  "  five  acres  too  much  "  land  for  him  to  cul- 
tivate, keeps  a  cow,  and  herds  of  considerable  size  are  very  com- 
mon in  all  sections  of  the  country  except  the  extreme  South. 
This  is  a  line  of  business  which  can  be  managed  profitably  on 
either  a  large  or  a  small  scale.  The  man  who  keeps  only  one 
cow  can  make  her  pay  him  well  for  all  the  care  and  cost  of  her 
keeping,  while  the  one  who  has  twenty  cows  can  secure  a  large 
profit  from  the  sale  of  dairy  products.  The  business  can  be 
gradually  enlarged  or  contracted  without  the  great  expense  or 
the  heavy  loss  which  usually  follows  such  changes  in  other 
lines  of  work.  It  is  a  very  safe  business,  and  one  in  which  care 
and  skill  will  be  likely  to  find  a  prompt  and  liberal  reward. 
The  products  of  the  dairy  are  standard  articles  throughout  the 
civilized  world  and  will  always  be  in  demand. 

Just  now  prices  are  depressed,  and  many  farmers  and  dairy- 
men are  feeling  somewhat  discouraged,  and  are  inclined  to  give 
up,  in  a  measure  at  least,  this  branch  of  their  business.  New 
England  dairymen,  too,  have  found  strong  and  unexpected 
competition  in  an  unlooked-for  quarter.  The  West,  which  used 
to  send  a  great  deal  of  "  grease  "  to  the  New  York  market,  has 
been  rapidly  improving  the  quality  of  its  dairy  products,  and  the 
East  now  finds  that  its  competitor  is  making  some  of  the  finest 
butter  in  the  world.  At  the  South,  too,  there  is  an  increased 
interest  in  the  business  of  keeping  cows,  nice  butter  is  being 
made,  and  more  dairy  products  will  come  from  this  section  than 
ever  before.     These  facts  tend  to  discourage  many  farmers  who 


632  FARMING   FOR   FRO  FIT. 

make  butter  and  cheese  for  the  market.  But  they  should  not 
be  alarmed.  The  fact  that  prices  fluctuate  is  evident,  but  fluc- 
tuation is  to  be  expected  in  this,  and  every  other,  line  of  busi- 
ness. When  business  is  dull,  and  almost  all  kinds  of  ijoods  sell 
for  low  prices,  it  is  perfectly  natural  that  dairy  products  shall,  to 
some  extent,  share  in  the  prevailing  depression. 

But  there  is  no  danger  that  these  standard  articles  of  food  will 
long  be  sold  for  prices  which  will  not  pay  the  producer.  We 
have  a  large  foreign  trade  already,  and  it  can  be  made  a  great 
deal  larger.  And,  if  a  good  article  of  butter  can  be  made  for  a 
low  price,  the  rate  of  home  consumption  will  be  doubled  in  a 
very  few  years,  while  the  demand  for  an  extra  quality  will 
probably  increase  in  a  still  larger  proportion.  This  demand, 
too,  will  be  for  butter  at  prices  for  which  it  can  be  profitably 
made  and  sold.  By  following  the  best  methods  the  farmer  can 
manufacture  good  butter  and  sell  it  for  a  lower  price  than  he 
has  thought  possible.  That  fair  grades  of  butter  will  find  a 
ready  market  in  very  much  larger  quantities  than  they  have  yet 
been  offered  may  be  considered  as  beyond  all  question.  The 
farmer  or  dairyman  who  can  make  good  butter  for  a  moderate 
price  can  sell,  in  his  nearest  city  market,  for  cash.  From  statis- 
tics published  in  the  Cincinnati  Commercial  it  appears  that 
there  are  a  multitude  of  people  in  that  city  who  do  not  use 
butter  at  all  because,  and  only  because,  they  cannot  afford  it. 
The  writer  of  the  article  in  which  the  figures  were  given  went 
so  far  as  to  say  that  "  ver>'  nearly,  then,  one  in  three  of  our  citi- 
zens never  tastes  butter,  an  article  of  food  generally  regarded  as 
a  necessity  of  life,  and  one  from  which  few.  if  any,  would  abstain 
except  on  account  of  pecuniary  considerations."  This  will  be 
generally  considered  an  extreme  view,  but,  after  making  all  due 
allowances,  the  fact  will  remain  that  even  in  such  a  prosperous 
city  as  Cincinn.\ti  there  are  many  thousands  of  people  who 
cannot  afford  butter  at  present  prices.  In  other  cities  the  same 
state  of  things   exists.     Make  the  butter  a   little  cheaper  and 


THE  DAIRY.  633 

many  who  do  not  buy  now  will  be  able  to  purchase.  Or,  make 
the  butter  a  little  better  and  sell  it  for  the  same  price,  and  many 
Avho  do  not  now  buy  because  they  cannot  pay  the  prices  for 
fancy  butter  and  will  do  without  rather  than  eat  the  poor  grades 
will  become  buyers.  There  is  no  doubt  that  good  butter 
can  be  sold,  both  in  this  country  and  abroad,  in  immense  quan- 
tities. And  we  are  confident  that  it  can  be  sold  at  paying 
prices.  The  methods  to  be  pursued  in  order  to  secure  this  very 
desirable  result  will  be  duly  considered.  Butter  has  been  speci- 
fied, but  the  same  principles  apply  to  the  production  and  sale 
of  the  other  dairy  products,  milk  and  cheese.  Furnish  pure 
milk  at  a  moderate  price  and  an  immense  quantity  can  be  sold 
in  all  our  city  markets,  and  a  largely  increased  demand  will 
come  from  villages  and  large  towns.  Supply  a  good  quality  of 
cheese  at  a  reasonably  low  price,  and  the  great  foreign  demand, 
the  calls  of  our  cities,  and  wants  of  village  and  town  consumers 
will  require  a  largely  increased  rate  of  production. 

Let  no  one  say  that  prices  are  already  so  low  that  there  is  no 
profit  in  any  of  these  lines  of  business.  The  improved  methods 
of  the  present  day  make  it  possible  for  farmers  to  furnish  these 
articles  much  cheaper  than  they  could  in  the  old  times.  Yet, 
even  then,  when  prices  were  far  below  the  present  average  and 
the  cost  of  production  much  in  excess  of  that  of  these  days,  far- 
mers obtained  a  fair  profit  from  this  department  of  their  work. 
Besides,  low  prices  arc  not  greatly  to  be  feared.  Political  econ- 
omists assert,  and  the  history  of  the  civilized  world  proves  them 
correct,  that  moderately  low  prices  mark  the  periods  of  steady 
and  uniform  prosperity,  while  inflated  prices  mean  a  temporary 
good  to  be  quickly  followed  by  a  long  period  of  depression. 

In  order  to  furnish  the  products  of  the  dair\'  at  prices  which 
will  insure  their  ready  sale  and  still  leave  a  margin  for  profit  it 
will  be  necessary  to  commence  at  the  very  beginning.  Here  is 
where  the  great  majority  of  farmers,  and  a  large  number  of 
dairymen,  have   failed.     They  have  been    building   on   a  poor 


634  FARMING   FOR  PROFIT. 

foundation,  and  all  their  efforts  in  the  line  of  improvement  have 
been  directed  to  the  superstructure.  Consequently,  these  efforts 
have  not  been  as  successful  as  they  should  have  been,  and  many 
parties  have  become  discouraged.  But  here,  as  elsewhere,  and 
everywhere,  it  is  unprofitable  to  build  upon  an  unstable  founda- 
tion. A  man  must  reap  according  to  his  sowing.  He  can  have 
wheat  or  weeds  just  as  he  chooses.  But  if  he  wants  wheat  he 
must  sow  the  seed  and  take  care  of  the  plants.  If  he  docs  not 
furnish  any  wheat  for  sowing  he  cannot  reasonably  expect  any 
wheat  at  harvest  time.  If  he  sows  only  half  enough  wheat,  and 
allows  half  the  land  to  grow  up  to  weeds,  he  cannot  look  for  a 
large  and  valuable  crop  of  grain. 

Now  apply  the  same  principle  to  the  dairy  business  and  we 
have  a  "  good  and  sufficient  "  reason  why  there  is  so  much  com- 
plaint that  dairying  is  unprofitable.  The  farmers  and  dairymen 
are  keeping  too  many  poor  cows.  Take  an  average  farmer  for 
illustration.  If  he  has  ten  cows  he  will  probably  say  that  there 
are  two  or  three  in  the  herd  which  are  very  much  better  than 
any  of  the  others.  .Also  that  there  are  two  or  three  which  fall 
considerably  below  the  average,  and  that  the  medium  ones  are 
pretty  fair  cows.  Now  look  at  this  statement  in  a  business  point 
of  view.  Out  of  a  herd  of  ten  cows  there  are  two  or  three  which 
pay  a  large  profit,  two  or  three  involve  an  actual  loss,  and  from 
four  to  six  which  pay  their  way  but  are  not  very  profitable.  The 
gain  on  the  two  or  three  extra  ones  is  used  to  \x^\  the  loss  on 
the  two  or  three  poor  ones,  and  the  middle  class  yield  only  a 
very  .small  profit.  It  is  not  surprising  that  the  dairy  business 
docs  not  yield  very  large  returns  when  such  a  foundation  is  laid. 
Ten  cows  like  the  best  ones  would  yield  a  large  profit.  It  is 
from  the  best  ones  in  a  herd  that  the  profits,  if  any  are  received, 
invariably  come.  But  too  often  these  profits  must  be  used  to 
make  up  the  deficiency  of  the  poorer  cows.  In  such  herds, 
and  there  are  multitudes  of  them,  the  first  thing  to  be  done 
to  put  the  dairy  business  on  a  good  basis  is  to  obtain  some 


THE  DAIRY.  535 

better  cows  to  take  the  places  now  occupied  by  the  poor  and 
medium  ones. 

Here  the  farmer  will  say  that  it  is  very  difficult  to  buy  good 
cows,  and  that  if  he  could  find  plenty  of  them  he  could  not  afford 
to  pay  the  prices  at  which  they  are  held.  It  is  true  that  first- 
class  cows  are  not  very  plenty,  but  they  are  not  so  extremely 
scarce  as  many  people  imagine.  In  regard  to  the  ability  of  the 
farmer  to  buy  a  good  cow  rather  than  a  poor  one  there  seems 
to  be  a  great  deal  of  erroneous  judgment.  The  average  farmer 
has  no  hesitation  when  the  same  principles  are  involved  in  buy- 
ing land.  He  can  see  clearly  enough  then.  If  one  field  which 
will  barely  produce  crops  of  sufficient  value  to  pay  the  taxes, 
interest,  and  labor,  which  expenses  must  be  met,  is  offered  for 
twenty  dollars  an  acre,  and  another  capable  of  yielding  large 
crops  which  will  a  great  deal  more  than  pay  these  expenses  is 
offered  for  forty  dollars  an  acre,  he  thinks  it  is  the  part  of  wis- 
dom to  purchase  the  best  field.  In  this  case  he  not  only  con- 
siders the  relative  cost  of  the  land,  but  also  its  relative  rate  of 
production.  The  same  principle  should  govern  in  the  purchase 
of  a  cow.  A  twenty-dollar  cow  may  just  pay  her  way,  while  a 
fifty-dollar  cow  may  yield  a  large  profit.  This  is  not  always  the 
case,  it  is  true,  and  it  must  not  be  taken  for  granted  that  A  high- 
priced  cow  is  certainly  a  good  one  and  will  pay  a  large  percent- 
age of  profit.  But  it  is  a  settled  principle  that  a  good  cow  at  a 
certain  price  is  more  profitable  than  a  poor  one  which  can  be 
obtained  for  half  the  money. 

But  we  do  not  advocate  extensive  and  costly  changes,  all  to 
be  brought  about  at  once,  but  a  gradual  improvement  of  the 
productive  qualities  of  the  herd.  The  poorer  cows  had  better 
be  fattened  and  sold  for  beef  Even  though  the  owner  does  not 
feel  able  to  buy  any  better  ones  he  had  better  sell  these.  This 
may  not  leave  him  as  many  cows  as  he  wants  to  keep,  but  he 
had  better  keep  less  than  he  wants  than  to  have  some  which  do 
not  pay  their  way.     Take  out  the  three  poorest  cows  from  a 


636  FARMING  FOR    PROFIT. 

herd  often,  and  the  seven  which  arc  left  will  tiot  make  as  much 
butter  as  they  all  did,  but  they  will  yield  a  much  larger  profit. 
The  farmer  cannot  afford  to  keep  animals  which  do  no  more 
than  barely  pay  the  cost  of  their  keeping.  He  had  better  .sell 
his  hay  and  grain  and  buy  commercial  or  other  fertilizers  than 
to  do  this.  It  is  still  better  that  he  should  sell  his  unprofitable 
cows,  and,  if  he  cannot  afford  to  buy  good  ones,  fill  his  stables 
or  pastures  with  steers  to  be  converted  into  beef.  A  great  many 
herds  which  are  owned  by  good  dairj'men  need  this  same  pro- 
cess of  weeding  out  the  poor  stock. 

Before  any  changes  are  made  the  owner  should  carefully  test 
each  and  every  one  of  his  cows  in  order  to  determine  accurately 
which  ones  pay  him  the  best.  Too  many  farmers  wholly 
neglect  this  common-sense  requirement,  and  form  their  judg- 
ment of  the  actual  and  relative  merits  of  their  cows  wholly  by 
"guess."  They  are,  in  this  way,  very  likely  to  make  mistakes, 
and  they  often  sell  cows  which  they  afterwards  wish  they  had 
kept.  We  have  known  a  man  to  sell  the  best  cow  from  his 
herd  when  he  thought,  and  told  the  buyer,  that  he  was 
disposing  of  one  of  the  second-class. 

Some  cows  which  give  a  great  deal  of  milk  are  supposed  to 
be  verv  profitable,  while  others  which  give  less  milk  are  thought 
to  be  much  inferior.  But  the  milk  of  the  one  giving  a  large 
quantity  is  watery  and  poor,  while  that  of  the  other  cow  is  rich. 
In  such  cases,  unless  the  owner  sells  milk,  the  cow  giving  the 
smallest  quantity  is  really  the  best.  There  are  some  cows  which 
give  but  little  milk,  and,  because  they  give  so  little,  their  owners 
assume  that  the  quality  is  so  fine  that  the  cows  arc  valuable, 
when  a  careful  test  would  prove  that  the  milk  was  poor  instead 
of  rich,  and  that  the  cows  cannot  pay  for  their  keeping.  There 
is  no  way  of  "  guessing "  with  any  degree  of  accuracy  about 
the  value  of  cows,  and  a  "  guess,"  even  by  the  shrewdest 
observer,  is  often  very  far  from  the  truth. 

At  one  time  a  great  deal   of  confidence  was  placed  in  an 


THE  DAIRY.  ^37 

•  instrument  called  a  lactometer,  but  of  late  this  has  been  proved 
unreliable.  The  only  sure  way  of  determining  either  the  absolute 
or  the  relative  value  of  the  cows  in  the  dairy  is  to  keep  the  milk 
of  each  one  by  itself  for  a  certain  length  of  time,  churn  the 
cream  separately,  and  compare  the  products.  Even  then  allow- 
ance must  be  made  for  those  which  have  been  longest  in  milk 
since  calving,  but  this  seems  to  be  the  nearest  to  a  perfect  test 
of  any  which  can  be  devised. 

But  though  extremely  valuable,  the  test  of  productive 
capacity  cannot  He  called  complete,  and  cannot  alone  fully 
settle  the  question  which  is  the  best  paying  cow  in  a  given  herd. 
The  cost  of  keeping  must  also  be  considered.  This  is  often 
overlooked.  The  farmer  says  that  he  feeds  his  cows  alike,  and, 
therefore,  it  must  cost  about  the  same  to  keep  one  that  it  does 
to  keep  another.  But  the  manner  of  feeding  on  the  average 
farm  is  not  very  accurate,  and  one  cow  may  eat  a  third  more 
hay  than  the  one  standing  next  to  her,  and  yet  the  owner  think 
that  he  feeds  them  pretty  nearly  the  same  amount.  If  a  cow  is 
very  "hearty,"  the  owner  usually  puts  more  hay  into  her 
manger  than  he  does  into  the  manger  of  one  which  does  not 
have  so  good  an  appetite.  He  does  it  as  a  matter  of  course,  and 
thinks  but  little  about  it.  The  one  which  eats  the  most  hay 
may  give  the  most  milk,  and  yet  not  pay  as  well  as  the  other 
because  she  may  not  give  as  much  milk  in  proportion  to  the 
food  consumed. 

Prof.  Arnold  has  done  a  good  thing  in  calling  the  attention 
of  farmers  and  dairymen  to  this  fact.  This  argument  is  mainly 
directed  to  the  proof  that  small  cows  are  more  profitable  than 
large  ones,  and  he  conclusively  shows  that  it  is  very  expen- 
sive keeping  large  cows  for  milk  when  small  ones  will  answer 
the  same  purpoee.  The  difference  in  the  cost  of  keeping  two 
cows,  one  of  which  weighs  twelve  hundred  and  the  other  eight 
hundred  pounds,  he  places  at  ten  dollars  and  twent>'-two  cents 
per  year.     This  is  probably  below  rather  than  above  the  average 


638  FARMING   FOR    PROFIT. 

cost.  Whether  the  large  cow  will  give  enough  milk  in  excess  - 
of  what  the  small  one  will  produce  to  make  up  for  this  extra 
cost  of  keeping  is  one  of  the  points  upon  which  the  question 
whether  the  large  or  the  small  cow  is  the  most  profitable  must 
turn.  If  both  cows  give  milk  of  equally  good  quality  it  is  the 
point  which  must  govern  the  decision.  Prof.  Arnold  has 
given  some  illustrations  of  this  principle  in  a  description  of  three 
herds  of  cows  which  he  has  examined.  In  one  herd  of  large 
cows,  estimated  to  weigh  twelve  hundred  pounds  each,  the 
annual  yield  of  butter  per  cow  was  three  huadred  and  fourteen 
and  a  half  pounds.  Another  herd  of  native  cows,  estimated 
weight  ten  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  each,  gave  an  annual  yield 
of  three  hundred  and  two  pounds  of  butter  for  each  cow. 
Another  herd  of  twenty-five  small  cows,  Jerseys  and  their 
grades,  the  live-weight  estimated  at  seven  hundred  and  eighty 
pounds  each,  gave  an  average  product  of  two  hundred  and 
thirty-four  and  a  half  pounds  of  butter  in  a  year.  The  herd  last 
named  produced  but  a  small  quantity  of  butter  when  com- 
pared with  the  others,  and  most  farmers  would  say,  and  very 
naturally,  that  the  yield  was  too  small  to  be  profitable.  But 
Prof.  Arnold  shows  that  it  was  the  best  paying  herd  of  the 
three.  The  small  cows  produced  three-tenths  of  their  weight 
in  butter,  while  the  others  fell  considerably  below  this  standard. 
As  "the  consumption  of  food  is  in  proportion  to  live-weight," 
it  is  plain  that  the  smallest  cows  were  more  profit:\ble  than  the 
larger  ones,  and  that  the  owners  of  the  large  ones  were  obliged 
to  support  much  more  live-weight  than  was  either  necessary  or 
desirable. 

The  test  of  cows,  and  their  selection  when  bought,  should  be 
governed  strictly  by  considerations  affecting  their  dairy  quali- 
ties, and  without  regard  to  their  use  for  beef  after  age  has 
impaired  their  productive  powers.  A  good  cow  ought  to  be 
milked  ten  or  twelve  years,  and  it  is  not  wise  to  make  a  great 
deal  of  calculation  on  extra  value  for  beef  at  the  expiration  of 


THE  DAIRY.  ggg 

that  length  of  time.  The  extra  value  of  a  large  cow  over  a 
small  one  for  beef  would  not  pay  the  extra  cost  of  keeping 
three  years,  and  it  is  plain  that  in  the  long  term  which  the  dairy 
cow  ought  to  serve,  the  cost  of  keeping  would  be  very  much  in 
excess  of  the  value  of  the  extra  quantity  of  beef  obtained. 

While  it  is  an  object  for  farmers  to  keep  small  cows  in  order 
to  reduce  to  the  lov/est  figure  the  expenses  of  maintaining  them, 
it  is  very  important  that  the  cows  should  be  healthy  and 
vigorous,  and  possess  strong  digestive  powers.  The  object  in 
view  is  not  to  obtain  animals  which  will  live  on  the  smallest 
possible  quantity  of  food,  but  to  secure  those  which  will  make 
the  most  profitable  use  of  the  food  consumed.  Dainty  animals, 
which  eat  but  little,  and  want  that  to  be  of  the  best  possible 
quality,  are  not  to  be  recommended.  No  animal  can  be  pro- 
ductive without  using  considerable  food.  The  good  cow  will 
usually  eat  heartily.  The  more  she  can  eat,  thoroughly  digest, 
and  economically  use,  the  better.  Good  digestive  powers  are 
among  the  principal  requisites  of  a  really  profitable  dairy  cow. 
Any  animal  that  does  not  digest  its  food  well  cannot  use  that 
food  to  good  advantage.  It  makes  little  difference  whether 
the  quantity  is  large  or  small,  much  of  the  food  will  be  wasted, 
and  the  animal  will  be  unprofitable. 

As  has  already  been  intimated,  it  is  one  thing  to  decide  what 
style  of  cows  are  wanted  on  the  farm,  and  quite  another  and  a 
much  more  difficult  one  to  obtain  a  sufficient  number  of  those 
which  will  prove  satisfactory.  That  the  average  cow  is  very  far 
below  the  proper  standard  of  excellence  no  one  will  deny.  That 
better  cows  should  be  secured,  if  possible,  is  equally  evident.  To 
fully  effect  the  desired  improvement  will  take  some  time,  but  it 
can  and  should  be  accomplished.  The  best  method  has  already 
been  partially  indicated.  Beginning  with  the  best  cows  which 
he  has,  or  is  able  to  obtain,  let  the  farmer  raise  his  own  calves 
and  grow  them  into  cows.  Ju.t  as  long  as  he  depends  upon  the 
drovers  for  his  cows,  just  so  long  will  he  have  an  inferior  herd. 


g40  J-ARMIXG   FOR   PROFIT. 

If  he  is  selling  milk,  let  him  obtain,  either  alone  or  in  company 
with  his  neighbors,  a  good  Ayrshire  or  Holstein  bull.  If  he 
is  making  gilt-edge  butter,  a  good  Jersey  bull  should  be 
secured.  By  careful  breeding,  in  the  manner  already  described, 
good  cows,  adapted  to  the  special  purpose  for  which  they  are 
wanted,  can  be  obtained.  Heifer  calves  should  be  raised  which 
come  from  the  best  milking  stock,  but  none  from  inferior  cows, 
even  though  of  good  parentage  on  the  other  side,  should  be  kept 
unless  with  the  design  of  converting  them  into  beef,  if  they  do 
not  seem  especially  promising  after  having  the  first  calf  A  cow 
from  really  good  milking  stock  which  does  not  do  remarkably 
well  the  first  season,  should  have  a  longer  trial,  as  there  is,  in 
many  cases,  a  great  improvement  during  the  second  and  third 
years.  After  a  fair  trial,  any  cow  which  is  found  wanting  in 
good  dairy  qualities  should  be  fitted  for  and  sold  to  the  butcher. 
Feeding  Cows. — While  there  can  be  no  success  with  poor 
cows,  there  is  an  equal  impossibility  in  making  the  dairy 
business  profitable,  when  the  cows  are  poorly  fed.  Careful 
feeding  will  not  make  a  poor  cow  equal  to  a  good  one  which  has 
an  equal  chance,  but  it  will  cover  many  deficiencies,  and  will 
give  a  degree  of  success  with  cows  of  moderate  merit  which 
cannot  be  obtained  with  extra  ones  when  this  is  neglected.  If 
the  cows  are  good,  the  rate  of  production  will  depend  very 
closely  upon  the  quantity  and  quality  of  food  which  they 
receive.  The  best  cow  in  the  world  cannot  extract  a  great 
amount  of  richness  from  bushes  or  from  swale  hay.  She  may 
have  plenty  of  food  of  either  of  these  descriptions,  or  a  mixture 
of  both,  but  she  cannot  give  a  large  quantity  of  milk,  and  the 
quality  of  what  she  does  produce  will  be  similar  to  that  of  the 
food  from  which  it  was  made.  While  some  cows  will  convert 
the  same  kind  of  food  into  milk  from  which  much  nicer  butter 
can  be  obtained  than  can  be  made  from  that  of  other  cows,  it  is 
still  true  that  the  quality  of  the  milk  will  be  very  greatly  affected 
by  the  quality  of  the  food  and  water  which  the  cow  receives. 


TJiE   DAIRY.  641 

At  all  times  the  food  of  the  dairy  cow  should  be  sweet  and 
clean.  It  should  be  rich  in  quality,  and  liberal  in  quantity. 
When  the  grass  is  fresh  and  abundant  in  the  pastures,  it  will 
hardly  pay  to  feed  grain  of  any  kind.  It  is  true  that  the  use  of 
grain  will  largely  increase  the  flow  of  milk  and  the  quantity  of 
butter,  but  we  do  not  believe  it  is  best  to  force  production  to 
so  great  an  extreme.  Many  dairymen  feed  meal  during  the 
summer,  and  it  may  pay  in  those  cases  in  which  the  pastures 
are  very  poor.  In  other  cases  we  think  it  must  prove  injurious 
to  the  cows.  The  present  gain  of  such  a  course  will  be  more 
than  offset  by  a  loss  in  the  future.  Cows  which  are  crowded  too 
hard  give  out  much  sooner  than  those  of  which  too  much  is 
not  required.  With  the  highest  feed,  and  crowded  to  the 
utmost  limit,  a  cow  will  begin  to  fail  at  a  time  when  she  ought 
to  be  in  her  prime.  When  a  cow  reaches  the  age  of  nine  or  ten 
years,  she  will  endure  high  feeding  much  better  than  she  could 
have  done  earlier  in  life.  But  all  crowding  and  forcing  in  early 
life  must  be  very  injurious.  That  it  may  pay,  under  certain  cir- 
cumstances, to  crowd  cows  hard,  and  then  fatten  them  when 
they  are  seven  or  eight  years  old,  we  do  not  deny.  We  know 
a  man  who  keeps  his  cows  only  two  or  three  years.  He  buys 
those  which  are  matured,  but  which  have  never  been  fed  very 
well,  crowds  them  up  to  the  highest  possible  rate  of  production, 
uses  them  up  for  milk  in  a  short  time,  then  sells  them  and  buys 
a  new  lot.  He  thinks  it  pays  him  to  follow  this  method.  In 
some  cases  it  may  pay,  but  for  the  average  farmer  we  consider 
it  a  poor  policy.  The  cows  must  be  well  kept,  but  they  need 
not  be  spoiled  by  over-feeding. 

In  connection  with  this  matter  of  feeding,  the  importance  of 

good  health  of  the  cows  is  very  evident.     The  milk  of  the  cow 

is  made  either  from  her  food  or  her  flesh.     The  latter  is  not 

admissible  as  a  source  of  supply,  as  the  cow  would  grow  poor 

very  rapidly  and  decrease  in  value.     From  the  food  and  water 

alone  the  milk  should  be  made.     If  the  cow  has  strong  diges- 
40 


642  FARMING  FOR   PRO  FIT. 

tive  powers,  she  will  obtain  much  more  material  for  milk  from  a 
certain  quality  and  quantity  of  food  than  she  can  if  her  health  is 
poor  and  her  powers  of  digestion  are  weak.  But  even  here  is 
where  many  farmers  incur  a  loss.  They  have  strong,  heart)' 
cows  which  eat  whatever  is  placed  before  them,  and  no  effort  is 
made  to  lighten  the  work  of  digestion.  Cows  fed  in  this 
manner  cannot  do  their  best.  All  the  vital  force  expended  in 
the  work  of  digestion  is  a  direct  loss  to  the  work  of  production. 
The  man  who  prepares  the  food  of  his  cows  so  that  it  can  be 
easily  digested  thereby  secures  from  them  a  larger  quantity  of 
milk  than  could  be  obtained  from  the  same  amount  of  food  if 
offered  in  its  unprepared  state. 

Many  farmers  keep  their  cows  wholly  upon  hay,  and  they 
think  that  if  the  hay  is  good  they  are  feeding  very  well. 
Others  mix  some  straw  with  the  hay,  and  think  that  such  food 
is  plenty  good  enough.  But  a  cow  cannot  digest  hay  very 
readily.  She  certainly  cannot  digest  enough  to  make  a  large 
quantity  of  milk.  As  for  straw,  Prof.  Arnold  has  well  said,  if 
rows  "  give  milk  when  eating  straw,  they  draw  much  upon  their 
own  resources  and  little  on  the  straw."  Grass  is  much  more 
easily  digested  than  hay,  and  in  this  fact  we  have  a  partial  expla- 
.nation  why  cows  do  so  much  better  in  summer  than  they  do 
when  kept  on  nothing  but  hay  in  the  winter.  In  the  summer 
they  have  plenty  of  food  and  digest  it  all,  while  in  the  winter  there 
may  be  food  enough  in  quantity,  but  much  of  it  is  indigestible. 
The  difference  in  temperature  also  exerts  quite  an  influence,  but 
.in  warm  stables  it  does  not  account  for  all  the  falling  off  in 
production,  which  is  noticed  when  only  hay  is  fed.  We  do  not 
think  that  either  farmers  or  dairymen  can  afford  to  feed  their 
.cows  with  dry  hay  alone. 

No  domestic  animal  does  its  best  with  any  one  kind  of  food. 
The  more  indigestible  matter  the  food  contains  the  greater  will 
be  the  evil  of  giving  only  a  single  kind.  We  believe  in  feeding 
cows  well,  in  giving  them  a  variety  of  easily  digested  food,  and 


THE  DAIRY.  643 

in  protecting  them  from  cold  and  storms.  Wc  have  already 
explained  why  it  costs  more  to  keep  animals  which  are  unduly 
exposed  to  the  weather  than  it  does  those  which  are*  protected. 
In  the  case  of  cows  giving  milk  there  is  a  still  farther  loss,  as 
"  the  secretions  are  always  disturbed  by  ir.fluences  that  cause 
pain  or  uneasiness,  and  every  shiver  of  a  half-frozen  cow  will 
make  itself  visible  in  the  milk-pail."  The  cold  not  only  com- 
pels the  cow  to  eat  a  larger  quantity  of  food,  or,  if  this  is  not 
supplied,  to  use  an  undue  proportion  of  what  she  does  receive 
for  keeping  up  the  animal  heat,  but  it  also  directly  reduces  the 
quantity  of  milk  which  under  more  favorable  circumstances 
might  be  formed. 

Not  only  is  the  theory  advanced  very  plausible,  but  it  is 
proved  by  a  multitude  of  facts  to  be  correct.  Wherever  a  cow 
is  found  which  yields  large  returns,  it  may  be  confidently 
asserted  that  good  food  and  careful  attention  are  regularly 
given.  Such  care  and  feeding /«r,  and  when  farmers  are  careful 
to  give  them,  they  will  find  their  dairy  business  much  more 
profitable  than  it  has  been  in  the  past. 

In  the  early  part  of  summer  a  little  bright  hay  may  be  given 
in  connection  with  good  pasturage,  and  a  little  meal  may  be 
added  if  the  pastures  are  poor.  When  the  freshness  of  the 
grass  has  been  impaired,  and  the  quantity  diminished,  the  free 
use  of  fodder-corn,  millet,  or  some  similar  substance,  should  not 
be  omitted.  As  soon  as  the  quality  of  the  grass  has  been 
injured  by  the  early  autumn  frosts,  hay  should  be  given  at  the 
barn.  For  winter  food,  good  hay,  corn-stalks,  Indian  meal, 
shorts,  cotton-seed  meal  in  small  quantities  (two  or  three 
pounds  per  day),  and  roots,  will  answer  every  purpose.  There 
should  be  no  sudden  changes  in  the  quality  of  the  food,  but 
cows  like  a  variety  of  articles,  and  will  give  more  milk  if  fed  in 
this  way  than  they  will  if  only  one  or  two  things  are  supplied. 

Cooking  Food. — Whether  it  pays  to  cook  food  for  cows  is  a 
question  upon  which    there    is   a   great    difference    of  opinion. 


644  FARMING   FOR    PROFIT. 

Prof.  E.  W.  Stewart  is  a  strong  advocate  of  the  plan.  Ho  is 
an  authority  upon  dairy  matters,  and  his  extensive  and  careful 
experiments  in  this  particular  department  of  the  business  entitle 
Ills  opinions  to  a  high  degree  of  respect.  He  believes  that 
"  half  hay  and  half  straw,  mixed  and  steamed,  more  than  equals 
hay  unsteamed.  When  cows  are  kept  in  milk  through  the 
winter,  cooking  their  food  will  greatly  increase  the  yield  of 
milk."  He  estimates  the  saving  of  food  per  cow  for  the  season 
to  be  eight  dollars.  This  is  a  very  favorable  showing,  and  many 
other  parties  who  have  followed  the  same  course  have  been 
highly  pleased  with  the  results.  The  theory  is  that  the  food 
which  has  been  steamed  is  more  easily  digested  than  it  other- 
wise could  have  been,  and  also  that  much  of  the  food  which  in 
its  natural  state  would  not  have  been  digested  at  all  is,  by  this 
process,  made  available. 

But,  on  the  other  hand,  many  intelligent  farmers  have  tried 
the  plan  of  cooking  food  for  cattle  and  found  it,  as  they  thought, 
unprofitable.  In  the  Scientific  Farmer  for  December,  1877, 
an  article  appeared  upon  this  subject  and  a  comment  by  the 
editor.  The  writer  oi  the  article  said :  "  One  after  another  of 
the  advocates,  or  at  least  those  who  make  trials  of  steaming 
food  for  cattle,  give  it  up.  I  doubt  not  that  one  can  now  find 
more  apparatus  out  of  use  and  rubbish  than  can  be  found  in  use. 
.  .  .  Among  those  who  have  abando^jed  cooking,  I  observe 
from  an  article  in  the  Country  Gentleman,  is  Mr.  I.  W.  Webb, 
near  New  Haven.  He  formerly  cut  and  steamed  fodder  corn 
in  mixture  with  maize  meal,  but  now  serves  the  uncut  fodder  by 
itself,  and  finds  that  his  cows  relish  it  well  and  eat  it  as  clean  as 
they  would  hay.  The  meal  is  given  separately,  but  regularly. 
I  oould  name  a  dozen  persons  who  have  accepted  in  theory,  then 
in  practice,  this  cooking  notion,  and  who  have  now  rejected  it  in 
practice."  To  this,  the  editor.  Dr.  Sturtevant,  whose  labors 
in  the  interest  of  profitable  farming  have  been  of  immense  value 
to  the  country,  appends  the  following  note:  "On  Waushakum 


THE  DAIRY.  g^g 

Farm  steaming  of  food  has  been  on  trial;  and  many  tons  of  hay 
and  of  corn  stover  have  been  cut,  at  times  into  quarter,  or  one-half 

inches,  or  two  inch  lengths ;  this  sprinkled  with  various  meals 

sometimes  one,  sometimes  another — and  the  whole  steamed. 
The  cows  relished  the  food  well.  Little  or  no  food  was  wasted  ; 
but  in  recent  years  we  have  been  feeding  our  cows  after  the 
manner  described  by  Mr.  Webb  ;  and  we  think  the  cows  like  it 
as  well ;  certainly  we  do." 

As  far  as  theory  goes  it  is  strongly  in  favor  of  cooking  food 
for  cows,  but,  as  already  indicated,  the  practice  of  able  and  care- 
ful men,  and  their  deductions  from  that  practice,  differ  widely. 
We  have  endeavored  fairly  to  set  forth  the  opinions  held  by  each 
class.  For  ourselves  we  think  cooking  food  must  be  advan- 
tageous. It  will  involve  considerable  expense,  but  on  large 
farms  the  apparatus  would  be  valuable  for  other  purposes,  and 
thus  greatly  reduce  the  cost  of  preparing  the  food. 

For  small  farms  we  do  not  think  elaborate  methods  would  be 
found  profitable.  The  fodder  would  be  improved  in  quality,  and 
less  would  be  wasted  than  with  the  ordinary  system,  but  the 
cost  would  be  too  high.  For  such  farms  a  partial  adoption  of 
the  system  is  to  be  recommended  for  trial.  Cut  the  hay  and 
then  throw  on  boiling  water,  sprinkle  upon  it  a  quantity  of  meal, 
mix  well  together,  and  feed  as  soon  as  it  is  cool.  We  have  tried 
this  method  and  like  it  very  much.  It  is  to  be  especially  recom- 
mended when  a  low  quality  of  hay  is  used  and  when  straw  must 
be  fed.  By  using  a  half  hogshead  with  a  close  fitting  cover  and 
allowing  the  hay  to  remain  covered  for  a  few  minutes  after  the 
water  is  applied,  some  of  the  advantages  of  steaming  may  be 
obtained.  The  hay  will  be  softened,  it  will  be  more  easily 
digested,  and  cattle  will  like  it  better  than  they  will  if  fed  in  the 
ordinary  manner.  This  plan  involves  some  work,  but  we  be- 
lieve that  farmers  who  keep  only  a  few  cows  can  make  it  pay 
them  well. 

Pure  Water  is  almost  as  essential  to  the  health  and  comfort 


g46  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

of  COWS  and  the  success  of  their  owner  in  the  dairy  business  as 
good  food.  A  cow  that  is  obliged  to  drink  impure  water,  or  is 
kept  on  a  short  supply  of  that  which  is  good,  cannot  give  as 
ir.uch,  or  as  good,  milk  as  she  could  if  she  was  properly  watered. 
It  has  been  proved  that  impure  water  injures  the  milk,  often 
imparting  to  it  poisonous  qualities,  and  renders  cows  liable  to 
various  diseases.  An  insufficient  quantity  of  water  makes  the 
production  of  a  large  quantity  of  milk  impossible.  Experiment 
has  proved  that  cows  which  are  well  fed  but  which  have  but 
little  water  to  drink  give  only  a  little  milk.  In  one  instance, 
cows  which  were  kept  well  with  the  exception  of  having  only 
a  small  quantity  of  water  gave  from  nine  to  twelve  quarts  of 
milk  per  day,  but  immediately  increased  the  quantity  to  from 
twelve  to  fourteen  quarts  per  day  when  their  food  was  thor- 
oughly moistened  and  they  had  all  the  water  they  could  drink. 
The  quality  of  the  milk  produced  after  the  water  was  given  was 
found,  by  analysis,  to  be  yery  good,  and  a  fine  quality  of  butter 
was  made  from  the  cream. 

In  many  farm-yards  the  cows  have  water  enough  at  some 
times  and  suffer  severely  for  want  of  it  at  others.  When  the 
weather  is  fine  they  are  out  during  the  day  and  can  drink  as 
often  as  they  choose.  But  in  stormy  days  in  winter  they  have 
only  one  opportunity  to  drink.  They  are  then  put  in  the  stable 
"and  kept  there  until  the  next  day.  They  become  very  thirsty, 
and,  when  they  get  to  the  tub,  they  drink  a  large  quantity  of 
water.  This  water  is  very  cold,  and  not  only  chills  the  cow,  but 
its  excessive  quantity  injures  the  digestive  organs  and  lays  the 
foundation  for,  if  it  does  not  at  once  produce,  serious  disease. 
While  plenty  of  water  ought  always  to  be  supplied,  it  should  be 
given  so  often  that  it  can  produce  no  injurious  effect. 

During  the  summer  most  of  the  cows  are  well  supplied  with 
water  as  far  as  quantity  is  concerned,  but  tiie  quality  is  often 
poor.  Drinking  from  stagnant  ponds  is  very  injurious  to  the 
cows,  injures  the  quality  of  their  milk,  and  often  carries  disease 


THE  DAIRY.  647 

and  death  to  the  people  who  use  it.  This  is  especially  true 
when  there  is  a  drought.  Then  the  water  is  partly  evaporated, 
and  the  air  is  tainted  by  the  poisons  contained  in  the  mud  with 
which  the  edges  of  the  pond  are  lined.  A  clear  spring,  or  a 
good  well,  should  be  found  in  every  pasture. 

Kind  Treatment. — While  all  animals  ought  to  be  kindly 
treated,  there  are  but  few  which  repay  kindness  better  than  the 
cow.  While  kindness  tends  to  increase  the  rate  of  production 
of  milk,  bad  treatment  as  strongly  tends  to  reduce  it.  The  man 
who  ill  treats  his  cows  not  only  does  wrong,  but  he  thereby 
involves  himself  in  a  direct  and  unnecessary  loss.  At  all  times 
cows  should  be  treated  kindly  and  gently.  No  whipping  or 
pounding  should  be  allowed  in  the  yard  or  elsewhere.  Dogs 
should  never  be  allowed  to  chase  or  worry  the  cows,  and  if  the 
boys  try  to  run  them  to  and  from  the  pasture  they  should  be 
convinced  that,  for  themselves  at  least,  such  a  course  is  neither 
wise  nor  profitable.  The  milking  should  be  done  quietly  and 
gently.  If  the  cow  is  bad-tempered  she  should  be  put  into  the 
stable  at  milking,  time  and  one  forward  foot  strapped  up  or  else 
both  hind  legs  fastened  together.  Most  cows  will  be  quiet  if 
they  are  always  well  treated.  Some  are  very  "high-strung" 
and  resent  an  injury  at  once,  but  if  treated  well  they  will  seldom 
make  any  trouble.  A  few  cows  are  really  ugly  and  ought  not 
to  be  kept  either  for  breeding  purposes  or  for  milk.  But  there 
are  very  few  cows  which  are  troublesome  which  have  not  been 
made  so  by  bad  treatment  at  some  time  in  their  lives.  A  heifer 
that  is  frightened,  whipped,  and  abused,  will  be  very  likely  to 
become  a  troublesome  cow.  But  kind  treatment  in  her  early 
days  might  make  her  gentle  just  as  easily  as  bad  treatment 
makes  her  vicious. 

Many  cows  are  made  ill-tempered  by  being  badly  treated 
when  they  have  sore  teats.  It  is  not  at  all  natural  for  a  cow  to 
stand  still  and  allow  a  man  to  hurt  her  severely.  If  a  man  tries 
to  milk  her  and  in  the  effort  causes  her  much  pain,  she  will  try 


648  FARMIXG   i'OR    PKOriT. 

to  get  away  from  liim.  For  this  she  should  not  be  blamed 
Instead  of  following  her  around  the  yard  two  or  three  times, 
talking  loudly  and  pounding  her  with  the  stool,  the  milker 
should  be  gentle  and  cause  her  as  little  trouble  as  possible. 
After  milking,  some  ointment,  made  of  one  ounoe  each  of  sper- 
maceti and  almond  oil  melted  together,  should  be  applied  to 
the  sores.  Pkof.  Law  recommends  this  for  mild  cases.  For 
severer  ones  add  five  grains  of  balsam  of  Tolu.  "Or,  a  solution 
of  five  grains  of  sugar  of  lead,  or  chloral-hydrate,  and  one-half 
ounce  each  of  glycerine  and  water.  But  no  plan  will  succeed 
without  gentle  milking,  with  ^xy  teats,  especially  in  winter  or 
in  bad  cases  without  the  use  of  a  milking  tube."  Something  of 
this  kind  should  be  used  at  once,  as  neglected  sores,  even  though 
very  slight  at  first,  sometimes  prove  a  permanent  and  very 
serious  injury  to  the  health  of  the  cow. 

The  Milk  should  be  drawn  regularly,  quietly  and  rapidly. 
Cows  which  are  milked  at  certain  hours  each  day  yield  a  larger 
quantity  than  they  could  if  there  was  no  particular  time  for 
doing  the  work.  No  loud  talking  should  be  indulged  in  while 
milking,  and  the  work  should  be  done  as  rapidly  as  possible. 
A  slow  milker  will  get  a  cow  into  bad  habits  about  being  milked 
and  will  tend  strongly  to  dry  her  off  It  is  very  important  that 
the  work  should  be  done  thoroughly.  The  milk  which  is  ob- 
tained last  is  much  the  richest  and  best  which  the  cow  can  give. 
Besides,  if  milk  is  left  in  the  udder  it  tends  to  reduce  the  quan- 
tity secreted,  and,  being  absorbed. into  the  system,  proves  injuri- 
ous to  the  health  of  the  cow. 

During  the  operation  of  milking  the  greatest  care  .should  be 
used  to  secure  perfect  cleanliness.  This  is  one  of  the  great 
essentials.  If  neglected,  pure  milk  cannot,  by  any  possibility,  be 
secured,  and  from  the  milk  which  is  obtained  a  nice  quality  of 
butter  or  cheese  cannot  be  made.  As  an  aid  in  keeping  the 
milk  pure  the  pail  illustrated  by  Figure  loi  is  of  great  value. 
This  pail  is  made  by  the  D.mkv  Suppi.v  Co.,  of  New  York  cit>', 


THE  DAIRY.  (349 

rnd  is  a  stool,  pail  and  strainer  combined.  By  the  use  of  this 
pail  the  milk  is  strained  as  it  is  drawn,  all  dirt  is  excluded,  and 
the  milk  is  "quickly  and  perfectly  placed  beyond  the  reach  of 
the  foul  odor  of  the  stable." 

As  soon  as  the  milk  is  drawn  it  should  be  taken  to  the  house. 
A  pail  of  milk  left  standing  in  a  stable  will,  in  a  {<t\\  minutes,  be 
tainted  by  the  impurities  which  it  wih  absorb  from  the  air  and 
can  never  be  made  perfectly  sweet  again.  The  stables  should  be 
clean  and  well  ventilated.  If  these  essentials  are  neglected  the 
milk  may  be  injured  before  the  pails  are  filled.  But  the  cleanest 
stable  is  no  place  for  keeping  the  milk  after  it  has  been  drawn. 

Within  a  few  years  there  has  been  a  great  deal  written  about 
the  "animal  odor"  of  milk,  and  various  methods  for  getting  rid 
of  it  have  been  proposed.  As 
Mr,  Hardin,  of  Kentucky,  has 
v/ell  said,  these  v.'riters  "start 
out  with  the  idea  that  milk  is 
naturally  full  of  vileness  that 
must  in  some  manner  be  gotten 
rid  of"  Now  it  seems  plain  that 
such  an  idea  must  be  wrong.  ftg.  101.— the  perfect  mtlk-pah,. 
Milk  from  a  healthy  cow  is  a  pure  article  and  is  one  of  the  most 
perfect  kinds  of  food,  both  for  children  and  adults,  in  the  world. 
That  it  will  in  time  decay  is  true.  But  this  proves  nothing  con- 
cerning its  original  condition.  All  other  animal  substances, 
when  separated  from  the  body  which  gave  them  vitality,  soon 
perish. 

We  think  the  milk  is  well  enough  when  first  drawn,  and  that 
if  kept  in  its  original  purity  it  will  remain  good  for  a  consider- 
able length  of  time.  This,  however,  is  on  the  supposition  that 
the  cow  is  well  and  that  the  milk  has  not  been  tainted  before 
being  drawn.  It  is  possible  for  the  milk  to  be  spoiled  by  impure 
water  which  the  cow  has  drank,  and  by  bad  odors  in  the  pas> 
ture    in   which    she    feeds.      The   latter   may,   to  some   of  our 


650  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

readers,  seem  almost  incredible,  but  it  has  been  proved  many 
times  and  beyond  all  possible  doubt.  The  putrefying  remains 
of  an  unburied  calf  have  caused  an  odor  which  has  spoiled  the 
milk  of  the  cows  kept  in  the  vicinity.  On  this  account,  and  also 
in  order  to  prevent  disease  among  men  and  animals,  all  dead 
bodies  should  be  deeply  buried. 

The  cause  of  the  rapid  change  which  milk  undergoes  in  hot 
weather  should  be  briefly  considered.  It  is  the  generally  re- 
ceived opinion  that  all  decay  is  caused  by  the  development  and 
growth  of  living  organisms.  These  fungi  belong  to  the  vegeta- 
ble kingdom  and  are  so  minute  that  they  can  only  be  discovered 
by  the  aid  of  the  microscope.  Prof.  Caldwell,  in  giving  the 
opinion  held  by  scientific  men  upon  this  subject,  says  that  "the 
dust  of  the  atmospliere,  as  well  as  all  fermenting  or  putrefying 
matter,  contains  cither  the  germs  of  the  microscopic  fungi,  or 
the  fungi  themselves  in  one  stage  of  development  or  another ; 
that  these  germs  fall  on  all  substances  exposed  to  the  air,  and  that 
if  the  substance  so  exposed  is  one  that  can  nourish  their  further 
development,  they  will  vegetate  and  increase,  and  in  so  doing 
cause  the  substance  itself  to  decompose — that  these  fungi,  like 
all  others,  and  like  all  plants,  require  moisture  and  a  moderately 
elevated  temperature  for  their  growth,  as  well  as  food  for  their 
sustenance — are  killed  by  exposure  to  a  temperature  of  two 
hundred  and  twelve  degrees,  Fahrenheit,  and  that  they  live  at 
the  expense  of  a  portion  of  the  substance  in  which  they  grow, 
while  the  rest  is  decomposed,  that  is,  fermented  or  putrefied, 
with  the  final  result  of  the  breaking  down  of  the  whole  struc- 
ture." If  we  consider  the  milk  as  it  comes  from  the  cow  to  be 
perfectly  pure,  and  subject  to  the  same  conditions  as  all  other 
organic  substances  which  have  no  life  in  themselves,  we  shall 
see  why,  even  with  the  greatest  care,  the  best  of  milk  goes 
through  various  changes,  becomes  sour,  and  is  finally  spoiled. 
If  we  also  keep  in  mind  the  facts  presented  concerning  the  pres- 
ence of  the  germs  of  microscopic  fungi  in  the  air  and  the  rapid- 


THE  DAIRY.  g51 

ity  of  their  growth  and  development  when  they  have  "moisture 
and  a  moderately  elevated  temperature,"  and  remember  that 
milk  has  very  strong  absorbent  powers,  we  shall  readily  under- 
stand why  milk  that  has  been  exposed  to  the  air,  and  especially 
to  the  impure  air  and  foul  odors  of  an  unventilated  stable,  goes 
so  quickly  through  the  changes  incident  to  decay  and  also  why 
milk  keeps  sweet  so  much  longer  in  cold  weather  than  it  does 
in  summer. 

Various  expedients  have  been  devised  for  keeping  milk  sweet 
and  pure.  The  first  thing  to  be  done  is  to  see  that  the  pastures 
and  yards  are  kept  free  from  all  bad  odors ;  the  second  to  use 
the  utmost  care  while  milking,  to  keep  all  dust  and  dirt  from 
entering  the  pails ;  the  third  to  remove  the  milk  from  the 
stables  as  soon  as  it  is  drawn ;  and  fourth  to  take  care  of  it 
after  it  is  carried  to  the  house.  These  are  all  very  simple 
things,  but  if  any  one  of  them  is  neglected,  the  milk  will  cer- 
tainly be  injured,  and  may  be  spoiled. 

If  the  milk  is  to  be  carried  off  and  sold,  it  should  be  cooled 
before  being  transported.  This  will  prevent  the  rapid  separa- 
tion of  the  cream  and  milk,  and  also  prevent  the  destruction  of 
the  globules  by  the  agitation  which  it  receives.  The  same 
process  is  to  be  recommended  in  case  the  milk  is  to  be  taken  to 
a  factory.  The  cooling  is  to  be  effected  by  placing  the  milk  in 
a  can,  and  the  can  in  a  larger  vessel  containing  cold  water  or 
ice.  Whether  the  can  containing  the  milk  should  be  open  or 
closed  during  this  operation  is  a  question  upon  which  there  is 
much  controvL  ,y.  If  the  milk  has  received  no  bad  taint,  we 
think  closed  vessels  should  be  used.  If  the  milk  is  already 
tainted,  and  the  air  is  reasonably  pure,  open  cans  may  be  the 
best.  But  if  the  air  is  impure,  and  the  milk  is  exposed  to  its 
action,  this  exposure  will  add  to,  rather  than  subtract  from,  the 
existing  evil.  Which  plan  will  be  the  best  will  therefore  depend 
upon  the  actual  and  relative  condition  of  the  milk  and  the 
atmosphere. 


^53 


FARMIl^G   FOR   PRO/IT. 


Farmers  and  dairj'^men  who  deliver  milk  at  cheese  or  butter 
factories  will  find  a  good  scale  a  great  convenience.  It  will 
prove  very  useful  in  enabling  the  owner  to  determine  the  rate  of 
production;  as  far  as  quantity  is  concerned,  of  each  cow  giving 
milk.  By  its  use  he  can  also  find  the  quantity  of  milk  which  is 
given  each  week,  and  the  aggregate  during  the  entire  season. 
For  these  purposes,  Fairbanks  &  Co.'s  dairyman's  scale,  Figure 
I02,  is  unsurpassed. 

Cheese-Making. — If  this  important  branch  of  the  dairy 
business  is  to  be  conducted  on  a  larc^e  '^'-■i  \  the  farmer  should, 


FIG.    I02. — dairyman's   SCALE. 

by  all  means,  patronize  a  cheese  factory.  If  there  is  none  in 
his  immediate  vicinity,  let  him  talk  the  matter  over  with  his 
neighbors,  and  induce  them  to  unite  with  him  in  establishing 
one.  This  for  various  reasons.  More  cheese  can  be  made  at 
the  factory  from  a  certain  quantity  of  milk  than  can  be  obtained 
at  home.  The  cheese  will  be  of  a  more  uniform  flavor,  and 
the  product  will  sell  better  in  market.  Last,  but  far  from  being 
least,  the  labor  of  cheese-making  on  a  lar»;c  scale  is  altogether 
too  severe  for  the  women  of  the  household  to  perform. 

Many  farmers  do  not  like  to  buy  cheese,  yet  they  and  their 
families  want    it    occasionally   upon    the    table.       Such    parties 


THE    DAIRY.  653 

can  make  a  small  quantity  during  the  hot  weather  in  summer 
without  a  great  deal  of  labor  or  expense.  Mr.  Willard  has 
suggested  that  when  three  or  four  neighbors  are  situated  in 
this  manner,  they  had  better  work  in  partnership,  and  deliver 
"  a  certain  quantity  of  milk  daily  at  some  central  neighbor's 
house,  where  the  cheese  is  to  be  made.  There  will  be  no  very 
great  trouble  in  this,  and  by  assisting  each  other  all  may  be 
supplied.  As  the  labor  in  manufacture  will  be  no  more  for  ten 
pails  of  milk  than  for  four,  and  as  the  cheese  can  then  be  made 
up  at  once,  it  will  be  advisable  to  associate  together  whenever 
practicable."     This  we  consider  excellent  advice. 

In  the  handling  of  milk  designed  to  be  made  into  cheese,  a 
great  deal  of  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  its  becoming  tainted. 
A  slight  taint  of  the  milk  injures  the  quality  of  the  product,  and 
a  strong  taint  may  utterly  spoil  it,  making  the  cheese  both  unfit 
and  dangerous  for  use  as  food.  Care  and  cleanliness  must  be 
observed  in  all  the  various  processes  of  manufacture.  Boiling 
water — not  warm  water  nor  hot  water,  but  water  which  boils — 
must  be  used  freely  for  cleansing  the  vessels  which  are 
employed.  Then,  after  the  cheese  is  made,  there  will  be 
need  of  watchful  oversight  to  keep  it  from  injury. 
.  The  various  kinds  of  cheese  produced  on  the  farm  are  made 
from  the  entire  milk,  from  a  mixture  one-half  of  which  is  new 
while  the  other  half  has  stood  ten  or  twelve  hours,  and  from 
which  the  cream  rising  in  that  time  has  been  removed,  and  from 
milk  which  has  parted  with  nearly  all  of  its  cream.  Of  these 
three  kinds,  when  the  making  has  been  properly  attended  to  and 
the  materials  were  good,  the  first  is  rich,  of  good  flavor,  and  an 
excellent  article  of  diet.  The  second  is  devoid  of  the  rich- 
ness which  characterizes  the  first,  but  is  reasonably  healthful, 
and  has  a  fair  flavor.  The  third  is  an  abomination.  Those  who 
like  it,  whose  teeth  are  sharp  and  jaws  are  strong,  and  whose 
digestive  powers  no  substance  can  weaken,  are  at  perfect  liberty 
to  eat  this  kind  of  "  food,"  but  all  other  parties  had  better  let  it 


654  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

alone.  It  may  be  well  for  strong,  active  laborers  who  work 
hard  in  the  open  air  ten  or  twelve  hours  a  day,  and  whose  food 
does  not  "  stay  by  "  them  well  to  eat  this  kind  of  cheese,  but  it 
is  wholly  unfit  for  children,  and  for  all  persons  of  sedentary 
habits  and  occupations. 

The  following  plan  for  the  manufacture  of  cheese  on  a  small 
scale  we  partly  learned  from  experience  and  observation,  and 
partly  from  Mr.  Willard's  excellent  work  on  *"  Practical 
Dairy  Husbandry." 

For  this  work  there  will  be  needed  a  round  cheese-hoop,  ten 
inches  in  diameter  and  twelve  inches  high,  with  a  follower;  a 
new  wash-tuh,  or  something  which  will  answer  the  same  pur- 
pose, and  a  press.  None  of  these  need  be  very  costly.  The 
farmer  who  understands  the  use  of  tools  can  easily  make  a 
press.  The  following  directions  are  given  by  Mr.  Willard  : 
"A  very  good  press  may  be  made  in  a  few  hours  from  a  twelve- 
foot  plank,  and  a  few  pieces  of  scantling.  About  a  foot  from 
either  end  of  the  plank  set  up  two  short  pieces  of  scantling 
four  and  a  half  inches  apart.  Fasten  them  firmly  to  the  plank 
with  bolts  or  pins.  The  lever  may  be  a  joist,  four  by  four,  or 
four  by  si.x,  and  fourteen  feet  long.  One  end  is  secured  by  a 
pin  passing  through  the  uprights  at  one  end  of  the  plank,  and  it 
is  to  move  freely  up  and  down  between  the  uprights  at  the 
other  end.  A  weight  hung  at  one  end  of  the  lever,  and  you 
have  a  press  that  will  do  good  service.  The  weights  at  the  end 
of  the  long  lever  are  a  stone  or  two  from  the  field.  There  may 
be  another  lever  arranged  for  raising  the  long  lever  or  press- 
beam,  without  removing  the  weights,  which  are  stationary." 
The  cheese  is  pressed  by  placing  the  hoop,  containing  the  curd, 
near  the  end  of  the  press-beam  which  is  fast,  placing  blocks 
upon  the  follower,  and  letting  down  the  beam.  A  large  bread- 
knife,  or  a  long,  thin  wooden  one,  may  be  used  for  cutting  the 
curd. 

Having  brought  the  milk  to  the  house  in  a  perfectly  sweet 


THE   DAIRY.  g^^ 

and  pure  condition,  free  from  all  dust  and  foul  odors,  it  should 
be  strained  in  the  usual  manner,  and  then  carefully  strained 
through  a  cloth  into  the  cheese-tub.  A  gallon  (wine  measure) 
of  milk  should  make  nearly  a  pound  of  cheese.  The  exact 
quantity  used  at  a  time  should  be  known.  Part  of  the  milk 
should  be  dipped  into  pans,  which  should  be  placed  in  kettles,  or 
larger  pans,  containing  a  little  water.  This  in  order  that  the 
temperature  of  the  milk  may  be  increased  without  scorching  it. 
Enough  milk  must  be  warmed  to  bring  the  heat  of  the  whole, 
when  it  is  all  in  the  tub,  up  to  eighty-five  degrees.  For  coagu- 
lating the  milk,  rennet  should  be  used.  This  should  have  been 
soaked  for  a  while  in  water.  Enough  should  be  added  to  insure 
coagulation  in  forty  or  fifty  minutes. 

The  quantity  of  rennet  required  must  be  determined"  by 
experiment.  Rennets  differ  greatly  in  strength,  and  a  given 
weight  which  would  be  sufficient  if  the  quality  was  good  would 
be  wholly  inadequate  if  the  rennet  was  weak  and  poor.  The 
richness  of  the  milk  also  exerts  an  influence.  The  poorer  the 
milk  the  larger  the  quantity  of  rennet  which  will  be  required. 
Too  much  rennet  injures  the  quality  of  the  cheese  and  prevents 
its  keeping  well.  Too  little  retards  the  progress  of  the  work, 
•  and  makes  the  cheese  hard  and  sour.  It  is  important  that 
rennets  should  be  taken  only  from  healthy  calves.  If  good 
rennets  of  uniform  quality  are  used,  the  person  in  charge  will 
soon  be  able  to  determine  the  quantity  with  a  sufficient  degree 
of  exactness  to  secure  a  pretty  good  and  even  grade  in  the 
product. 

When  the  milk  has  coagulated,  the  finger  may  be  put  into 
the  curd  and  slowly  raised.  If  the  curd  readily  breaks,  it 
should  be  cut  into  blocks  two  inches  square  and  allowed  to 
remain  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes.  During  this  time  the  whey 
will  form.  Then  the  curd  should  be  gently  broken  with  the 
hands,  and  allowed  to  remain  another  quarter  of  an  hour.  At 
the  expiration  of  this  time,  part  of  the  whey  should  be  dipped. 


656  FARMIXG   I  OR   PROFIT. 

off  and  heated  in  the  same  manner  as  has  been  described  for 
warming  the  milk.  The  curd  should  be  gently  lifted  and 
broken  until  the  pieces  are  quite  small.  Warm  whey  should 
be  added  until  the  whole  mass  reaches  a  temperature  of  ninety- 
eight  degrees.  The  curd  should  be  broken  and  stirred  while 
the  warm  whey  is  being  added.  Then  the  mass  may  remain  for 
half  an  hour,  when  it  should  be  stirred  again.  This  must  be 
continued  until  the  curd  is  firm,  and  does  not  hold  together 
well. 

When  it  readily  falls  in  pieces  after  being  pressed  in  the 
hand,  the  draining  process  may  be  commenced.  A  cloth- 
strainer  should  be  laid  over  the  tub,  and  the  whey  dipjjed  off 
down  to  the  curd.  Then  put  the  strainer  on  a  basket,  or  a 
hopper,  the  bottom  of  which  is  made  of  slats,  and  dip  the  curd 
into  it  to  drain.  It  should  be  broken  up  with  the  hands,  and, 
when  nearly  dr)',  salt  may  be  added  at  the  rate  of  four  or  four 
and  a  half  ounces  to  ten  pounds  of  curd ;  the  whole  mixed 
thoroughly,  and  then  put  into  the  press.  After  remaining  here 
from  two  to  four  hours,  it  should  be  turned  and  again  put  into 
the  press.  The  next  morning  the  cheese  may  be  taken  out, 
rubbed  with  a  little  melted  butter  which  should  be  fresh  and 
used  while  warm.  The  cheese  should  be  turned  and  rubbed 
ever)'  day  until  it  is  cured.  If  the  rind  becomes  dry,  a  little 
butter  should  be  applied  as  before.  When  a  cheese  of  large 
size  is  made,  a  tight  cloth  bandage  should  be  put  around  the 
edge,  but  there  is  no  necessit}'  for  doing  this  with  small  ones. 

When  but  little  milk  can  be  had  and  a  good-sized  chee.se 
cannot  be  made  in  a  day,  the  milk  obtained  during  two  or  three 
days  may  be  used.  That  obtained  each  day  is  to  be  used  as 
though  there  were  enough  for  the  purpose  until  "the  curd  is  ready 
for  the  hoop,  with  the  exception  that  but  little  salt  should  be  used. 
The  curd  made  each  day  should  be  set  in  a  cool  place  in  the 
cellar.  When  enough  has  been  secured,  the  curds  which  have 
^been   previously  made  may  be  treated  with  warm  whey,  broken 


THE  DAIRY.  g57 

up,  drained,  mixed  with  the  one  just  made,  and  all  of  them 
salted  and  pressed.  In  this  way  good  cheese  can  be  made  by 
farmers  who  keep  only  one  or  two  cows. 

After  cheese  has  been  made  it  must  be  taken  care  of  or  it  will 
soon  be  spoiled.  It  should  be  kept  in  a  cool,  light  room,  upon 
clean  shelves,  and  should  often  be  carefully  examined.  If  any 
cracks  appear  they  should  be  filled  up  with  cheese  which  has 
been  crushed  so  that  it  will  spread  like  butter.  After  this  is 
done  a  piece  of  thin  but  strong  paper,  which  has  been  well 
oiled,  should  be  laid  over  the  place.  The  shelves  should  be 
occasionally  washed  with  hot  whey  and  the  room  kept  perfectly 
clean.  The  turning  which  has  been  recommended  must  not  be 
omitted  for  a  single  day  until  the  cheese  is  cured.  The  whole 
surface  of  each  cheese  should  be  thoroughly  rubbed  when  the 
turning  is  done.  This  is  necessary  to  prevent  injury, by  the  fly 
which  deposits  its  eggs  upon  the  surface,  and  especially  in  any 
unfilled  cracks  which  may  be  found.  These  eggs  soon  hatch 
out  into  maggots  or  "  skippers  "  which  ruin  the  cheese.  If  the 
cheese  is  rubbed,  thoroughly  and  the  cracks  are  promptly  filled, 
the  fly  will  not  do  much  harm.  When  the  mischief  has  been 
done,  the  maggots  should  be  cut  out  with  a  knife  and  destroyed.. 
It  is  said  that,  if  taken  soon  after  the  maggots  appear,  a  thick 
oiled  paper  plastered  over  the  part  of  the  cheese  which  they 
inhabit  will  shut  off  their  supply  of  air,  and  thus  drive  them  to 
the  surface.  When  this  method  is  adopted  the  paper  should  be 
used  two  or  three  times  in  order  to  make  clean  work  in  destroy- 
ing the  intruders. 

Good  cheese  will  be  fit  for  the  table,  if  it  has  been  properly 

managed,  in  from  four  to  six  weeks  after  it  was  pressed,,  but 

will   improve  in  quality  for  several  months.     It  is  claimed  by 

some  writers  that  cheese  is  a  very  valuable  article  of  diet,  that 

it  is  almost  as  nourishing  as  meat,  and  that  in  proportion  to  the 

amount  of  food  contained  it  is  cheaper  than  beef     While  it  is 

hardly  probable  that  it  will,  to  any  great  extent,  supersede  beefl 
41 


658  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 

it  is  good  food  for  those  whose  digestive  organs  do  not  resent 
its  use,  and  it  is  certainly  a  luxur}-  in  the  best  meaning  of  the 
term. 

Butter-Making. — The  butter  which  is  made  in  this  countrj- 
comprises  all  grades,  from  the  poorest  which  it  is  possible  to 
produce  to  the  very  finest  quality  which  can  be  found  in  the 
world.  The  quantity  produced  is  immense.  Not  only  is  a  vast 
amount  consumed  at  home,  but  during  1878  the  quantit}'- 
exported  was  worth  fourteen  millions  of  dollars.  Not  only  is 
the  aggregate  quantity  extremely  large,  but  in  a  very  large 
section  of  the  country  the  business  of  its  production  is  carried 
on  at  almost  every  farm-house  or  in  some  adjoining  factor}',  and 
almost  every  farmer  is  pecuniarily  interested  in  this  branch  of 
the  dairy  business. 

As  a  general  rule  butter  is  made  in  private  dairies.  The 
•factory  system  which  works  so  well  in  the  manufacture  of 
cheese  has  not  been  very  extensively  introduced.  There  are, 
in  all,  many  factories,  and  they  are  quite  successful.  But  there 
is  no  such  pressing  call  for  their  establishment  as  has  been 
-made  for  cheese  factories,  and,  though  they  will  become  much 
-more  common  than  they  are  now,  we  doubt  if  they  ever 
■monopolize  the  business.  Butter  can  be  made  at  home,  in  small 
or  large  quantities,  with  less  trouble  than  cheese,  and  the  labor 
^which  devolves  upon  the  women  of  the  household,  though  often 
very  severe,  may,  by  means  of  the  improved  methods  now  being 
introduced,  be  made  light  and  pleasant.  Under  the  old  system  it 
was  necessary  to  work  hard  and  use  a  great  deal  of  care.  With 
the  best  systems  now  in  use  the  work  is  ver}'  much  less,  and  the 
constant  watchfulness  formerly  needed  is  not  required.  More 
than  this.  With  the  old  methods  there  was  a  great  deal  of 
uncertainty  in  regard  to  the  product.  Sometimes  the  butter 
would  be  very  fine,  but  at  others,  when  so  far  as  the  work  was 
concerned  an  equal  degree  of  care  had  been  given,  the  quality 
•would  be  very  poor. 


THE  DAIRY.  659 

The  lack  of  uniformity  in  the  quality  of  dairy  products  has 
been  a  great  drawback  to  their  profitable  manufacture.  The 
men  who  have  been  able  to  make  good  butter  every  week  in  the 
year  have  been  able  to  sell  for  high  prices.  But  the  men  who 
have  carried  good  butter  to  the  market  one  week  and  poor 
butter  the  next  have  not  found  a  ready  sale  at  prices  which  were 
wholly  satisfactory.  And  it  may  be  regarded  as  settled  that 
the  one  great  thing  for  which  the  butter-maker  should  strive  is 
uniform  excellence  of  the  product.  When  this  uniformity  can  be 
secured,  and  not  till  then,  will  the  demand  be  steady,  sales 
quick,  and  prices  high  enough  to  yield  a  large  profit. 

Methods  of  Obtaining  Cream. — There  are  many  different 
ways  of  obtaining  the  cream  for  making  butter.  We  have 
neither  time  nor  space  to  consider  them  all,  and  it  would  be  of 
no  benefit  to  our  readers  if  we  had.  The  most  common  methods 
are  the  following.  The  use  of  shallow  pans  for  holding  the 
milk,  the  use  of  deep  cans  for  the  same  purpose,  the  use  of  very 
large  open  pans  so  arranged  that  the  milk  can  be  either  warmed 
or  cooled,  and  the  use  of  closed  cans  submerged  and  cooled  in 
ice  water,  or  cooled  partly  by  means  of  water  and  partly  by 
cold  air. 

The  first  method  is  in  common  use.  The  others  are  innova- 
tions. They  have  found  their  way  to  quite  an  extent  into  dairy 
districts,  and  are  in  use  upon  many  farms.  The  old  method  is 
open  to  many  objections.  One  of  these,  and  one  which  deprives 
it  of  all  claim  to  excellence,  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  uni- 
formity of  quality  cannot  be  secured.  The  butter  will  some- 
times be  good,  and  often  be  of  second  or  third  quality.  The 
weather  does,  and  must,  exercise  a  great  influence  upon  the 
quality  of  the  butter  which  is  made  from  cream  which  is  raised 
in  shallow  pans.  In  hot,  muggy  weather  the  cream  will  not  be 
as  nice  as  it  is  when  the  weather  is  cool  and  fine.  Changes  in 
the  temperature,  and  particularly  in  the  electrical  conditions  of 
the  air,  also  modify  the  quality  and  influence  the  quantity  of  the 


ggO  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

cream  obtained.  In  this  method  of  setting  a  large  proportion 
of  the  milk  is  exposed  to  the  air. 

We  have  already  shown  that  taints  from  foul  air  are  readily 
absorbed  by  milk.  They  are  still  more  rapidly  taken  by  the 
cream.  It  has  often  been  asserted  that  thorough  ventilation  of 
the  milk  room  was  an  absolute  necessity.  If  the  air  were 
always  pure  this  ventilation  might  be  useful,  but  when  the  ven- 
tilation brings  air  from  the  stable,  the  pig-sty,  and  the  cess-pool, 
it  does  not  add  to  the  quality  of  the  butter  which  is  made  from 
cream  exposed  to  the  odors  which  emanate  from  these  sources. 
It  may  be  said  that  the  farmer  should  keep  his  premises  sweet 
and  clean.  This  will  be  admitted,  but  the  fact  that  "  the  wind 
bloweth  where  it  listeth  "  should  not  be  forgotten.  A  man  may 
keep  his  own  premises  all  right,  and  yet,  when  this  system  of 
shallow  setting  in  open  pans  is  followed,  have  his  butter  dam- 
aged by  foul  air  which  comes  from  the  neglected  yards  and 
stables  of  his  neighbors. 

But  even  if  the  air  could  be  kept  reasonably  pure  there  is  no 
method  which  is  not  extremely  expensive  for  controlling  the 
temperature,  and  no  means  for  preventing  the  spores  with  which 
the  air  is  always  supplied  from  coming  in  contact  with  the  milk 
and  hastening  its  decay.  These  germs  of  the  microscopic  fungi 
cause  a  great  deal  of  trouble  where  their  presence  is  not  even 
suspected.  It  is  true  that  by  heating  the  milk  to  a  temperature 
of  two  hundred  and  twelve  degrees  the  germs  in  the  milk  at  the 
time  of  heating  are  killed.  But  this,  in  a  farm  dairy,  involves  a 
great  deal  of  hard  work  and  requires  a  great  deal  of  time. 

In  addition  to  exposing  the  milk  to  the  injurious  action  of 
the  air,  shallow  setting  makes  an  immense  amount  of  work. 
All  the  vessels  used  in  the  business  must  be  kept  constantly 
sweet  and  clean.  To  effect  this  where  a  large  number  of  pans 
are  used  requires  much  time  and  hard  labor.  Where  many  cows 
are  kept,  and  no  help  is  employed  in  the  house,  it  makes  the 
life  of  the  farmer's  wife  a  ceaseless  round  of  drudgery  and  toil. 


THE  DAIRY.  ggl 

For  these  and  various  other  reasons  shallow  setting  of  milk 
is  not  to  be  commended.  There  is  too  little  certainty  about  the 
quality  of  the  butter,  and  altogether  too  much  labor  is  involved. 
If  an  effort  is  made  to  control  the  temperature  quite  an  expense 
must  be  incurred.  If  nothing  of  the  kind  is  tried,  the  butter  in 
cold  weather  will  be  very  poor  and  there  will  be  but  little  of  it, 
while  in  hot  weather  a  similar  difficulty  will  also  be  encountered. 

Here  we  may  be  met  by  the  inquiry,  what  shall  be  done  by 
those  parties  who  have,  and  must  use,  only  the  shallow  pans  ? 
To  this  we  reply,  have  a  room  devoted  to  this  special  purpose. 
If  the  milk  is  kept  in  a  room  in  which  food  is  placed,  or  in  which 
work  is  done,  the  butter  cannot  be  uniformly  good.  If  but  few 
cows  are  kept,  and  the  cost  of  heating  a  milk  room  in  the  winter 
is  too  great,  a  tight  closet  may  be  done  off  in  the  kitchen  and 
in  this  the  milk  can  be  kept.  We  do  not  recommend  this  plan, 
but  we  have  seen  it  tried  with  fair  results  and  it  is  decidedly 
better  than  some  methods  which  are  ernployed.  Be  sure  that 
the  milk  comes  to  the  house  perfectly  pure,  and  then  see  that  it 
is  not  injured  afterwards.  All  the  vessels  in  which  the  milk  and' 
cream  are  kept  must  be  very  clean.  They  need  frequent  scald- 
ing with  boiling  water.  Never  let  the  milk  get  very  cold,  and 
also  protect  it  from  extreme  heat.  Churn  often,  work  the  butter 
well,  and  do  it  up  in  attractive  shape.  In  winter  it  may  be 
necessary  to  add  some  coloring  matter,  carrots,  or  some  prepara- 
tion which  is  known  to  be  both  harmless  to  people  and  effectual 
for  coloring,  though  if  the  cows  are  good  and  are  well  fed  with 
good  hay,  meal,  and  roots,  this  may  not  be  required. 

Concerning  the  plan  of  deep  setting  but  very  little  need  be  said. 
It  was  once  thought  that  a  certain  quantity  of  milk  set  in 
shallow  pans  would  yield  considerable  more  cream  than  it  would 
if  put  into  deep  vessels.  But  it  has  been  found  that  this  is  a 
great  mistake,  and  that  if  the  proper  temperature  is  observed,  as 
much,  if  not  more,  cream  can  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  deep  cans 
as  can  be  secured  under  the  old  system.     The  advantages  of  this 


662  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

plan  are  to  be  found  in  a  saving  of  expense  in  buying  pans,  a 
great  saving  of  labor  in  cleaning  them,  and  in  the  possibility  of 
obtaining  a  larger  quantity  of  cream.  Set  in  this  manner,  less 
of  the  milk  is  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  air,  and  there  seems 
to  be  less  danger  of  atmospheric  taint  than  there  is  with  milk  in 
shallow  pans.  When,  in  addition  to  these  benefits,  there  are 
the  conveniences  of  cool  spring  water  in  which  to  set  the  cans 
in  summer,  and  good  arrangements  for  hcai  ,  the  milk  in 
winter,  the  improvement  over  the  old  method  is  still  more 
marked.  There  has  been  considerable  opposition  to  the  dcep« 
setting  plan,  but  it  has  steadily  gained  in  favor,  and  would, 
doubtless,  have  become  popular  upon  its  own  merits  if  it  had 
not  been  adopted  in  connection  with  other  great  improvements, 
and  thus  brought  to  the  attention  of  people  more  quickly  than 
it  could  have  been  alone. 

The  use  of  large,  open  pans  has  been  strongly  recommended 
for  large  dairies  where  there  were  conveniences  for  heating  and 
cooling  the  milk.  These  pans  are  made  large  enough  to  hold 
the  milk  of  any  number  of  cows  which  may  be  kept  (not 
exceeding  one  hundred  and  fifty).  Underneath,  or  by  the  sides 
and  ends,  there  is  a  channel  through  which  warm  water  flows 
in  winter  and  cold  water  in  summer,  and  by  means  of  which  it 
is  easy  to  keep  the  temperature  at  the  desired  point.  The  use 
of  these  pans  saves  a  great  deal  of  hard  labor,  and  we  have  seen 
excellent  butter  that  had  been  made  where  they  were  used,  but 
they  are  open  to  the  great  objection  that  quite  a  proportion  of 
the  milk  is  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  air.  Still  they  are  a 
great  improvement  upon  the  shallow  pan  system,  both  in 
respect  to  the  labor  required,  and  the  quality  of  the  butter 
which  is  secured. 

The  last  method  to  be  considered  is  that  in  which  the  milk  is 
kept  in  closed  cans,  which  are  usually  deep,  and  are  kept  sur- 
rounded with  ice  or  cold  water  in  summer.  The  cans  arc  kept 
in    boxes    similar   in   shape    and    outward   appearance   to    the 


THE   DAIRY.  663 

ordinary  refrigerator.  This  method,  with  various  modifications, 
has  been  patented  by  several  different  parties.  Some  submerge 
the  milk  in  water,  and  claim  that  in  this  way  only  can  the  best 
results  be  secured ;  while  others,  who  use  less  water,  claim  that 
-SO  large  a  quantity  is  not  required.  The  object  in  view  is  to 
g  .-t  as  large  a  quantity  of  cream  as  possible  from  the  milk 
a  hile  it  is  yet  sweet,  and  to  obtain  it  in  a  short  time.  The  two 
])rincipal  methods  of  this  description  which  are  now  before  the 
public  are  known  as  the  "  Cooley  System,"  invented  by  Mr. 
William  Cooley,  of  Vermont,  and  the  "  Hardin  Method," 
invented  by  Mr.  L.  S.  Hardin,  of  Kentucky.  We  understand 
that  another  invention  is  approaching  completion,  and  that  it 
promises  excellent  results.  But  as  it  is  not  yet  perfected,  we 
can  say  nothing  further  of  its  merits.  Neither  do  we  wish  to 
pass  an  opinion  upon  the  relative  merits  of  the  two  systems 
which  we  have  named.  Both  are  good,  and  an  intelligent  man 
can  make  first-rate  butter,  if  he  has  good  milk,  with  either  one. 
Both  have  been  thoroughly  tested  by  competent  parties,  and 
been  very  highly  recommended.  That  it  will  pay  the  farmer  to 
obtain  one  of  them,  even  though  he  may  keep  but  few  cows,  we 
have  no  doubt.  Before  purchasing,  the  claims  of  each  should 
be  considered.  There  are  some  other  systems  somewhat  . 
similar  to  these,  but,  so  far  as  we  know,  they  have  not  been 
brought  to  the  degree  of  perfection  which  these  have  attained, 
and  some  of  the  best  of  these  rival  methods  are  said  to  be 
infringements  upon  patents  already  secured  by  the  parties 
named. 

Both  the  Hardin  and  the  Cooley  methods  require  the  use  of 
a  box  and  deep  cans.  The  box  resembles  a  refrigerator  in 
looks,  and  produces  a  similar  effect.  In  each  the  milk  is  cooled 
in  order  to  prevent  the  growth  of  the  fungi  which  cause  souring 
and  decay,  and  also  to  facilitate  tht  rising  of  the  cream.  In  fall, 
winter  and  early  spring,  they  can  be  used  without  ice  or  fire. 
In  the  summer,  ice  should  be  employed,  though  cold  water  has 


664 


FARMING   FOR  PROFIT. 


been  used  to  some  extent  and  proved  satisfactory.  That  butter 
of  much  better  quality  can  be  made  by  this  process  than  with 
any  in  which  the  milk  is  allowed  to  stand  in  open  pans  cannot 
be  disputed,  and  the  most  perfect  uniformity  is  obtained.  With 
this  plan,  good  butter  can  be  made  in  August  with  just  as  much 
certainty  as  it  can  in  June.  As  it  is  kept  pure,  and  not  allowed 
to  ferment,  the  milk  after  it  has  been  skimmed  is  much  more 


FIG.    103. 

valuable  for  feeding  to  calves  or  pigs  than  it  would  be  if  treated 
in  the  usual  manner. 

Figure  103  shows  the  Cooley  Creamery  with  the  cans,  and  a 
thermometer  to  mark  the  temperature  so  that  it  can  be  seen 
without  opening  the  box.  Figure  104  gives  a  sectional  view  of 
the  can  and  creamery.  The  implements  used  in  this  system 
are  manufactured  by  the  Vermont  Farm  Machine  Co.,  Bel- 
lows Falls,  Vt. 

The  first  cost  of  one  of  these  portable  creameries  varies  from 


THE  DAIRY.  665 

twenty-five  to  seventy-five  dollars.  This  is  much  less  than  the 
cost  of  a  suitable  room,  and  the  expense  of  ice  in  summer  is 
more  than  made  up  by  the  saving  of  wood  in  winter.  The 
whole  apparatus  occupies  only  a  little  room — a  few  square  feet 
— and  can  be  kept  in  an  apartment  which  is  principally  devoted 
to  some  other  purpose.  Then  the  extra  quality  of  the  butter 
will  add  from  five  to  twenty  cents  per  pound  to  the  selling 
price.  Besides,  it  has  been  proved  that  a  larger  quantity  of 
butter  from  a  certain  quantity  of  milk  can  be  secured  than  is 
possible  with  the  other  methods  of  obtaining  the  cream. 

The  difference  in  the  amount  of 
labor  and  skill  required  with  the 
open  pans  or  the  closed  cans  is 
very  great.  Every  one  who  has 
had  experience  knows  the  trouble 
attending  the  use  of  pans.  With 
one  of  the  methods  named,  "  the 
labor  consists  in  getting  ice  once  a 
day,  lifting  the  cans  of  milk  in  the 
box  and  out  again.  The  skimmer 
sits  on  a  chair  and  uses  a  dipper." 
In  the  washing  of  utensils  there  is 
an  immense  saving,  as    only  about    fig.  104.— sectional  view  of 

COOLEY    CAN   AND   CREAMERY. 

one-quarter  as  much  surface    15    to 

be  gone  over,  and  that  not  nearly  as  often  as  with  open  pans. 
When  the  small  pans  are  used,  the  skimming  must  be  done  at 
just  such  a  time,  or  the  quality  of  the  butter  will  be  injured. 
But  with  these  deep,  submerged  cans  the  milk  will  keep  sweet, 
and  the  skimming  can  be  safely  delayed  many  hours  after  the 
usual  time. 

Concerning  the  skill  required  Mr.  Hardin  well  says :  "Where 
milk  is  set  shallow,  and  subjected  to  all'  the  variations  of  the 
atmosphere,  in  order  to  get  the  largest  possible  yield  of  butter 
from  the  milk,  it  requires  excellent  judgment  to  tell  just  when 


F  ^  -mm 

L      1 

CREAM 

1 

1      MILK 

1 

1     ~ 

|l 

666  FA  i:  MI  AG  FOR   PKOFIT. 

to  skim,  and  I  have  had  persons  who  were  proud  of  their  butter 
yield  tell  me  they  often  in  hot  weather  got  up  at  one  or  two 
o'clock  at  night  to  skim  the  milk,  fearing  it  would  be  too  sour 
by  morning.  With  my  method  the  atmosphere  in  which  the 
milk  is  set  is  so  pure  and  cold  the  skimming  can  be  done 
whenever  it  is  convenient,  between  thirty-six  and  seventy-six 
hours,  A  negro  boy  has  exclusive  charge  of  the  milk  of  my 
dairy;  he  makes  about  three  thousand  pounds  of  butter  a  year; 
there  is  a  wonderful  uniformity  in  the  butter  he  makes,  receiving 
top  prices,  and  the  customers  have  never  yet  made  a  complaint, 
and  yet  I  do  not  believe  this  boy  could  make  a  pound  of  good 
butter  with  the  milk  set  shallow  in  the  open  air  of  sunmier." 
Certainly  for  inexperienced  parties,  for  those  who  have  nc 
convenient  place  for  keeping  milk,  dnd  also  for  those  who  have 
all  the  work  aside  from  butter-making  which  they  are  well  able 
to  perform,  such  a  labor-saving  method  as  that  of  Mr.  Hardin's, 
or  Mr.  Coolev's,  must  commend  itself  as  extremely  valuable. 

In  the  CooLEV  method  the  cans  containing  the  milk  are 
entirely  covered  with  water,  and  the  cream  can  be  raised  very 
quickly.  It  is  claimed  that  all  the  butter  from  the  milk  can  be 
obtained  in  piir  hours  if  the  proper  conditions  are  obser\-ed. 
The  capacity  of  the  apparatus  need  not  exceed  that  required 
for  a  single  milking,  as  the  cream  can  all  be  raised,  taken  off, 
and  the  cans  got  ready  for  use  again  between  the  usual  hours 
for  drawing  the  milk.  In  from  ten  to  fifteen  minutes  the  cans 
"  can  be  removed  from  the  water,  set  upon  the  bench,  the  milk 
run  off,  the  cream  emptied  out,  and  the  cans  set  back  into  the 
cooler,  ready  to  receive  another  milking." 

Churning. — After  the  cream  has  been  secured  in  good  con- 
dition the  work  of  butter-making,  though  well  begun,  is  far  from 
being  finished,  and  it  is  possible,  by  a  little  carelessness  or  an 
error  in  judgment,  ta  neutralize  all  the  benefit  which  has  up  to 
this  point  been  gained.  If  the  cream  is  allowed  to  freeze,  or  to 
become  unduly  heated,  or  the  churn  is   not  perfectly  clean,  oi 


THE  DAIRY. 


667 


FIG.     105. — DAVIS    SWING-CHURN. 


constant  care  is  not  exercised  to  perform  the  remaining  portion 
of  the  work  in  a  neat  and  skilful  manner,  all  the  care  which 
has  been  bestowed  will  be  in  vain.  As  already  stated,  boiling 
water  should  be  used  for  washing  the  churn  and  all  the  other 
implements  for  butter- 
making,  and  they  nmst 
all  be  kept  perfectly 
sweet  and  clean. 

The  particular  kind 
of  churn  which  is  used 
is  not  a  matter  of  such 
great    importance     as 
some    agents   for  pat- 
ented     styles     would 
have    the    people   be- 
lieve.      How     it    has 
been  possible  for  inven- 
tors to  obtain  so  many 
patents  upon  churns  is  altogether 
beyond  our  knowledge.     Many  of 
these    churns    are    good — nearly 
as  good  as  the  old-fashioned  dash- 
churn    of    half    a    century    ago. 
Some  of  them  are  not  good.     A 
few    are    really    excellent.       We 
have   used  the  Blanchard  churn 
several   years.     It   is    simple  and 
effective,  cheap  and  durable.     The 

butter  can  be  thoroughly  worked  and  salted  in  the  churn  it 
desired.  We  like  this  much  better  than  the  upright  dash- 
churn. 

The  "Davis  Swing  Churn,"  Figure  105,  which  is  made  by 
the  Vermont  Farm  Machine  Co.,  is  also  a  first-class  implement. 
This  cluuii  took  the  finst  premium  at  the  International  Dairy 


FIG.     106. — MOTION    OF     CREAM    IN 
DAVIS      CHURN. 


ggg  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

Fair  in  1878  in  competition  with  the  leading  chums  in  the 
world.  It  is  quite  simple,  containing  no  floats  or  inside  gear, 
and  is  very  easily  kept  clean.  Figure  106  represents  the  motion 
of  the  cream  in  this  chum  when  in  operation. 

There  are  a  {^w  other  excellent  churns,  but  the  larger  num- 
ber of  the  patents  issued  are  either  of  no  benefit  or  else 
positively  injurious.  It  is  a  significant  fact  that  the  Orange 
County,  New  York,  dairymen,  whose  butter  has  long  been 
regarded  as  strictly  first-class,  have  tried  many  patented  styles 
only  to  lay  them  aside,  and  go  back  to  the  use  of  the  old  barrel 
dash-churn.  This  does  not  prove  that  there  are  no  better 
churns  than  the  old-fashioned  kind,  but  it  does  indicate  that 
there  are  marty  poorer  ones. 

There  are  some  churns  which  will  make  a  larger  quantity  of 
butter  from  a  given  quantity''  of  milk  than  can  be  obtained  from 
it  by  others,  and  the  butter  will  be  of  equally  good  quality.  It 
is  unnecessary  to  say  that  the  one  which  will  make  the  most 
butter  is  to  be  preferred.  Still,  we  have  known  a  man  to  say,  in 
reply  to  an  invitation  to  buy  a  new  churn,  which  it  was  claimed 
would  produce  considerable  more  butter  from  the  milk  than  the 
one  which  he  was  using,  that  it  did  not  make  much  difference 
with  his  folks.  Everything  was  saved,  and  if  the  butter  did  not 
all  separate  from  the  milk  it  was  no  loss,  as  the  buttermilk  %uas 
fed  to  the  hogs.  He  seemed  to  think,  because  the  butter  which 
was  left  in  the  milk  was  not  thrown  away,  it  was  all  saved.  But 
if  he  had  considered  the  fact  that  he  could  buy  a  pound  of  new 
milk,  from  which  no  butter  had  been  taken,  for  three  cents, 
while  a  pound  of  butter  was  worth  twenty  cents,  he  would  have 
seen  that  the  saving  in  feeding  his  half-churned  milk  to  the 
hogs  was  not  as  great  as  he  imagined.  But  it  is  not  safe  to  trj- 
every  churn  which  the  agent  claims  "  will  make  more  butter 
than  any  other."  If  this  plan  were  followed,  the  farmer  would 
soon  have  more  churns  than  he  would  know  what  to  do  with 
or  where  to  find  room  in  which  to  store. 


THE   DAIRY.  ggg 

A  great   many  churns  have  been  condemned,  because  they 
would  not  uniformly  convert  cream  into  butter  without  regard 
to  the  temperature  or  to  any  other  conditions.     The  best  churn 
in  the  world  will  not  give  perfect  satisfaction,  if  no  care  is 
taken  to  have  the  cream  in  good  condition.     If  the  cream  is 
either  too  cold  or  too  hot,  the  butter  will  be  long  in  coming,  and 
if  the  variation  from  the  proper  temperature  is  excessive,  the 
quality  will  be  impaired.     The  temperature  of  the  cream  should 
range   from   fifty-five  degrees   in  warm  weather   to   sixty-four 
degrees  in  winter.     In   summer  the  churning  should  be  done 
early  in  the  morning.      A  thermometer  ought  to  be  used   in 
every  milk  room.      One  made  specially  for  the  dairy  is  the 
cheapest,  and  for  this  purpose  it  is  the  best.     If  the  cream  is  too 
warm,  it  may  be  cooled  by  placing  it  in  a  refrigerator,  or  putting 
the  jar  containing  it  into  a  larger  vessel  which  is  partly  filled 
with  cold  water.     Either  way  is  better  than  putting  ice  directly 
into   the   cream.     In   winter   the   cream    may   be   warmed   by 
standing  in  a  warm  room  (in  a  closely  covered  vessel),  or  by  the 
addition  of  a  small  quantity  of  warm  water. 

The  churning  should  be  steady,  and  no  effort  should  be  made 
to  obtain  the  butter  in  less  than  from  twenty  minutes  to  half  an 
hour  ^ in  the  summer,  and  from  forty  minutes  to  an  hour  in 
winter.     Violent  agitation  will  convert  the  cream  into  butter  in 
a  much  shorter  time,  but  the  quality  will  be  seriously  impaired. 
The  appearances  which  indicate  that  a  larger  quantity  of  butter 
is  obtained  in  this  manner  are  deceptive.     If  the  cream  is  a  few 
degrees  warmer  than  the  standard  we  have  given,  the  butter  can 
be  made  in  less  time,  but  the  quality  will  be  seriously  injured. 
We  have  given  the  extreme  limits  of  temperature  at  which  it  is 
safe  to  churn  the  cream  when  good  butter  is  required.     Mr. 
Hardin  recommends  fifty-eight  degrees  in  warm  weather,  and 
sixty-three  degrees  in  winter,  and  his  success  is  an  indication 
that  he  has  regulated  the  temperature  of  the  cream  in  the  best 
possible  manner. 


G70 


r.lR.U/XG   FOR    PKOriT. 


Working  Butter. — Unless  freed  from  the  milk  which 
remains  mingled  with  it,  the  finest  butter  would  soon  be 
spoiled.  For  accomplishing  the  desired  separation,  various 
methods  are  employed.  The  very  worst,  yet  very  common,  one 
is  to  work  out  the  milk  by  squeezing  the  butter  in  the  hands. 
The  cleanest  hands  in  the  world  are  not  fit  to  put  into  butter. 
There  will  be  a  perspiration,  either  sensible  or  insensible  to  the 
operator,  which  will  certainly  injure  the  quality  of  the  butter, 


FIO.    107. — EUREKA   BUTTER-WORKER. 

and  also  prevent  its  keeping  well.  The  best  way  where  no 
machine  is  employed  is  to  use  a  ladle  made  for  the  purpose, 
and  a  wooden  bowl  or  tray.  There  are  many  implements  in 
the  market  for  working  butter.  Some  of  these  are  excellent, 
but  a  few  of  them  arc  constructed  upon  WTong  principles,  and 
areMiable  to  injure  the  quality  of  the  butter.  All  machines 
which  operate  with  fluted  rolls  are,  to  some  extent,  open  to  this 
objection.  Lever-workers,  if  care  is  taken  to  give  an  equal 
pressure  the  whole  length  of  the  machine,  do  very  well ;  but  the 


THE   DAIRY.  671 

implements  with  smooth  rolls  are  probably  the  most  perfect 
which  have  been  devised.  Of  the  machines  made  in  this  style 
we  think  the  Eureka,  which  is  made  by  the  manufacturers  of 
the  Cooley  Creamery,  is  the  best  in  the  market.  It  is  repre- 
sented by  Figure  107. 

While  it  is  important  that  the  milk  should  be  removed,  it  is 
possible  to  almost  spoil  the  finest  butter  by  simply  working  it 
too  much.  .There  should  be  an  even  pressure  upon  the  butter, 
and  all  drawing  and  sliding  motions  are  to  be  avoided.  Some 
dairymen  use  brine  in  order  to  facilitate  the  separation  of  the 
milk  from  the  butter,  but  this  is  not  absolutely  necessary. 
Much  of  the  milk  can  be  washed  out  if  pure  water  is  at  hand. 
The  following  directions  are  from  Mr.  Willard's  "  Practical 
Dairy  Husbandry."  Gather  the  butter  "  with  a  wooden  butter 
ladle  in  the  tray  or  butter  bowl,  turn  off  the  buttermilk  and  wash 
with  fresh  spring  water.  Gash  it  around  the  whole  circumfer- 
ence, making  channels  lowest  at  either  end,  so  that  the  butter- 
milk can  readily  run  off.  Do  not  grind  it  down  against  the 
tray,  after  the  manner  of  tempering  mortar,  for  in  this  way  you 
will  be  likely  to  injure  the  grain.  It  is  not  well  to  attempt  to 
work  out  all  the  buttermilk  at  once.  But  very  little  manipula- 
tion is  required  in  washing  out  the  buttermilk  ;  then  salt  with 
pure,  fine  salt  and  set  aside  in  a  cool  place  for  twelve  hours, 
during  which  time  the  action  of  the  salt  will  liberate  more  of  the 
buttermilk.  Then  work  a  second  time,  either  with  the  ladle  or 
butter-worker,  using  precautions  not  to  overwork  or  grind  the 
butter  by  rubbing  it  down  against  the  tray,  and  then  the  work 
is  done  and  the  butter  is  ready  for  packing." 

Salting  Butter  is  usually  considered  necessary  in  order  to 
improve  the  keeping  qualities  as  well  as  to  suit  the  taste  of  con- 
sumers. A  nice  grade  of  butter,  properly  managed  in  all  the 
various  processes  of  manufacture,  can  be  kept  a  long  time  with- 
out salt.  Still,  most  people  prefer  salted  butter,  and  a  few 
words  in  relation  to  the  method  of  saltine  will  not  come  amiss. 


672  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

The  very  best  grade  of  salt  should  be  used.  A  great  deal  of 
good  butter  has  been  damaged  by  the  use  of  an  inferior  quality 
of  salt.  As  only  a  small  quantity  is  required,  the  difference  in 
cost  between  the  finest  and  the  ordinary  grades  of  salt  is  not  to 
be  considered  by  the  man  who  wants  to  make  a  really  good 
article  of  butter.  The  salt  should  be  intimately  mixed  with  the 
butter  so  that  the  whole  mass  will  be  uniformly  salted.  The 
quantity  used  at  the  butter  factories  in  the  New  York  dairy 
districts  is  eighteen  ounces  of  salt  for  twenty-two  pounds  of 
butter. 

Packing  Butter. — If  butter  is  to  be  kept  for  a  long  time,  or 
is  to  be  carried  a  long  distance,  it  must  be  packed  in  jars  or 
tubs.  The  stone  jars  are  best  if  the  butter  is  to  be  used  at 
home,  but  they  cannot  be  safely  transported.  If  tubs  are  used 
they  should  be  filled  with  boiling  water  and  allowed  to  soak  for 
twenty-four  hours.  They  should  then  be  filled  with  strong 
brine  which  should  stand  in  them  two  or  three  days.  Then  it 
should  be  turned  out,  the  tubs  rinsed  with  cold  water,  and  the 
sides  rubbed  with  fine  salt.  After  filling  the  tubs  nearly  full  of 
butter,  lay  a  clean  muslin  cloth  on  top,  put  in  the  heads,  and 
pour  strong  brine  through  the  plug-hole  in  order  to  fill  all  the 
spaces  and  perfectly  exclude  the  air.  Then  put  in  the  plug  and 
keep  the  tub  in  a  clean  and  well-ventilated  cellar.  Even  butter 
which  has  been  packed  in  tubs  must  not  be  kept  in  the  vicinity 
of  decaying  vegetables,  soap,  and  many  other  things  which  are 
found  in  too  many  house  cellars.  If  the  butter  is  to  be  kept 
long  in  very  hot  weather  the  brine  should  be  changed  once  in 
two  months. 

A  still  more  perfect  way  of  keeping  butter  was  described, 
some  time  since,  in  the  National  Live-Stock  Journal  as  fol- 
lows :  "  Make  a  muslin  bag,  a  little  smaller  than  the  tub,  so  that 
when  filled  there  will  be  a  space  of  one  inch  all  round,  above 
and  below.  Pack  the  butter,  when  ready,  into  this  muslin  bag, 
and  place  the  bag  in  the  tub,  when  the  head  should  be  put  in. 


THE   DAIRY.  gyg 

if  there  is  one,  with  an  inch  and  a  half  hole  in  it.  Fill  the  space 
around  the  bag  containing  the  butter  with  strong  brine,  and 
.  then  put  in  a  plug  reaching  one  inch  below,  so  as  to  prevent  the 
sack  of  butter  from  coming  to  the  top.  The  sack  of  butter  will 
now  float  in  the  brine  and  be  absolutely  excluded  from  the  air. 
An  ordinary  cover  may  be  used  instead  of  the  head." 

Securing  Ice. — As  we  have  highly  recommended  those  pro- 
cesses of  butter-making  which  require  the  use  of  ice  for  their 
most  perfect  working,  perhaps  a  few  words  upon  the  best 
method  of  keeping  ice  may  be  useful.  A  {&\v  years  ago  it  was 
generally  supposed  to  be  quite  difficult  to  keep  ice  through  the 
summer,  even  at  the  extreme  North,  and  an  ice-house  was  con- 
sidered too  expensive  for  the  average  farmer.  But  of  late  the 
idea  that  ice  can  be  kept  only  in  costly  and  elaborate  structures 
has  been  proved  incorrect,  and  the  number  of  ice-houses  has- 
increased  a  hundred-fold.  One  ought  to  be  found  on  each  and 
every  farm,  or  else  a  good  substitute  should  be  provided. 

Some  writers  recommend  ice-houses  wholly  above  ground,, 
while  others  consider  it  best  to  have  a  room  partly  underground! 
Practically,  either  plan  works  well.  If  only  a  small  quantity  of 
ice  is  needed,  a  room  may  be  done  off  in  a  wagon-shed,  a  corn- 
barn,  or  in  a  clean  basement  room  in  either  of  these  buildings; 
A  great  many  farmers  have  practiced  these  methods  success- 
fully. A  bin,  with  double  walls  and  the  spaces  between  them 
filled  with  saw-dust,  or  tan-bark,  can  be  made  to  do  good  ser- 
vice. It  should  be  nearly  square,  and  the  cakes  of  ice  should 
be  packed  as  closely  as  possible.  Around  the  sides,  and  in  the 
spaces  between  the  cakes,  saw-dust  should  be  used,  and  the  top 
of  the  pile  should  be  covered  a  foot  in  depth.  Mr.  Hardin, 
though  living  far  South  of  the  line  above  which  the  principal 
part  of  the  dairying  in  this  country  is  done,  uses  an  ice-house 
"  which  is  about  twelve  feet  cube,  a  mere  hole  in  the  ground 
with  shed  over  it,  and  it  has  supplied  an  abundance  of  ice  for 
the  milk  of  fifteen  to  twenty  cows."    Farther  North  there  would. 


42 


674  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

be  less  waste  of  ice  by  excessive  heat.  Ice  costs  but  little, 
it  is  but  little  work  to  get  it  and  keep  it,  and  it  is  a  real  luxury- 
as  well  as  a  very  useful  article.  Therefore  an  abundant  supply 
should  be  obtained.  It  will  be  useful  for  many  other  purposes 
than  the  special  one  for  which  it  is  provided. 

The  quantity  required  for  keeping  the  milk  at  the  proper  tem- 
perature will  vary  in  different  localities  and  with  the  degree  of 
protection  from  heat  which  is  given  in  other  ways.  Mr.  Har- 
din uses  about  "one  pound  of  ice  an  hour  to  the  one  hundred 
pounds  of  milk."  Farther  North  less  than  this  quantity  would 
suffice.  The  Coolev  system,  using  water  in  part,  is  said  to  be 
still  more  economical  of  ice,  though  this  is  doubted  by  some 
who  have  experimented  in  this  direction.  It  is  not  a  matter  of 
much  consequence  which  method  requires  the  largest  quantity, 
for  any  farmer  can  obtain  ice  enough  without  incurring  much 
expense. 

For  the  benefit  of  farmers  who  are  far  from  rivers  or  ponds 
which  will  furnish  a  supply  of  ice,  and  to  whom  the  labor  and 
expense  of  transportation  would  be  obstacles  which  they  would 
not  overcome,  we  quote  Mr.  Waring's  description  of  a  house 
which  *'  is  so  simple,  and  invplves  so  trifling  an  expense  that  no 
man  need  have  an  excuse"  for  being  without  a  liberal  quantity 
of  first-rate  ice.  "  Select  a  place  on  the  north  side  of  some 
building;  lay  a  floor  twelve  feet  square  on  scantlings,  one  foot 
from  the  ground.  Set  firmly  in  the  ground,  near  each  corner, 
two  post.s,  from  four  to  six  inches  square,  and  about  eight  or  ten 
feet  long.  When  the  weather  becomes  cold,  place  on  the  floor 
saw-dust,  tan-bark,  or  r}e-straw,  to  the  depth  of  eight  or  ten 
inches.  On  the  top  place  another  floor  of  the  same  size,  putting 
a  curb  iiisidc  the  posts  to  keep  the  filling  between  the  floors  in 
its  place.  Next  make  a  curb  ten  feet  square  and  six  inches 
deep,  and  fasten  "die  corners  with  common  gate-hooks.  On  a 
cold  day  place  the  curb  on  the  centre  of  the  floor,  put  in  two 
inches  of  tan-bafk,  and  dash  water  over  the  bottom  until  it  forms 


THE   DAIRY.  675 

a  coat  of  ice  that  will  not  leak.  Fill  the  curb  with  water  and 
let  it  stand  until  frozen  solid.  With  boiling  water  thaw  the 
curb  loose,  raise  it  to  the  top  of  the  frozen  mass,  fill  and  freeze 
as  before.  Continue  so  doing  until  the  mass  is  of  the  desired 
height.  Place  boards  on  the  inside  of  the  posts,  and  fill  the 
space  with  tan-bark  or  rye-straw ;  nail  boards  on  the  outside  of 
the  posts  and  fill  the  space  with  rye-straw ;  cover  the  top  with 
tan-bark  to  the  depth  of  ten  inches.  Over  the  whole  put  a  roof, 
to  shield  from  the  sun  and  rain.  Cut  and  take  the  ice  from  the 
top.  Ice  can  be  thus  kept  the  entire  season.  If  a  stream  of 
running  water  can  be  turned  into  the  curb,  the  labor  of  filling 
will  be  much  lessened." 

We  believe  that  by  following  the  methods  which  have  been 
indicated  it  will  be  possible  for  the  farmers  and  dairymen  of  the 
country  to  greatly  improve  the  character  and  the  productive 
capacity  of  their  stock,  and  to  obtain  a  great  deal  more  milk 
than  they  now  secure.  The  cost  of  this  improvement  and  extra 
production  will  be  so  slight  as  to  leave  a  large  profit  to  the 
owner  of  the  cows.  The  purity  of  the  milk  will  be  secured  and 
its  richness  increased.  With  only  a  slight  outlay,  whiJi  in  a 
short  time  will  be  all  repaid  by  the  saving  which  it  will  secure 
in  other  directions,  the  quality  of  the  butter  which  is  made  can 
be  improved  to  such  an  extent  that  all  trouble  in  making  quick 
sales  will  be  avoided  and  the  price  will  be  considerably  in- 
creased. By  such  a  change  both  producers  and  consumers  will 
be  greatly  benefited. 

If  he  will  bring  care  and  skill  to  his  aid  the  farmer  can  fur- 
nish good  milk  and  nice  butter  for  prices  which  consumers  will 
be  willing  to  pay  and  which  will  yield  him  a  liberal  profit.  The 
dairy  business  is  not  overdone,  and  as  long  as  our  population 
increases  as  rapidly  as  it  has  for  a  few  years  past,  and  the  foreign 
demand  continues,  it  will  not  be  unduly  crowded.  If  the  quality 
of  our  goods  is  improved  without  advancing  prices  to  an  extreme 
limit,  the  foreign  demand  will  not  only  be  continued  but  will  be 


(J7G  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

rapidly  increased.  All  the  butter  and  cheese  we  can  make,  and 
make  well,  can  be  sold  at  a  profit  to  the  producer  and  all  who 
handle  the  goods.  And  the  farmer  who  is  wise  will  seek  in  the 
direction  of  improvement  of  the  quality  of  his  products  for  the 
increased  price  which  he  desires.  It  is  useless  to  look  for  it 
elsewhere,  but  here  it  may  be  easily  found. 


c?i 


SOX&XNG  CATTtE. 

'U\P  LTHOUGH  not  applicable  in  all  parts  of  the  country, 
V  i3>  or  to  all  cases  in  any  part  of  it,  the  system  of  soiling 
cattle  has  certain  advantages  which  commend  it  to  the 

Q)-  attention  of  the  owners  of  live-stock  who  find  the 
common  method  of  management  inconvenient  or  unprofitable- 
Where  land  is  very  fertile  or  verj'  cheap,  the  soiling  system  ma/ 
not  prove  advantageous.  Many  farmers  are  so  situated  that 
they  would  incur  a  loss  by  accepting  its  conditions.  There  are 
many  others  whose  profits  would  be  largely  increased  by  iis 
adoption.  In  the  vicinity  of  villages  and  towns  it  will  often 
pay.  When  the  farmer  desires  to  keep  a  large  stock  of  cattle 
on  a  small  area  of  land,  no  better  method  than  soiling  can  be 
devised.  And  where  manure  is  in  great  demand  in  order  to 
improve  the  productive  qualities  of  the  land,  the  want  can  be 
at  least  partially  supplied  by  means  of  the  soiling  system. 

The  plan  has  been  extensively  tried  in  Europe,  and  been 
tested  by  many  farmers  here.  The  majority  of  those  who  give 
the  system  a  fair  trial  report  a  great  improvement  over  the 
ordinary  methods.  It  is  a  very  simple  method,  and  yet  it 
requires  constant' care  and  a  high  degree  of  skill  to  manage  the 
soiling  process  to  the  best  advantage.  Upon  this  point  the 
Hon.  Josiah  Quincv,  who  did  more  than  any  other  man  in 
his  day  to  make  the  plan  popular,  said:  "The  soiling  process, 
beyond  all  others,  requires  vigilance  and  foresight."  The  man 
who  adopts  it  for  the  sake  of  making  his  labor  light  will  be 


SOILING    CATTLE.  677 

sadly  disappointed.  He  may  make  his  labor  a  great  deal  more 
profitable,  but  he  will  not  make  a  saving  in  the  amount  to  be 
performed. 

The  advantages  of  the  system,  as  stated  by  its  most  earnest 
advocates,  are  "  comfort,  convenience  and  protection  for  stock 
and  fodder."  There  is  a  saving  of  land  and  fencing,  food  is 
economized,  the  cattle  are  kept  more  comfortable  than  they 
usually  are  in  a  common  pasture,  an  increased  production  of 
milk  is  secured,  and  the  saving  of  manure  is  effected. 

The  objections  to  the  system  are  that  it  requires  very  close 
attention  and  skilful  management,  that  neglect  of  cleanliness 
during  hot  weather  will  be  likely  to  cause  sickness  not  only 
among  the  cattle,  but  also  in  the  families  of  their  owners,  and 
that  it  increases  the  difficulty  of  keeping  the  milk  pure  and 
sweet.  If  proper  care  is  given,  health  can  be  preserved,  and 
pure  milk  can  be  secured.  But  during  the  hot  weather  farmers 
are  extremely  busy,  and  are  apt  to  neglect  what  they  consider 
the  little  matters  pertaining  to  their  business.  In  many  parts  of 
the  country  the  adoption  of  the  soiling  system  would  render 
much  of  the  land  entirely  useless.  Most  farmers  now  have 
under  cultivation  all  the  land  they  can  properly  manage,  and  if 
they  were  to  keep  their  cattle  up  during  the  summer,  the 
land  which  they  now  use  for  pasture  would  be  wholly  unpro- 
ductive. 

In  order  to  help  those  who  may  desire  to  try  this  plan,  and 
give  them  a  correct  idea  of  the  kind  and  quantity  of  crops  to 
be  grown  for  the  purpose,  we  will  quote  Mr.  Waking's  state- 
ment relative  to  this  part  of  the  system.  "  Early  in  the  autumn, 
sow  three  acres  of  winter  rye,  to  be  cut  from  May  fifteenth  to 
June  fifteenth.  Early  in  April  three  acres  oats,  to  be  cut  from 
June  fifteenth  to  July  first.  Late  in  April,  two  acres  oats  or 
barley,  to  be  cut  from  July  first  to  July  fifteenth,  Early  in  May, 
two  acres  oats  or  barley,  to  be"  cut  from  July  fifteenth  to  August 
tenth.     Middle  of  May,  two  acres  corn,  to  be  cut  from  August 


(578  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 

tenth  to  September  first.  Middle  of  June,  the  three  acres  from 
which  rye  has  been  cut  to  be  sown  with  corn,  to  be  cut  from 
September  first  until  September  twentieth.  Early  in  July,  the 
first  three  acres  sown  with  oats  to  be  resown  with  barley,  to  be 
cut  from  September  twentieth  until  the  harvest  of  roots  and 
cabbages  furnishes  a  stock  of  green  refuse,  which  will  suffice 
until  winter-feeding  commences." 

The  above  plan  allows  twelve  acres  for  keeping  twelve  cows, 
and  requires  the  growth  of  root  crops  outside  of  the  regular 
operations  of  soiling.  The  roots  which  are  grown  are  not  to  be 
fed  until  winter,  but  the  tops  are  needed  late  in  the  fall.  The 
reason  for  devoting  so  much  land  to  the  production  of  soiling 
crops  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that  the  soil  was  not  in  a  high 
state  of  fertility.  In  ordinary  seasons  there  will  be  a  large 
quantity  in  excess  of  the  amount  required.  This  surplus  pro- 
duct of  the  land  can  be  cured  and  used  for  winter-feeding 
without  involving  much  loss,  while  the  larg^  area  sown  provides 
for  severe  droughts  and  other  untoward  events  which  may 
greatly  reduce  the  quantity  of  food  which  will  ordinarily  be 
produced. 

In  SeptdVnber  three  acres  of  the  four  which  were  sown  in 
May  to  oats,  or  barley,  and  corn  should  be  sown  to  winter  rye 
in  order  to  provide  for  the  early  crop  of  the  next  .year.  Aside 
from  this  the  same  order  may  be  pursued  in  succeeding  years. 
Mr.  W.aring  is  confident  that  if  all  the  manure  made  during 
the  soiling  season  is  used  on  these  twelve  acres  year  after  year, 
they  can  be  made,  in  time,  so  rich  that  they  will  support  thirty 
cows  during  the  usual  pasturing  season.  Many  farmers  who 
own  considerable  land  will  prefer  to  make  a  larger  part  of  it 
good  rather  than  keep  a  few  acres  exceedingly  rich.  This  they 
can  easily  do  by  taking  a  new  place  every  two  or  three  years 
for  the  production  of  their  soiling  crops.  In  this  way  they  can 
surely  a.id  rapidly  increase  the  capacity  of  their  land  for  pro- 
duction. 


ENSILAGE.  679 

Whether  it  will  pay  them  to  adopt  this  practice  is  a  question 
to  be  decided  after  a  careful  consideration  of  both  the  advan- 
tages and  the  difficulties  of  the  course  proposed.  Some  men 
can  make  the  soiling  system  extremely  profitable,  while  others 
cannot.  In  many  cases  it  will  pay  to  feed  green  crops  in  the 
barn,  and  in  others  it  will  be  best  to  plow  them  into  the  land 
without  being  to  the  expense  of  cutting  and  hauling.  In  many 
other  instances  the  ordinary  system  of  pasturing  in  connection 
with  the  tillage  of  half  or  two-thirds  of  the  land,  will  be  the 
best  which  can  be  followed.  The  circumstances  and  surroundings 
of  each  farmer  should  be  taken  into  the  account.  No  radical 
changes  should  be  made  without  previous  caref'  1  deliberation, 
and  all  such  changes  as  the  one  under  consideration  should  be 
gradually  effected. 

HIS  comparatively  new  method  of  preserving  green 
fodder  crops  is  now  attracting  a  great  deal  of  attention 
in  France,  and  being  introduced  to  some  extent  in  this 
country.  To  M.  Auguste  Goffart,  of  France,  belongs 
the  honor  of  the  discovery  of  this  system,  and  by  his  persevering 
and  skilful  efforts  it  has  been  brought  almost  to  perfection. 
For  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century  he  has  been  studying  the 
problem  which  at  length  he  has  solved.  In  translating  his 
writings,  and  bringing  together  many  facts  in  relation  to  the 
subject  of  Ensilage  abroad  and  at  home,  J.  B.  Brown,  Esq., 
President  of  the  N.  Y.  Plow  Co.,  New  York  city,  has  done  the 
farmers  of  this  country  a  valuable  service. 

Ensilage  is  a  French  word  meaning  "  the  act  of  compressing 
into  pits,  trenches,  or  compartments  called  silos."  It  is  also 
applied  to  the  green  crops  so  preserved.  "  Silo  "  denotes  a 
*'  compartment  used  for  storing  green  fodder  in  an  air-tight 
manner."  It  may  be  an  excavation  in  the  ground,  or  a  building 
wholly  above  the  surface. 


680  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

The  object  to  be  secured  is  the  preservation  in  a  green  state 
of  the  fodder  which  is  cut  for  the  use  of  cattle  during  the  cold 
weather.  It  is  well  known  that  by  the  process  of  drying,  con- 
siderable of  the  nutritive  value  of  the  fodder  is  lost.  Grass  is 
known  to  be  superior  to  hay,  and  green  corn-fodder  is  univer- 
sally recognized  as  superior  to  the  dried  stalks.  That  grass  not 
only  loses  water  but  also  passes  through  other  changes  is  evident 
from  the  fact  that  it  exhales  agreeable  odors  while  the  process  of 
drying  is  going  on.  The  fact  is  also  sufficiently  proved  by  the 
difference  in  the  effects  of  grass  and  hay  when  fed  to  cows  which 
are  giving  milk.  The  diminution  in  the  quantity  of  the  milk, 
and  the  deterioration  of  the  quality  of  the  butter  made  therefrom, 
are  abundant  evidences  that  hay  is  much  inferior  to  grass. 

Not  only  is  the  quality  of  the  grass,  or  other  fodder,  injured 
by  the  process  of  drying,  but  there  is  a  great  deal  of  risk  of 
damage  by  exposure  to  storms.  Then,  too,  even  when  it  is 
secured  in  the  best  possible  order,  the  dry  fodder  is  compara- 
tively indigestible.  Cattle  cannot  masticate  it  as  easily  or  as 
well  as  they  do  green  food,  and  are  not  able  to  digest  it  as 
thoroughly,  or  assimilate  it  to  as  good  advantage. 

Ensilage  as  a  method  of  preservation  can  be  applied  to  all 
kinds  of  crops  which  are  used  green.  In  this  country  it  will 
probably  be  of  the  greatest  value  in  its  application  to  fodder- 
corn  and*  grass.  It  is  with  the  former  crop  that  the  largest 
number  of  experiments  have  thus  far  been  made. 

In  order  to  be  fully  successful  in  the  preservation  of  green 
fodder,  all  fermentation  must  be  prevented.  This  must  be  done 
by  excluding  the  air.  The  fodder  is  to  be  cut  into  short 
lengths,  placed  in  a  pit,  or  in  a  tight  room,  and  the  top  closely 
covered.  When  the  silo  is  filled,  the  material  must  be  closely 
pressed  down.  In  his  earlier  efforts  M.  Goffart  followed  this 
course.  The  tops  were  covered  with  earth,  and  fissures  which 
afterwards  appeared  were  immediately  closed.  But  there  was 
always  found,  when  the  silo  v/as  opened,  a  vacuum  between  the 


ENSILAGE.  681 

fodder  and  the  covering.  As  a  result  of  this  vacuum,  which 
was  caused  by  the  settling  of  the  fodder,  the  process  of  fermen- 
tation speedily  set  in,  and  the  material  could  be  preserved  but  a 
short  time. 

After  many  experiments,  M.  Goffart  found  that  by  greatly 
diminishing  the  quantity  of  dry  straw  which  he  had  mixed  with 
the  green  corn-fodder,  or  leaving  it  out,  by  cutting  the  material 
into  very  short  lengths,  and  by  arranging  so  that  it  should 
receive  a  strong  and  continuous  pressure,  perfect  success  could 
invariably  be  secured. 

Pressure  must  be  strong  and  constant.  This,  because  the 
material  in  the  silo  contains  a  large  quantity  of  air  which,  if  not 
expelled,  will  cause  fermentation  and  decay.  When  first  put  in, 
this  material  is  so  elastic  that  merely  treading  it  down  will  be 
of  but  little  value.  But  in  time  this  elasticity  diminishes,  the 
material  settles,  and,  if  pressure  is  not  applied,  the  destructive 
processes  at  once  begin  their  action.  Therefore,  there  should 
be  a  heavily  weighted  plank  covering  for  the  top  of  each  silo. 
A  little  space  should  be  left  between  the  joints  of  these  planks 
for  the  escape  of  the  air  in  the  silo,  and  the  covering  should 
move  so  freely  that  it  will  follow  the  material  as  it  settles,  and 
thus  maintain  a  uniform  pressure. 

When  preserved  by  this  process,  no  drying  is  required. 
Exposure  to  the  action  of  the  sun  and  air,  even  for  a  brief 
period,  will  be  injurious.  As  soon  as  cut,  the  material  should 
be  brought  from  the  field.  It  should  then  be  run  through  a 
feed-cutter,  which  will  make  it  very  fine.  The  New  York 
Plow  Co.  make  a  machine  for  this  purpose,  which  can  be 
adjusted  to  cut  into  pieces  from  one-fourth  inch  to  one  or  two 
inches  long.  Forty-two  one-hundredths  of  an  inch  is  con- 
sidered the  best  length.  As  soon  as  a  sufficient  quantity  is  cut, 
the  material  should  be  packed  into  the  silos,  and  covered  an 
inch  or  two  in  depth  with  short  straw.  Then  the  plank  cov- 
ering should  be  put  on,  and  heavily  weighted  in  order  to  pro- 


532  FARAtlNG   FOR   PROFIT. 

tect  from  the  external  air,  and  maintain  a  strong  and  constant 
pressure. 

When  the  material  is  to  be  used  the  silo  should  be  opened 
at  one  end,  or  side,  and  cut  down  vertically.  The  quantity- 
removed  at  a  time  should  be  sufficient  for  the  stock  for  only 
one  day.  The  material  should  be  taken  from  the  silo  from 
fifteen  to  twenty  hours  before  it  is  to  be  given  to  the  cattle. 
This  in  order  that  fermentation,  which  will  make  it  more  palat- 
able, may  commence. 

That  the  system  of  ensilage  will  be  fully  successful  in  this 
country  there  can  be  no  possible  doubt.  Mk.  FRiVNCis  Morris 
tried  it  with  good  results  in  1876.  The  next  season  he  secured 
a  sufficient  quantity  to  keep  "  nearly  a  thousand  head  of  stock 
for  over  two  months,"  while,  in  1878,  he  more  than  doubled  the 
quantity  then  obtained.  Experiments  by  other  parties,  though 
on  a  smaller  scale,  have  been  equally  successful. 

We  believe  that  this  discovery  will  have  a  powerful  effect  in 
advancing  the  interests  of  the  farmers  and  live-stock  owners  in 
the  colder  sections  of  the  countr>'.  As  it  will  enable  them  to 
supply  their  cattle  with  green  fodder  during  the  winter  it  will 
prove  of  great  advantage.  By  freely  feeding  this  material  they 
can  keep  their  young  cattle  growing  rapidly  and  their  cows 
productive,  while  a  high  degree  of  health  will  be  secured  to  the 
whole  herd.  Then,  by  enabling  the  farmer  to  substitute  green 
corn  for  grass,  the  capacity  of  his  land  will  practically  be  very 
much  increased.  Land  which  now  yields  from  one  to  two  tons 
of  grass  may  be  made  to  produce  many  tons  of  fodder  of  a  still 
better  quality.  Much  larger  herds  of  cattle  can  then  be  kept  on 
a  given  area  of  land.  As  there  will  be  more  cattle  there  will 
also  be  a  largely  increased  quantity  of  manure  with  which  the 
grain  and  clover  fields  can  be  made  extremely  rich  and  produc- 
tive. In  the  various  departments  of  the  farm  there  will  be  a 
great  gain,  and  the  profits  of  the  business  will  be  correspond- 
ingly increased. 


SHEEP.  683 


'ROM  the  earliest  ages  sheep  have  been  regarded  as  indis- 
pensable to  the  comfort  and  welfare  of  the  human  race. 
As  civilization  has  progressed  their  importance  has  been 

"^  more  fully  recognized  and  their  numbers  have  been  cor- 
respondingly increased.  Long  ago  the  English  people  realized 
the  value  of  these  animals,  and  gave  a  great  deal  of  attention  to 
their  improvement.  .  By  growing  the  wool  at  home,  making  it 
into  goods  of  which  the  whole  civilized  world  was  in  need,  and 
sending  the  manufactured  product  abroad  to  be  sold  for  high 
prices,  the  English  secured  a  very  profitable  trade  with  other 
nations,  and,  at  the  same  time,  rapidly  advanced  their  agricul- 
tural interests. 

Stringent  laws  were  passed  with  the  design  of  protecting  the 
trade  in  manufactured  goods.  In  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth 
"  the  exporter  of  sheep  was,  for  the  first  offence,  to  forfeit  his 
goods  forever,  to  suffer  a  year's  imprisonment,  and  then  have 
his  left  hand  cut  off  in  a  market  town  on  market  day,  there  to 
be  nailed  up  to  the  pillory.  For  the  second  offence  he  should 
be  adjudged  a  felon,  and  suffer  death."  In  the  reign  of  Charles 
Second,  "  it  was  enacted  that  no  person  within  fifteen  miles  of 
the  sea  should  buy  wool  without  the  permission  of  the  king ; 
nor  could  it  be  loaded  in  any  vehicle,  or  carried,  except  between 
sunrising  and  sunsetting,  within  five  miles  of  the  sea,  on  pain 
of  forfeiture."  These  arbitrary  and  outrageous  laws  were  long 
ago  repealed,  but  the  English  have  never  lost  their  interest  in 
the  business  of  sheep-growing.  At  the  present  time  sheep  hus- 
bandry is  said  to  be  "the  sheet-anchor  of  English  agriculture," 
and  the  term  does  not  over-state  the  importance  of  this  depart- 
ment of  the  farm  business  in  that  country. 

In  our  own  land  sheep  yield  a  large  income  to  their  owners, 
and  add  an  immense  amount  to  our  national  wealth.  But  here 
the  business  is  hardly  begun.     What  is  now  obtained  from  this 


$84  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

source  is  but  a  fraction  of  what  might  be  easily  secured 
Importations  of  wool  and  woollen  goods  now  amount  to  many 
millions  of  dollars  per  year.  This  money  ought  to  remain  at 
home.  Our  people  can  grow  all  the  wool  they  need,  and  their 
mills  can  turn  out  the  manufactured  goods  for  a  lower  price 
than  they  can  be  brought  from  abroad.  There  is  now  an  opening 
for  an  immense  and  a  profitable  business.  At  the  South  and 
West  sheep  can  be  raised  in  immense  numbers  for  low  prices, 
and  still  yield  a  profit  to  their  owners.  Some  of  the  leading 
men  at  the  South  see  in  this  business  a  splendid  opportunity  to 
place  upon  a  sure  foundation  the  material  resources  of  this 
section.  At  the  West  the  business  has  already  assumed  large 
proportions,  and  proved  a  source  of  profit.  In  the  East  it  must 
necessarily  be  conducted  on  a  small  scale,  but  sheep-raising  is, 
and  long  has  been,  practiced  by  many  of  the  leading  farmers. 
In  this  business  but  a  small  amount  of  capital  is  required,  and, 
if  it  is  reasonably  managed,  the  returns  will  be  both  quick  and 
sure. 

There  are  three  special  purposes  for  which  sheep  may  be 
kept.  These  are  for  their  wool,  for  their  flesh,  and  for  improving 
the  soil.  In  some  places  it  pays  to  keep  them  for  the  wool 
alone,  in  others  for  their  flesh  and  that  of  their  lambs,  and  there 
are  some  instances  in  which  the  improvement  of  the  land  which 
they  effect  pays  well  for  all  the  cost  of  their  keeping,  and  is  the 
prime  motive  for  which  they  are  kept.  But  in  most  sections  at 
least  two  of  these  purposes  can  be  served,  and  in  some  localities 
all  three  may  be  combined.  Where  both  the  wool  and  flesh  are 
in  demand,  the  profit  is  large.  When  in  addition  to  these  the 
land  upon  which  they  are  kept  can  be  improved  there  is  a  still 
greater  gain. 

Although  the  price  which  wool  commands  in  the  market  is 
quite  variable,  yet  there  is  always  a  certainty  that  it  can  be  sold 
for  something  near  its  true  value.  Wool  is  a  standard  article 
of  commerce,  and  has  a  certain  intrinsic  value.     It  is  not  merely 


SHEEP.  685 

a  useful  but  it  is  also  a  necessary  article.  Besides,  better  than 
almost  any  other  product  of  the  farm,  wool  can  be  transported 
to  all  parts  of  this  or  to  other  countries.  A  car-load  of  wool 
represents  a  very  much  larger  sum  of  money  than  a  car-load  of 
hay.  Consequently  the  cost  of  transportation  in  proportion  to 
its  value  is  very  much  less  with  wool  than  it  is  with  hay  and 
other  bulky  material.  The  same  comparison  may  be  made  with 
almost  every  farm  product.  At  a  time  when  the  freight  of 
wheat  from  Chicago  to  the  seaboard  cost  eighty  per  cent,  of  its 
value,  pork  thirty  per  cent.,  and  beef  twenty-one  percent.,  only 
four  per  cent.  Was  required  for  the  transportation  of  wool. 
Besides,  as  the  people  throughout  the  country  are  in  constant 
need  of  woollen  goods  in  large  quantities,  manufactories  of  these 
materials  spring  up  in  all  sections.  Even  now  in  the  distant 
State  of  Oregon  woollen  mills  are  turning  out  some  of  the  finest 
kinds  of  cloth,  and  supplying  them  at  prices  which  are  remark- 
ably low.  Probably  the  time  will  come,  and  it  is  very  desirable 
that  it  should  come,  when  the  wool-grower  in  any  particular  part 
of  the  country  can  sell  his  wool  to  be  worked  up  in  mills  located 
near  his  own  home.  Then  a  large  part  of  the  present  low  cost 
of  transportation  will  be  saved,  and  the  great  benefits  which 
manufactures  always  confer  upon  agriculture  when  the  two  are 
closely  united  will  be  secured  by  our  people  in  all  sections. 

The  flesh  of  the  sheep  is  rapidly  coming  into  general  use.  It 
is  easy  to  digest,  and  is  more  healthful  than  most  kinds  of  meat. 
There  is  a  saying  to  the  effect  that  as  the  standard  of  civilization 
of  a  country  is  raised  the  use  of  mutton  for  food  will  gradually 
increase.  This  rule  seems  to  have  been  closely  followed  in  this 
country,  and  there  is  a  strong  indication  that  in  the  future  it 
will  prove  strictly  true.  In  our  large  cities  the  demand  for 
mutton  has  increased  fully  as  fast  as  the  wealth  and  numbers  of 
the  people  could  lead  one  to  expect.  The  call  for  lambs  in  city 
markets  increases  year  by  year,  and  in  some  of  the  older-settled 
States   it   has   become   quite   a   business  to  supply  this  want 


g36  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  flesh  of  sheep  and  lambs  will 
continue  in  demand,  and  that  this  demand  will  not  only  be 
permanent  but  will  admit,  and  require,  a  steady  growth  in  the 
line  of  production. 

There  are  certain  reasons  why  this  line  of  business,  viewed 
merely  from  this  one  point,  holds  out  special  inducement  for 
farmers  who  are  in  the  vicinity  of  thickly  settled  towns  and 
cities.  The  returns  are  both  sure  and  quick.  A  lamb  dropped 
in  Januar}--  or  February  can  be  got  in  good  condition  for  the 
market  the  following  June  or  July.  A  sheep  can  be  sheared  in 
the  summer  and  fattened  on  grass  and  roots  so  as  to  be  sold  in 
December,  or  it  may  be  fed  with  grain  during  the  winter  and 
sent  off  in  March  or  April.  With  cattle  the  case  is  very  dif- 
ferent. The  calf  must  be  kept  from  two  to  four  years  before  it 
can  be  sold  for  a  full  price  as  beef.  The  cost  of  keeping  all  this 
time  is  considerable,  and  there  is  quite  a  risk  of  accident  and 
disease.  If  sold  while  a  calf  the  price  per  pound  is  below  that 
of  a  lamb,  and  the  cost  of  keeping  him  the  five  or  six  weeks 
which  are  required  to  convert  him  into  good  veal  will  be  greater 
than  that  of  keeping  the  lamb  until  he  can  be  sold. 

Again,  sheep  use  the  material  which  the  farm  s.upplies  to 
much  better  advantage  than  cattle.  It  has  been  demonstrated 
that  seventy-five  pounds  of  food  of  any  suitable  kind,  hay,  pota- 
toes, turnips,  or  meal,  will  make  as  many  pounds  of  mutton  as 
one  hundred  pounds  of  the  same  food  will  make  of  beef  Then, 
too,  for  supplying  meat  for  the  fanner's  own  table,  sheep  are 
very  valuable  and  ought  to  be  more  extensively  used.  That 
mutton  is  a  more  healthful  kind  of  meat  to  use  in  hot  weather 
than  pork  there  can  be  no  doubt.  Properly  cooked,  it  is  also 
very  palatable.  The  farmer  can  furnish  an  abundant  supply  at 
a  small  cost.  He  can  thus  have  some  of  the  finest  qualities  of 
meat  at  a  cheaper  rate  than  he  can  buy  the  poorer  grades  from 
the  butcher.  There  are  many  farmers  who  would  find  it  profit- 
able to  keep  sheep  for  this  purpose. 


SHEEP.  637 

There  are  many  States  in  which  sheep  might  well  be  kept  in 
order  to  improve  the  land.  There  is  an  old  Spanish  proverb 
which  asserts  that  "  the  hoof  of  the  sheep  is  golden,"  and  many- 
others,  of  various  nations,  which  convey  much  the  same  mean- 
ing. Many  of  these  common  sayings  exceed  the  truth.  Sheep 
cannot,  alone,  convert  a  desert  into  a  garden.  They  cannot  live 
and  thrive  without  food.  In  order  to  do  their  best  they  must 
have  an  abundance  of  food,  and  it  must  be  of  good  quality. 
The  idea  that  sheep  can  be  turned  upon  a  barren  field,  which  by 
bad  cropping  has  been  utterly  exhausted,  and  from  this  field  not 
only  obtain  their  living,  but  also  get  material  from  which  to 
grow  heavy  fleeces  and  produce  fine  lambs,  and  by  their  presence 
convert  the  land  into  a  luxuriant  pasture,  is  wholly  erroneous. 
If  they  have  sufficient  food  from  other  sources,  and  are  kept 
part  of  the  time  each  day  upon  a  run-down  field,  they  will  pick 
off  the  weeds  and  scatter  their  manure,  thus  tending  to  make 
the  land  better.  By  feeding  sheep  well  in  the  winter,  spreading 
their  manure  upon  the  exhausted  field,  getting  clover  started, 
and  then  keeping  the  sheep  upon  it,  the  land  may  be  rapidly 
improved.  That  land  of  moderate  fertility  may  be  made  much 
richer  by  pasturing  sheep  upon  it  we  do  not  doubt.  If  there  is 
anything  to  do  with,  sheep  will  utilize  it  to  the  best  possible 
advantage.  If  there  is  nothing  with  which  to  make  a  beginning, 
neither  sheep,  nor  any  other  animals,  can  bring  it  into  a  high 
state  of  fertility  until  man  has  done  something  in  the  way  of 
improvement. 

The  farmer  who  keeps  sheep  in  connection  with  grain  and 
grass  growing,  and  with  other  stock,  can,  as  a  general  rule, 
obtain  a  large  profit  from  them.  Some  of  the  largest  crops,  and 
succeeding  these  a  marked  improvement  in  the  land,  have  been 
secured  by  the  use  of  the  manure  made  by  sheep.  Hdn.  George 
Geddes,  whose  opinion  upon  other  subjects  we  have  quoted,  and 
who  is  universally  recognized  as  an  authority,  in  speaking  of 
his  own  experience  in  keeping  sheep  in  connection  with  grain- 


688  FARM/XG   J'OR    PROFIT. 

growing,  has  said :  "  With  about  one  sheep  to  the  acre  of  cul- 
tivated land,  pasture  and  meadow,  we  raise  more  bushels  of 
grain  on  the  average  than  we  did  when  we  had  no  sheep  to 
manufacture  our  coarse  forage  into  manure,  and  to  enrich  ouf 
pastures  to  orcpare  them  for  grain  crops.  While  producing 
more  crops  on  less  acres,  and  at  less  cost  than  we  did  before 
we  kept  sheep,  and,  at  the  same  time,  constantly  improving  our 
land,  we  have  the  wool  and  mutton  from  our  sheep  in  addition." 
In  connection  with  the  growth  of  clover,  sheep  can  be  made  to 
bring  land  which  is  moderately  fertile  into  good  condition  for 
producing  wheat,  and  then  keep  it  yielding  large  crops  every 
few  years  and  constantly  increasing  in  value  and  productive 
capacity. 

The  man  who  is  willing  to  feed  and  care  for  his  sheep  can 
receive  from  them  a  great  deal  of  help  in  securing  good  crops 
and  making  his  land  rich.  But  it  is  not  safe  for  any  one  to 
engage  in  the  business  unless  he  is  willing  to  take  care  of  the 
flock  and  furnish  an  abundance  of  good  food.  And  lest  any 
reader  should  infer  from  the  remark  of  Mr.  Geddes,  that  the 
sheep  manufactured  his  coarse  forage  into  manure,  that  he  kept 
them  exclusively  upon  that  kind  of  food,  we  will  say  that  neither 
he  nor  any  other  man  who  has  made  money  from  sheep  ever 
kept  them  wholly  on  refuse  food.  Good  hay,  bright  straw,  and  a 
liberal  supply  of  meal,  have  been  the  standard  food.  The  coarse 
material  has  either  been  used  as  bedding  or  else  cut  and  sprinkled 
over  with  meal.  Sheep  can  profitably  use  a  large  quantity  of 
bedding,  and,  by  using  it  in  this  manner,  coarse  swale  hay  may 
be  made  of  considerable  value.  The  manure  which  the  sheep 
make  in  the  winter  is  very  beneficial  to  crops,  and  that  made  in 
the  summer  is  so  much  more  evenly  spread  over  the  ground  as 
to  enrich  the  pastures  to  a  much  greater  degree  than  that  which 
is  dropped  by  cattle.  It  is  owing  to  this  difference  that,  while 
pastures  upon  which  cows  are  kept  gradually  become  impov- 
erished, those  which  are  devoted  exclusively  to  sheep  which  are 


SHEEP.  691 

properly  managed  and  cared  for  constantly  grow  better.  In 
England  this  one  item  of  improvement  of  the  land  is  thought  a 
sufficient  reason  for  keeping  sheep.  Some  of  the  ablest  writers 
in  that  country  have  asserted  that  there  is  no  profit  in  the  pro- 
duction of  either  wool  or  mutton,  but  that,  in  spite  of  this  fact, 
sheep  husbandry  is  an  "  indispensable  necessity  as  the  sole 
means  of  keeping  up  the  land."  There  are  many  farms,  both  at 
the  South  and  the  East,  upon  which  sheep  might  be  made 
profitable  for  this  one  purpose  and  also  yield  a  large  income  as 
producers  of  meat  and  wool. 

Breeds  of  Sheep. — There  are  many  different  breeds  of 
sheep,  and  these  breeds  are  divided  into  classes  which  are 
formed  by  means  of  the  difference  in  the  length  of  the  wool. 
Thus  we  have  a  fine-wooled  class,  the  distinguishing  feature  of 
which  is  very  fine,  short  wool ;  the  British  short-wooled  class, 
comprising  sheep  whose  wool  is  of  only  moderate  length  and 
fineness  ;  and  the  long-wooled  sheep,  whose  fleeces  are  very 
long,  and  the  fibre  rather  coarse.  Then  there  are  all  manner 
of  grades  and  natives.  Among  these  may  be  found  -some 
excellent  and  very  profitable  flocks.  Also  many  which  are  not 
at  all  useful,  and  are  very  far  from  being  ornamental. 

Of  the  fine-wooled  sheep  in  this  country  the  Merino  is  the 
"  standard,"  and  is  altogether  the  best.  It  is  hardy,  prolific,  and 
yields  a  large  quantity  of  wool  in  proportion  to  its  size  and 
weight.  The  quality  of  the  wool  for  many  manufacturing  pur- 
poses has  no  superior.  When  a  Merino  ram  is  used  with  a 
common  ewe,  the  lamb  usually  has  a  fairly  fine  fleece,  which  is 
a  great  improvement  on  that  of  its  dam.  If  with  the  lambs  thus 
obtained  a  pure-bred  Merino  ram  is  used,  the  wool  will  be  still 
better.  In  a  few  generations,  the  wool  will  be  nearly,  if  not 
quite,  as  good  as  that  of  purely  bred  sheep.  The  finer  the  wool 
of  the  sheep  which  are  crossed  in  this  way  the  sooner  the 
desired  result  will  be  accomplished. 

We  do  not  advocate  this  plan,  except  in  those  cases  in  which 
43 


(592  FARAfLVG  FOR  PROFIT. 

pure  blood  cannot  be  obtained.  The  method  indicated  improves 
the  common  sheep,  but  it  docs  not  make  the  lambs  equal  to 
Mkrinos.  Even  though  the  desired  fineness  of  fleece  may  be 
secured,  the  other  useful  qualities  of  the  old-established  breed 
may  be  wanting.  The  man  who  has  purely  bred  Merinos  had 
better  keep  them  so.  All  infusion  of  "  native  "  blood  will  be  a 
deterioration,  and  crossing  with  other  improved  breeds  is  not  to 
be  recommended.  This  principle  also  applies  with  equal  force 
to  the  other  breeds  of  sheep.  In  a  flock  of  thorough-breds  the 
introduction  of  native  blood  will  prove  an  evil.  Natives  are 
only  to  be  used  when  an  existing  flock  is  to  be  improved.  We 
should  not  recommend  them  for  the  formation  of  new  flocks. 
Thorough-bred  sheep  are  now  sold  for  prices  which  place  them 
within  the  reach  of  the  average  farmer,  and  they  multiply  so 
rapidh'  that  a  flock  of  moderate  size  can  soon  be  secured  from  a 
single  pair. 

Of  the  British  short-wooled  sheep  the  Oxford  Down  and 
the  South  Down  are,  for  this  country  at  least,  much  to  be  pre- 
ferred. Though  the  wool  is  not  as  fine  as  the  Merino,  the. 
quality  of  the  mutton  is  very  much  superior.  The  lambs  are 
larger  and  mature  early.  The  sheep  are  fine  in  appearance 
and  are  quite  hardy.  They  fatten  readily,  and  where  both  wool 
and  mutton  are  desired  we  consider  them  the  best  sheep  which 
can  be  obtained.  For  the  farmer  who  keeps  only  a  small  flock, 
they  will  answer  all  requirements.  They  also  do  as  well  as 
others  in  large  flocks.  We  consider  these  breeds  excellent  for 
the  shepherd,  and  as  near  perfection  for  the  farmer  as  anything 
which  can  be  devised. 

Of  the  long-woolcd  breeds  the  Cotswold  and  the  Leicester 
are  the  best.  They  are  large  sheep,  with  very  long  and  rather 
coarse  wool.  These  breeds  are  so  near  alike  in  external  appear- 
ance that  "  their  distinction  is  difficult  to  the  unpracticed  eye." 
The  Cotswold,  however,  usually  has  considerable  wool  upon 
the  forehead,  while  the  Leicester  is  nearly  bare-faced. 


SHEEP.  693 

Each  of  these  breeds  is  claimed  by  its  admirers  to  be  the  best. 
The  CoTSWOLD  has  been  much  more  extensively  introduced  into 
this  country  than  its  competitor,  and  it  has  been  more  widely 
advertised.  It  is  claimed  that  the  Cotswold  is  more  hardy 
than  the  Leicester,  and  the  quality  of  the  mutton  is  said  to  be 
slightly  superior.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Leicester  matures 
early  and  fattens  easily.  There  is  also  a  lustre  to  the  wool 
which  is  wanting  in  other  breeds,  and  which,  for  some  kinds  of 
goods,  makes  it  very  desirable  for  manufactures.  The  Cots 
WOLD  ewes  are  more  prolific  than  the  Leicester,  and  give 
more  milk. 

We  think  that,  of  the  two,  the  Cotswold  is  to  be  preferred 
by  the  farmer  who  makes  the  sheep  interest  only  an  incidental 
and  gives  most  of  his  attention  to  other  departments.  But 
neither  of  these  breeds  can  be  successfully  kept  under  all  the 
conditions  to  which  the  other  classes  can  be  safely  subjected. 
They  are  kept  to  some  extent  in  Canada,  but  it  seems  to  be 
admitted  that  they  are  not  suited  to  the  climate.  They  are 
excellent  sheep  for  mutton  in  that  they  furnish  a  large  quantity 
of  meat  for  the  food  which  they  consume,  and  where  mutton  is 
a  great  object  they  may  be  made  profitable  in  places  where 
their  other  qualities  would  not  justify  their  introduction.  But 
the  conclusion  reached  by  John  L.  Hayes,  Esq.,  Secretary  of 
the  National  Association  of  Wool  Manufactures,  that  the 
climate  at  the  North  "  is  too  severe  for  the  Leicesters,"  is 
probably  correct,  and  it  will  pay  the  farmers  in  that  section  to 
obtain  a  hardier  breed.  The  place  for  these  sheep  seems  to  be 
"where  the  lands  are  rich,  not  subject  to  drought,  fitted  for  root 
culture,  and  where  good  city  markets  are  easily  accessible." 
Nearly  the  same  statement  might  be  made  concerning  the 
CoTSWOLDS.  Where  the  surroundings  are  favorable  these  breeds 
can  be  made  very  profitable.  Where  the  climate  is  too  severe, 
or  the  soil  too  poor,  other  races  should  be  kept. 

Of  the  Native  breeds  of  sheep  but  little  need  be  said.     As  a 


694  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

rule  they  are  far  behind  the  breeds  which  have  been  named,  and 
should  be  crossed  with,  or,  much  better,  superseded  by,  them. 
The  best  natives  may  be  used  as  the  foundation  for  an  improved 
flock,  but  the  poorer  ones  should  be  sold  and  their  places  filled 
with  a  better  and  more  profitable  class  of  animals. 

Breeding. — In  all  efforts  for  improvement  a  thorough-bred 
ram  should  be  used.  We  have  indicated  the  superiority  of 
thorough-bred  cattle  to  grades  for  breeding  purposes.  The 
same  principle  holds,  to  the  same  extent,  in  breeding  sheep. 
The  use  of  a  grade  male  will  give  uncertain  results,  but  they 
will  generally  be  unprofitable.  The  thorough-bred  male  will  be 
very  sure  to  impress  his  own  good  qualities  upon  his  offspring. 
The  cost  of  a  blooded  ram  is  so  low  that  the  farmer  has  no 
excuse  on  the  ground  of  expense  for  using  a  grade.  He  can 
buy  a  lamb,  keep  him  a  year  or  two,  and  then  sell  him  for  as 
much,  if  not  more,  than  he  paid.  But  if  he  keeps  only  a  small 
flock  and  counts  the  cost  carefully,  he  can  unite  with  two  or 
three  neighbors  in  purchasing,  or  hiring,  a  thorough-bred.  One 
ram  can  serve  several  flocks  of  a  dozen  sheep  each  without 
injury.  Even  a  good  strong  yearling  can  serve  half  a  dozen 
ewes.     It  is  better  to  use  older  ones,  however,  when  practicable. 

During  the  breeding  season  the  ram  should  be  kept  in  a 
pasture,  or  a  pen  and  yard,  with  some  wethers  if  there  are  any 
in  the  flock,  and  should  have  some  oats  or  oil  meal  each  day. 
The  ewes  should  be  served  only  once  each,  and  when  served 
should  be  marked  with  paint.  Two  rams  should  never  be  put 
in  a  pasture  together,  as  they  are  almost  sure  to  prove  quarrel- 
some. It  is  well  to  handle  them  when  young  and  teach  them 
to  be  led  by  a  halter  and  to  be  tied  in  a  stable.  But  all 
"fooling"  with  them,  either  by  boys  or  men,  should  be  carefully 
avoided.  It  is  a  very  easy  matter  to  get  a  pleasant  ram  so  that 
he  will  attack  any  one  who  comes  into  the  enclosure  in  which 
he. is  k<^pt.  When  a  ram  once  gets  this  habit,  he  is  very  danger- 
ous and  ought  to  be  blindfolded  to  such  an  extent  that  he  cannot 


SHEEP.  G95 

see  in  front  of  him  without  holding  his  head  high  in  the  aii:. 
VVe  have  been  knocked  around  a  good  deal  by  this  class  of 
animals,  and  feel  justified  in  cautioning  our  readers  to  be  careful 
to  avoid  either  a  pitched  battle  or  an  unsuspected  attack. 

When  in  a  field  or  yard  with  one  of  these  animals,  always 
keep  watch  of  him.  If  he  attempts  to  strike,  either  spring  sud- 
denly to  one  side,  or,  if  he  is  seen  soon  enough,  swing  your  hat 
and  "alrate  him  with  a  terrible  voyce ;  and  beat  him  }-ourscll 
with  a  good  sticke  upon  the  head  between  the  ears,"  in  the 
manner  directed  by  the  old  tamer  in  Queen  Elizabeth's  time 
for  subduing  a  vicious  horse.  The  motion  of  the  hat  and  sound 
of  the  voice  will  sometimes  confuse  a  ram  so  that  he  will  give 
up  an  intended  assault.  If  a  battle  is  once  begun,  it  should  not 
be  ended  until  the  ram  is  thoroughly  defeated.  If  he  once 
obtains  a  victory,  he  will  never  forget  it,  but  will  become  very 
cross  and  dangerous.  No  fear  should  be  shown  at  any  time,  as- 
this  would  induce  an  attack  which  might  not  be  made  if  the 
man  were  self-possessed.  At  the  same  time  it  is  necessary  to 
keep  a  close  and  constant  watch.  A  ram  may  be  kept  until  he 
is  seven  or  eight  years  old,  provided  that  he  is  a  good  stock- 
getter  and  is  not  vicious.  If  his  lambs  are  not  well  formed,  if 
he  is  not  sure,  or  if  he  becomes  cross,  he  had  better  be  made 
into  mutton  as  soon  as  possible. 

Although  it  is  not  so  essential  that  the  ewes  should  be 
thorough-bred  as  it  is  that  the  rams  should  be  of  pure  blood,  it 
is  better  that  they  should  belong  to  an  improved  breed.  In  any 
case,  whether  natives  or  blooded  ewes  are  kept,  only  the  very 
best  ones  should  be  used  for  breeding.  The  first  lamb  should 
not  be  brought  until  the  ewe  is  two  years  of  age.  If  the  ram  is 
allowed  to  run  with  the  flock  during  the  year,  the  ewes  will 
bring  forth  their  young  at  an  earlier  age,  but  the  lamb  is  not 
likely  to  be  first-rate  and  the  dam  is  seriously  injured,  both  in 
development  and  in  constitutional  vigor,  by  this  early  use  of  the 
reproductive  powers.     Very  old  ewes  are  also  to  be  avoided  for 


696  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

breeding  purposes.  After  eight  years  of  age  nearly  every  ewe 
is  unfit  for  further  service  in  this  direction.  She  may  look  as 
bright  and  seem  as  strong  as  ever,  but  the  vigor  and  elasticity 
of  youth  are  gone  and  cannot  be  restored.  With  generous 
keeping  and  kind  treatment  many,  in  all,  will  breed  until  ten 
years  of  age.  But  there  is  a  greatly  increased  risk  both  to  the 
ewe  and  the  lamb,  and  both  are  often  lost.  The  man  who 
breeds  sheep  to  the  best  advantage  \Cill  keep  no  ewes  after  they 
are  eight  years  old  and  will  obtain  the  great  majority  of  his 
lambs  from  those  which  are  considerably  younger. 

As  far  as  this  point  is  concerned,  the  method  which  has  been 
pursued  by  the  Carletons,  of  West  Newfield,  Me.,  is  one 
of  the  best  which  can  be  named.  From  a  letter  received  from 
Mr.  J.  L.  Carleton,  we  will  give  a  few  facts  concerning  a  small, 
but,  in  some  respects,  a  very  remarkable,  flock  of  sheep.  In 
1804  a  Mr.  Carleton  purchased  the  farm  which  has  since  been 
owned  by  his  descendants.  Of  the  man  who  had  owned  the 
farm  he  also  bought  six  sheep.  From  these  six  animals  those 
of  the  present  flock  are  descended.  The  sheep  now  on  hand 
are  large  frame,  hardy,  have  nice  wool,  and  weigh  from  one 
hundred  and  twenty-five  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  each. 
The  original  sheep  were  supposed  to  belong  to  an  "old  English" 
breed.  For  seventy-three  years  no  ram  has  been  kept  with  this 
flock,  but  each  year  one  has  been  secured  for  a  few  weeks.  In 
this  way  many  different  breeds  have  been  represented,  and 
many  kinds  of  "  blood  "  have  found  their  way  into  the  present 
flock.  For  a  long  term  of  years  fourteen  sheep  were  kept. 
Every  year  the  two  oldest  sheep  were  sold  and  two  lambs  were 
raised  to  take  their  places.  Of  late  only  eight  sheep  have  been 
kept,  but  fourteen  lambs  have  been  obtained  in  a  single  year. 

While  we  do  not  approve  of  so  much  mi.xing  of  different 
breeds  we  do  most  heartily  commend  the  practice  of  sell.ng  a 
ceftain  number  of  the  old  sheep,  and  raising  an  equal  number  of 
lambs  each  year.     This  is  the  very  best  way  for  keeping  a  flock 


SHEEP.  697 

always  thrifty  and  vigorous.  The  man  who  sells  all  his  lambs 
each  year  because  they  will  bring  more  money  than  the  sheep 
will  soon  have  a  worthless  flock. 

Every  ewe  should  be  marked,  and  in  a  pass-book,  kept  foi 
a  sheep  register,  its  age,  weight  of  its  fleeces,  and  number  and 
weight  of  its  lambs,  should  be  recorded.  Every  year  the  oldest 
ones  should  be  kept  from  the  ram,  fed  with  corn  and  roots 
during  the  fdl,  and  sold  for  mutton  early  in  the  winter.  The 
lambs  which  are  kept  should  be  the  finest  ones  in  the  flock. 
The  butcher  will  give  more  for  these  than  he  will  for  the  poorer 
ones,  but  the  use  of  inferior  breeding  stock  is  the  direct  road  to 
ruin  in  the  sheep  business.  Besides,  the  extra  price  which  the 
finest  lamb  will  command  is  soon  made  up  to  the  farmer  who 
keeps  her.  Each  and  every  lamb  which  she  has  will  sell  for 
from  one  to  three  dollars  more  than  could  have  been  obtained 
for  the  lambs  brought  by  the  inferior  ewes.  As  the  sheep 
should  have  five  or  six  lambs  in  the  course  of  her  life,  the 
aggregate  difference  will  be  greatly  in  favor  of  the  farmer  if  he 
keeps  the  best.  Not  only  this,  but  if  inferior  ewe  lambs  are 
kept,  their  lambs  will  be  still  smaller  and  poorer,  theirs,  in  turn, 
will  degenerate,  and  soon  the  flock  will  "run  out." 

The  lambs  which  are  to  be  kept  should  be  petted,  and  all  the 
sheep  should  be  kept  quite  tame.  This  is  easily  done  if  they 
are  always  treated  kindly.  A  wild  flock  of  sheep  cannot  be  as 
profitable  as  one,  otherwise  in  the  same  condition,  which  is 
tame,  and  the  labor  of  caring  for  the  wild  flock  will  be  much 
greater  and  more  troublesome  than  that  of  looking  after  the 
other.  Begin  with  the  lambs  when  they  are  quite  small,  handle 
them  often,  and  never  scare  them.  Feed  them  well,  and  take 
good  care  of  them.  If  these  things  are  done,  the  Iambs  and 
sheep  will  be  tame  and  quiet. 

As  the  tirrie  for  lambing  approaches,  the  ewes  which  are  the 
most  forward  should  be  separated  from  the  flock,  and  put  into  a 
comfortable  stable.     From  three  to  six  may  be  put   together. 


C98  FARMIXG   J- OK   PRO  J- IT. 

If  they  have  been  well  kept  and  properly  mated,  there  will  be 
but  little  liability  of  trouble  at  this  time.  Still  careful  attention 
should  always  be  given,  and  help  rendered  if  necessary.  The 
long-wooled  sheep  are  said  to  have  much  more  difficulty  at  this 
time  than  the  Merinos.  Mechanical  assistance  should  not 
be  rendered  until  it  becomes  evident  that  the  labor  of  the  ewe 
will  be  in  vain.  In  many  instances  in  which  nature  is  fully 
successful  several  hours  are  required.  The  labor  pains  in  these 
cases  come  at  inter\als,  and  between  them  the  ewe  is  up,  and 
seems  to  suffer  no  great  amount  of  inconvenience.  But  if  her 
strength  fails  and  her  efforts  diminish,  help  should  be  given  at 
once. 

The  natural  presentation  of  the  lamb  is  with  the  nose  between 
the  fore  feet.  If  the  feet  protrude,  the  assistant  should  pull 
gently  when  the  ewe  makes  an  effort  to  expel  the  lamb.  If  the 
hind  feet  come  first,  there  will  usually  be  but  little  difficulty. 
When  the  head  is  turned  back,  or  there  is  some  other  unnatural 
presentation,  the  lamb  must  be  pushed  back,  and  turned  so  that 
a  better  position  can  be  secured.  Only  in  a  case  of  great  emer- 
gency should  an  effort  be  made  to  obtain  the  lamb  when  the 
ewe  is  quiet.  Aid  must  be  given  gently,  but  firmly,  if  required, 
Avhen  the  ewe  has  her  labor  pains.  If  she  is  far  gone  when 
her  case  is  discovered,  and  her  pains  have  ceased,  it  may  be 
best  to  attempt  to  secure  the  lamb  without  them.  Such  an 
effort  may  prove  successful,  and  the  ewe  recover  her  strength, 
but  it  is  not  at  all  certain  that  this  will  be  the  case.  In  all 
cases  when  aid  is  to  be  given,  the  operator  should  oil  his  hand, 
and  work  quietly  and  gently.  Old  ewes  are  more  likely  to  have 
trouble  at  this  time  than  those  which  are  younger,  and  the 
weakly  ones  than  those  which  are  strong  and  well.  Conse- 
quently if  there  are  any  old  or  weakly  ewes  in  the  flock,  they 
should  receive  extra  food  and  care  for  a  few -weeks  before  the 
time  for  dropping  their  lambs. 

Care  of  the  Lambs. — If  he    eets    into   the   world   without 


SHEEP.  701 

accident,  or  an  unusual  degree  of  hardship,  and  the  ewe  owns 
him,  as  she  generally  will,  the  lamb  will  pretty  much  take  care 
of  himself.  The  ewe  will  lap  him  dry,  and  he  will  very  soon 
attempt  to  suck.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  start  the  milk  for  him,  and 
put  him  up  to  the  teat.  If  he  is  weakly,  this  ought  never  to  be 
neglected.  If  he  does  not  incline  to  suck,  rubbing  with  the 
fingers  upon  his  back,  and  around  the  roots  of  the  tail,  will 
generally  induce  him  to  begin.  A  lamb  is  ore  of  the  most 
obstinate  animals  which  man  ever  attempted  to  help.  But  quiet, 
persevering  effort  will  in  time  succeed,  and  the  worst  lamb  can 
be  got  sucking  if  he  is  rightly  managed.  In  cold  weather  the 
lambs  should  be  attended  to  as  soon  as  they  are  able  to  be  up. 
If  they  do  not  get  some  milk  very  soon  they  will  become  chilled 
and  go  beyond  the  reach  of  help. 

If  the  ewe  does  not  own  the  lamb  he  must  be  wiped  dry,  and 
the  dam  must  be  held  while  he  obtains  his  food.  They  should 
then  be  placed  together  in  a  pen  by  themselves.  If  the  pen  is 
dark,  it  will  be  better  than  a  light  one.  The  ewe  must  be  held, 
and  the  lamb  allowed  to  suck  at  least  six  times  every  twenty- 
four  hours.  In  many  cases  the  ewe  will  in  a  day  or  two  own 
the  lamb.  In  others  a  longer  time  will  be  required.  When  a  ewe 
disowns  her  lamb,  the  fact  should  be  noted  in  the  register,  and 
if  she  does  it  two  years  in  succession  she  should  be  fattened. 
After  a  lamb  has  been  dropped,  it  should  be  car  d  for  and  made 
comfortable,  but  it  does  not  pay  to  keep  a  ewe  year  after  year 
which  puts  the  owner  to  so  much  trouble. 

If  the  lamb  is  chilled  when  found,  he  should  be  taken  to  the 
house,  wiped  dry,  and  put  into  a  pretty  warm  oven  or  in  water 
as  hot  as  can  be  comfortably  borne  by  the  hand.  If  water  is 
used,  the  lamb  should  remain  in  it  only  a  few  minutes,  and  when 
removed  be  rubbed  quite  dry  with  a  woollen  cloth.  If  he  seems 
bright  he  may  be  taken  to  his  dam  and  allowed  to  suck,  but  if 
he  does  not  fully  revive  he  should  have  a  small  quantity  of  milk 
from  a  cow  which  has  recently  calved,  and  in  the  milk  from 


702  FARMIXG    I  OR   PROFIT. 

cne-half  tcaspoonful  to  a  teaspoonful  of  whiskey,  brandy,  or 
gin.  When  fully  restored  he  should  be  placed  with  his  dam. 
If  a  lamb  of  a  few  days,  or  weeks,  age  is  found  chilly  and 
drooping,  a  dose  similar  to  that  recommended  above  may  save 
him  without  the  trouble  of  removing  him  from  the  pen.  One 
of  the  finest  sheep  we  ever  saw  was  so  chilled  when  found  in 
the  morning  after  his  birth  that  he  could  not  stand.  The  treat- 
ment advised  may  not  always  be  successful,  but  it  is  well  worth 
trying,  and  will  be  sure  to  save  many  lambs. 

Raising  by  hand  lambs  which  are  disowned,  or  which  have 
lost  their  darns,  involves  a  great  deal  more  of  work  and  trouble 
than  the  inexperienced  reader  would  imagine.  It  can  be  done, 
and  splendid  sheep  can  be  secured  by  the  means,  but  it  is  very 
desirable  that  the  ewes  should  'look  after  their  own  lambs  when 
possible.  Some  men  put  a  disowned  lamb  with  a  ewe  which  has 
lost  her  own,  or  which  has  only  one,  and  require  her  to  look 
after  it.  When  a  sheep  has  just  lost  her  lamb  this  does  very  well. 
The  plan  recommended  when  sheep  disown  their  lambs  is  tried 
in  order  to  make  the  ewe  take  to  the  stranger.  Sometimes  the 
skin  of  the  lamb  which  belonged  to  her  is  laid  upon  the  back 
of  the  new  one,  and  the  ewe  is  deceived  into  believing  it  to  be 
her  own.  When  a  ewe  already  has  a  lamb  it  is  not,  as  a  rule,  a 
good  plan  to  make  her  support  another.  If  the  attempt  is  made 
she  should  receive  an  extra  quantity  of  food,  and  this  should  be 
of  the  best  quality. 

If  the  lamb  must  be  reared  by  hand,  it  should  be  either  fed 
with  a  spoon  for  a  while,  or  from  a  bottle  having  an  India-rubber 
nipple,  but  should  be  taught  to  drink  when  only  a  few  weeks 
old.  The  milk  should  be  obtained  from  one  particular  cow,  and 
one  which  has  only  recently  calved.  Farrow  cows'  milk  is  not 
suitable,  and  lambs  are  almost  sure  to  die  when  fed  with  it.  If 
it  must  be  used,  a  little  molasses  and  water  should  be  added. 
Milk  should  be  warm  when  fed,  but  ought  never  to  be  scalded. 
Mr,  Randall  recommends  feedintj  a  new-born  lamb  six  times 


SHEEP.  703 

per  day  "  at  equal  intervals  between  sunrise  and  ten  o'clock  at 
night."  After  a  few  days  five  times  will  be  sufficient.  Some 
farmers  hold  the  lamb  up  by  a  cow  and  milk  into  its  mouth. 
This  is  a  dangerous  practice,  and  often  kills  lambs  of  consid- 
erable size.  In  order  to  be  at  all  successful  in  raising  lambs 
by  hand  the  owner  must  be  very  regular  about  feeding,  and 
extremely  careful  in  adapting  the  food  to  the  wants  and  con- 
dition of  the  particular  individual  w4iich  he  has  in  hand.  A 
comfortable  .pen  should  be  provided  in  some  building  near  the 
house,  and  a  reasonable  amount  of  exercise  should  be  allowed. 
The  whole  process  looks  simple  enough,  but  the  difficulties 
are  much  greater  than  they  appear.  Still,  it  is  not  best  to  allow 
a  good  healthy  lamb  to  die  without  making  an  effort  to  save  it. 
Many  fine  sheep  have  been  raised  in  this  way,  and  have  paid 
well  for  all  the  time  and  trouble  which  were  taken  in  caring  for 
them. 

Docking,  though  often  wholly  neglected,  ought  to  be 
performed  when  the  lamb  is  only  a  few  weeks  old.  When 
lambs  are  designed  for  the  butcher  there  is  not  the  necessity  for 
this"  course  that  there  is  when  they  are  to  be  kept  upon  the  farm. 
But  even  then  the  long  tails  often  prove  troublesome.  As  it 
often  happens  that  a  lamb  is  kept  which  the  owner  designed  to 
sell,  it  is  best  to  perform  the  operation.  A  sheep  with  a  long 
tail  becomes  a  filthy  animal,  and  its  life  may  be  lost  solely  on 
account  of  the  neglect  of  its  owner  to  remove  it. 

Docking  should  be  performed  in  cool,  dry  weather,  and  in  the 
morning,  before  the  lambs  have  had  a  chance  to  get  their  blood 
warm  by  running.  A  sharp  knife  is  the  usual  instrument,  but  a 
broad,  thin  chisel  is  much  better.  If  a  knife  is  used,  the  edge 
should  be  placed  the  under  side  of  the  tail,  and  the  cutting  be 
upward  instead  of  the  very  common  method  of  cutting  from 
the  top  downward.  The  tails  should  be  left  only  two  or  three 
inches  in  length.  It  is  much  the  best  way  to  have  one  person 
hold  the  lamb,  and  another  do  the  cutting.     When  a  chisel  is 


704  FARMIXG   FOR    J'ROFIT 

used  the  tail  should  be  laid  upon  a  smooth  block,  the  skin 
crowded  toward  the  body,  and  the  cuttin|j  be  done  by  a  single 
blow.  When  this  plan  is  followed  the  skin  slips  back  and 
partially  covers  and  protects  the  cut  surface.  If  the  opera- 
tion is  performed  in  hot  weather  an  ointment  made  of  tar, 
butter,  and  turpentine  should  be  applied  in  order  to  keep  away 
the  fly. 

Castration. — This  operation  shoifld  be  performed  in  the 
morning,  and  in  cool,  fair  weather,  if  possible.  Jt  should  be 
done  when  the  lambs  are  only  a  few  weeks  old,  as  it  causes 
much  less  pain,  and  less  trouble  afterwards,  than  it  does  when 
they  are  older.  Mr.  Randall  describes  the  method  to  be  pur- 
sued as  follows :  "An  attendant  holds  the  lamb  (with  a  fore  and 
hind  leg  grasped  in  each  hand)  in  an  upright  position,  with  its 
back  placed  against  his  own  body.  He  draws  the  hind  logs  up 
and  apart,  and  presses  against  the  lamb's  body  with  sufficient 
force  to  cause  the  lower  part  of  the  belly  to  protrude  between 
the  thighs  and  the  scrotum  to  be  well  exposed.  The  operator 
then  cuts  off  about  one-third  of  the  scrotum ;  takes  each  testicle 
in  turn  between  the  thumb  and  forefinger,  and,  after  sliding 
down  the  loose  enveloping  membrane  to  the  spermatic  cord, 
pulls  out  the  testicle  with  a  moderately  quick,  but  not  violently, 
jerking  motion."  We  think  it  much  better  to  cut  the  cord  with 
a  sharp  knife.  The  cord  should  not  be  left  long  enough  to  pro-' 
trude  from  the  scrotum,  nor  cut  so  short  as  to  be  drawn  within 
the  abdomen.  We  believe,  with  Mr.  Allen,  that  the  jerking 
process  "  is  a  severe  and  cruel  way,  and  not  so  safe  as  the  other." 
We  have  sometimes  followed  one  plan  and  sometimes  the  other, 
and  have  never  lost  a  lamb  by  either  method,  but  the  pulling 
out  of  the  cord  seems  both  unscientific  and  barbarous.  It  is 
very  true  that  the  breaking  of  the  cord  prevents  bleeding,  and 
that  clamps  and  the  hot  iron  are  inconvenient,  but,  when  properly 
performed,  cutting  does  not  cause  severe  bleeding,  and  we  have 
never  found   use  for  either  clamps  or  irons.     If  the  weather  is 


warm,  the  mixture  of  tar,  butter,  and  turpentine,  recommended 
for  use  when  docking  is  performed,  should  be  applied. 

Feeding  lambs  must  be,  to  some  extent,  dependent  upon  the 
purpose  for  which  they  are  designed.  Those  which  are  to  be 
kept  upon  the  farm,  to  take  the  places  of  the  older  members  of 
the  flock,  should  run  with  their  dams,  have  plenty  of  rowen  hay, 
and  fresh  water.  Those  which  are  to  be  fattened  for  the  butchef 
should,  in  addition  to  the  above,  be  fed  with  meal.  Indian  meal 
answers  very  well,  but  oil  meal  is  a  great  deal  better.  Not  only 
is  the  latter  a  more  efficient  agent  for  accomplishing  the  purpose 
desired,  but  the  lambs  'learn  to  eat  it  more  readily  than  they  do 
the  Indian  meal.  If  neither  of  these  can  be  conveniently  fur- 
nished, oats  will  be  found  quite  useful.  A  small  pen  should  be 
made  in  one  corner  of' the  sheep-yard,  and  so  arranged  that, 
while  the  lambs  can  enter  freely,  the  sheep  cannot  get  in.  A 
trough  should  be  placed  in  this  pen  and  the  lambs  taught  to  go 
in.  At  first  only  a  little  meal  should  be  .sprinkled  in  the  trouo-h 
but  as  the  lambs  learn  to  eat  it,  and  also  increase  in  size,  the 
quantity  may  be.  gradually  increased  until,  when  they  are  three 
months  old,  they  receive  nearly  a  quart  of  meal  each  per  day. 
Feeding  with  meal  should  be  commenced  when  the  lambs  are 
three  weeks  old  and  continued  until  they  are  sold  to  the 
butcher. 

When  the  lambs  which  are  to  be  kept  are  about  four  months 
old  they  should  be  weaned.  This  is  wholly  neglected  by  many 
owners,  but  this  neglect  invariably  causes  bad  results.  The 
ewes  are  injured  by  being  obliged  to  furnish  milk  for  the  large 
lambs,  and  the  lambs  are  injured  by  depending  upon  the  milk 
for  food  to  the  neglect  of  the  grass  which  they  ought  to  eat. 
At  this  time  the  dams  should  be  put  in  their  pen  and  the  lambs 
into  a  stable,  or  other  enclosure,  as  far  as  possible  from  the 
sheep.  The  dams  should  be  fed  with  dry  hay,  in  order  to  check 
the  secretion  of  milk,  and  the  Iambs  should  have  rowen  and 
a  small  allowance  of  oats.     Both  sheep  and  lambs  should  be 


706  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

watered  twice  a  day.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  keep  one  or  two  old 
and  tame  sheep  with  the  lambs. 

After  two  or  three  days  the  sheep  may  be  turned  into  a  short 
pasture,  but  they  should  be  brought  to  the  barn  ever\'  night  for 
a  week  and  milked.  After  this  they  should  be  driven  up  once 
in  two  or  three  days  for  the  same  purpose.  This  should  be 
done  until  the  secretion  of  milk  has  ceased.  Many  farmers 
utterly  neglect  this  precaution.  They  get  up  their  sheep  when 
they  sell,  or  wean,  the  lambs,  separate  them,  and  then  turn  the 
sheep  into  the  pasture  without  milking  them  at  all.  To  this 
neglect  a  large  part  of  the  difficulty  with  sheep  which  do  not 
have  milk  enough  for  their  lambs,  or  which  have  inflamed 
udders,  may  be  directly  traced.  As  soon  as  they  are  dried  off 
they  should  be  put  into  a  better  pasture  and  well  kept  until  they 
are  brought  into  winter  quarters. 

When  the  lambs  have  been  kept  up  two  or  three  days  they 
may,  with  the  old  sheep  which  are  to  be  their  companions,  be 
turned  into  a  nice  pasture  in  which  the  feed  is  very  fine  and 
short.  If  no  such  pasture  can  be  providecj,  as  good  one  as  pos- 
sible should  be  secured,  and  from  one-half  gill  to  one  gill  of  oats 
per  day  should  be  given  to  each  lamb.  Early  in  the  autumn, 
when  the  pastures  begin  to  fail,  oats  should  be  given  each  day 
until  the  lambs  are  put  into  winter  quarters.  It  is  very  im- 
portant that  the  lambs  should  not  be  allowed  to  grow  poor  from 
the  time  when  they  are  weaned  until  the  last  day  of  their  lives. 
The  way  to  make  money  with  sheep  and  lambs  is  to  always 
keep  them  well,  a'nd  never  allow  them  to  lose  flesh.  If  they  are 
thin  in  flesh  when  winter  sets  in  they  will  be  very  liable  to  die 
either  from  disease  or  weakness  before  warm  weather  comes 
again. 

The  Summer  Management  of  sheep  is  ver}'  simple,  and  in 
addition  to  what  has  already  been  suggested  there  is  but  little 
to  say  upon  the  subject.  A  good  pasture,  in  which  there  is  an 
abundance  of  good  food  and  plenty  of  pure  water,  should  be 


SHEEP.  .^^ 

furnished.  A  shed,  open  at  one  side,  should  be  provided  for 
shelter  from  the  noonday  sun  and  from  storms.  In  this  shed  a 
trough  should  be  placed  in  which  a  supply  of  salt  should  be 
constantly  kept.  We  have  long  practiced  keeping  sheep  in  the 
same  pasture  with  cows,  but  the  plan  is  not  to  be  commended. 
If  the  cows  are  gentle,  they  will  not  often  hurt  the  sheep;  but 
the  best  of  cows  seem  to  hook  sometimes,  and  there  is  constant 
danger  that  the  sheep  will  be  injured. 

A  ram  should  not  be  allowed  to  run  with  the  ewes,  but  should 
be  kept  in  a  separate  pasture,  or,  if  unruly,  at  the  barn.  If  al- 
lowed to  go  with  the  ewes,  the  owner  will  never  know  when  to 
expect  the  lambs,  and  they  will  come  stringing  along  from  late 
in  the  winter,  or  early  in  the  spring,  until  the  sheep  are  turned 
out  to  grass.  This  makes  bad  work  in  many  respects. 
The  lambs  are  not  ready  to  be  sold  together,  but  must  go 
in  many  small  lots,  the  trouble  of  feeding  is  increased,  as  is 
also  the  difficulty  of  weaning  the  lambs  and  drying  off  the 
ewes. 

Washing. — It  used^to  be  the  almost  universal  custom  to  wash 
sheep  in  a  brook  or  pond,  from  ten  days  to  three  weeks  before 
they  were  to  be  sheared.  Lately  this  practice  has  been  growing 
unpopular,  and  we  hope  it  will  soon  be  entirely  abandoned. 
When  washing  is  practiced  at  the  North,  the  shearing  must  be 
put  off  too  late,  as  the  water  in  the  brooks  is  not  warm  enough 
for  the  purpose  as  soon  as  the  air  is  warm  enough  to  admit  of 
shearing.  To  drive  sheep  a  long  distance  in  hot  weather,  and. 
while  they  are  heated  by  the  exercise,  plunge  them  into  a  cold 
stream,  must  be  a  great  injury  to  the  animals.  A  large  quantity 
of  water  remains  in  the  wool  and  reduces  tlie  temperature  of  the 
body  to  a  very  low  point. 

Not  only  is  washing  an  injury  to  the  health,  but  there  is  great 
danger  that  contagious  diseases  will  be  spread  by  its  means. 
Many  a  sound  flock  of  sheep  has  become  affected  with  the  foot- 
rot,  and   many  more  with   the  scab,  b)-  being  driven   over  the 


703  FAA-.U/.V(J  FOR   PKOFIT. 

same  road  and  sluit  into  the  washing  pen  which  has  been  occu- 
pied by  sheep  which  were  diseased. 

Again,  the  men  who  do  the  washing  often  contract  lung 
diseases  as  the  result  of  their  exposure  while  working  in  the 
water.  Rheumatic  troubles  are  also  either  engendered  or 
aggravated  by  tlie  exposure,  and  various  other  difficulties  have 
been  known  to  spring  therefrom. 

While  it  involves  many  difficulties  and  some  dangers,  washing 
does  not  accomplish  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  designed.  It 
does  not  secure  anything  approaching  uniformity  in  the  con- 
dition of  the  wool  of  various  flocks.  Some  sheep,  when  un- 
washed, have  cleaner  wool  than  some  others  which  have  been 
through  tiie  ceremonial.  Men  are  not  always  honest  in  doing 
this  work,  and  some  have  seemed  to  try  to  get  as  little  dirt  as 
possible  from  the  fleece,  and  yet  sell  washed  wool.  Others  have 
washed  carefully  and  sold,  at  the  same  price  per  pound,  wool 
which  had  been  well  cleaned.  This  is  manifestly  unfair.  Again, 
Merino  sheep  will  have  a  very  large  proportion  of  dirt  and 
grease  in  their  wool,  even  after  being  wasj;ied  in  a  brook,  while 
from  the  South  Down  fleece  nearly  all  of  the  foreign  matter  is 
removed.  And  as  the  manufacturer  is  obliged  to  clean  the  wool 
before  he  can  use  it,  we  see  no  reason  why  he  should  not  be 
willing  to  take  it,  at  a  fair  price,  without  being  washed.  We 
think  such  a  course  would  be  much  the  best  for  all  parties,  and 
are  glad  that  it  seems  to  be  gaining  ground  so  rapidly  and 
meeting  so  much  favor  where  it  has  been  tried. 

In  this  connection  we  should  say  that  it  is  important  to 
keep  the  sheep  as  clean  as  possible.  They  should  not  be  al- 
lowed to  get  burs,  or  twigs,  or  other  foreign  matter,  into  their 
fleeces,  and  if  any  locks  of  wool  become  coated  with  manure, 
they  should  be  clipped  off,  before  the  ewes  have  lambs,  and 

ft 

thrown  away.  The  owner  should  take  an  interest  in  keeping 
his  sheep  clean,  and  have  some  pride  in  their  presenting  a  fine 
appearance. 


SHEF.r. 


709 


Shearing. — When  performed  by  hand,  this  is  hard  work  for 
the  man  and  still  harder  for  the  sheep.  We  know  of  no  way  in 
which  it  can  be  made  very  easy  for  either,  but  care  on  the  part 
of  the  operator  would  greatly  reduce  the  suffering  which  the 
sheep  usually  have  to  endure.  When  a  machine  is  used,  both 
man  and  sheep  are  much  relieved.  Figure  iio  represents  an 
excellent  machine  for  this  purpose.  By  its  use  a  man  can  easily 
shear  ten  sheep  per  hour,  and  as  it  cuts  the  fleece  evenly  and 
closely,  without  clipping  it  a  second  time,  manufacturers  con- 
sider the  wool  worth  a  cent  a  pound  more  when  cut  with  the 
machine  than  it  is  when  common  shears  are  used.  This 
machine  is  manufactured  by  C.  M.  Moseman  &  Bro.,  of  New 
York  city. 


FIG.   IIO. — SHEEP-SHEARING    MACHINE. 


When  performed  by  hand,  the  shearing  should  be  done  with' 
care  and  skill.  The  men  who  are  in  a  constant  hurry,  who  cut 
and  slash  both  wool  and  skin,  ought  never  to  be  employed.  A 
sheep  that  is  badly  cut  when  sheared  will  not  recover  from  the 
effects  of  the  injury  thus  inflicted  during  the  summer,  and  may 
lose  its  life  in  consequence.  It  pays  to  handle  the  sheep  care- 
fully and  to  avoid  cutting  them.  The  work  should  be  done  on 
a  smooth  and  clean  floor,  or  on  a  platform  made  for  the  purpose. 
The  latter  we  have  never  tried.  It  is  highly  recommended  by 
some  shearers.  The  sheep  should  be  kept  in  the  pen  but  a 
short  time,  as  the  shearing  can  be  more  easily  performed,  and 
with  less  trouble  to  the  sheep,  when  they  are  well  filled  with 

grass  than  it  can  when  their  stomachs  are  empty.     Before  they 
44 


710  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

arc  taken  to  the  floor  all  the  dirt  and  straw  should  be  got  off 
from  their  feet,  and  any  locks  of  wool  which  are  covered  with 
manure  should  be  cut  off  The  sheep  should  be  set  on  its 
rump,  and  the  wool  sheared  from  its  neck  and  fore-shoulders, 
then  laid  upon  one  side  and  the  upper  side  sheared,  then  turned 
over  and  the  wool  taken  from  the  other  side.  The  wool  should 
be  cut  reasonably  close,  but  care  must  be  taken  neither  to  cut 
the  skin  nor  the  teats.  The  shearer  should  be  quiet  and  gentle, 
and  keep  the  sheep  in  an  uncomfortable  position  as  short  a  time 
as  possible.  Good  shears  are  necessary  to  the  easy  and  rapid 
performance  of  this  work. 

While  we  do  not  favor  extremely  early  shearing  we  think  it 
very  important  that  this  work  should  not  be  delayed  too  long. 
In  hot  weather  sheep  which  are  covered  with  long  wool  are 
extremely  uncomfortable,  and  the  thick  covering-  is  very 
injurious.  When  the  sheep  are  out  in  heavy  rains  the  wool 
takes  in  a  large  quantity  of  water,  and  the  e\'aporation  of  this 
moisture  removes  a  great  deal  of  heat  from  the  system,  thus 
inviting  a  severe  attack  of  disease.  Besides,  when  sheared  late 
in  the  summer  the  wool  does  not  get  a  good  start  before  the 
next  autumn,  and  the  sheep  is  unduly  exposed  to  the  cold 
weather  when  it  comes. 

For  some  days  after  being  .sheared  the  sheep  should  be 
protected  from  storms.  Many  sheep  have  been  killed  outright, 
and  a  multitude  more. have  incurred  di.sease  which  finally,  after 
much  suffering,  resulted  in  death,  by  exposure  to  a  heavy  rain 
soon  after  being  sheared.  The  skin  of  the  sheep  is  very  loose 
and  open,  and  after  the  wool  is  removed  rain  easily  penetrates 
it.  A  heavy  rain  also  removes  much  of  the  natural  heat  from  the 
system,  and  causes  congestion  of  the  vital  organs.  The  fleece 
is  a  great  protection,  and  after  its  sudden  removal  the  sheep 
should  be  well  cared  for  until  the  system  has  power  to  adapt 
itself  to  the  change.  The  newly  sheared  sheep  should  not  be 
'le't  out  at  night,  during  a  rainy  day,  or  a  thunder-storm,  but 


SHEEP.  711 

should  be  shut  into  their  barns  during  these  times.  This  makes 
some  extra  work,  but  it  pays  well  to  take  care  of  sheep  at  this 
critical  period. 

Ticks. — These  parasites  attack  all  neglected  sheep,  and  many 
which  are  well  cared  for.  We  once  bought  a  lamb,  of  a 
prominent  breeder  of  sheep,  which  was  covered  with  them  and 
which  distributed  them  to  the  whole  flock.  The  ticks  not  only 
cause  a  vast  amount  of  suffering,  but  they  keep  the  sheep  thin 
in  flesh  and  lighten  the  fleece.  After  the  sheep  are  sheared  the 
ticks  leave  them  and  get  upon  the  lambs.  If  let  alone  they 
will  worry  the  lambs  so  much  that  they  will  not  grow  fast, 
and  will  come  into  winter  quarters  in  very  poor  condition.  As 
these  parasites  can  be  easily  destroyed,  there  is  no  excuse  for 
allowing  them  to  remain  upon  the  lambs. 

Various  methods  are  in  use  for  exterminating  the  ticks.  The 
old  standard  remedy  for  lambs  infested  with  ticks  was  a 
decoction  of  tobacco.  This  was  put  into  a  tub,  or  narrow  box, 
and  the  lamb  immersed  in  the  liquid.  For  this  work  two  men 
are  needed.  One  should  hold  the  lamb  by  the  fore  legs  with 
one  hand  while  his  other  hand  covers  the  mouth  and  nose  so  as 
to  prevent  the  fluid  entering  them,  while  the  other  man  holds 
the  lamb  by  the  hind  legs.  The  lamb  should  be  held  in  the 
fluid  only  a  moment.  Then  it  should  be  taken  out,  and  all  the 
liquid  which  it  is  possible  to  remove  squeezed  from  the  wool. 
During  this  process  the  lamb  should  stand  in  an  empty  tub  in 
order  to  save  the  liquid  which  drips  from  the  wool.  If  made 
too  strong,  or  the  lamb  is  kept  in  the  liquid  too  long,  the 
tobacco  will  sicken  the  animal,  and  may  even  cause  its  death. 
The  rule  is  to  chop  into  fine  pieces  from  five  to  seven  pounds 
of  plug  tobacco  for  one  hundred  sheep.  This  should  be  boiled 
in  water  until  its  strength  is  extracted.  The  liquid  can  be  used 
either  warm  or  cold. 

The  smoke  of  tobacco  is  also  an  effectual  agent  for  destroying 
ticks,  and  if  a  fumigator  is  at  hand  may  be  used  in  preference  to 


712  FARMIiVG   FOR  PROFIT. 

the  decoction  described  above.  The  same  precautions  should 
be  observed  in  its  use  as  were  recommended  %vhcn  used  for 
destroying  Hce  upon  cattle. 

Still  better  than  either  of  the  above  is  the  Cresvlic  Sheep 
Dip,  a  kind  of  soap  with  which  both  cresylic  and  carbolic  acids 
are  compounded.  This  is  used  in  much  the  same  manner  as 
the  decoction  of  tobacco,  but  is  not  poisonous,  and  will  not 
injure  the  animals  or  those  who  apply  the  liquid. 

In  two  or  three  weeks  after  the  sheep  have  been  sheared 
nearly  all  of  the  ticks  which  were  upon  them  will  have  gone  to 
the  lambs  to  feed  upon  their  more  tender  flesh,  and  hide  in  their 
longer  wool.  Then  the  lambs  should  be  subjected  to  some 
method  of  treatment  which  will  remove  the  intruders,  and  give 
the  lambs  an  opportunity  to  thrive,  and  a  chance  to  be  com- 
fortable. 

Winter  Max.vgement. — At  the  South  sheep  should  be  pro- 
vided with  comfortable  sheds,  and,  in  those  portions  where 
light  snows  fall,  or  the  freshness  of  the  food  is  destroyed  by 
frost,  hay  and  roots  should  be  furnished  as  required.  At  the 
North  much  more  elaborate  preparation  must  be  made. 
Shelter  and  food  must  be  provided  constantly  for  several 
months,  and  the  flock  must  be  cared  for  not  only  daily  but 
several  times  a  day. 

The  sheep  should  be  brought  to  the  pens  early  in  the  season. 
Nothing  is  gained,  but  much  will  be  lost,  by  keeping  them  out 
too  long.  When  the  grass  has  been  frosted,  the  sheep  should 
be  got  up  to  the  yard,  and  fed  once  or  twice  a  day,  but  should 
be  allowed  to  run  in  an  adjoining  field  most  of  the  time  when 
the  weather  is  good,  until  it  becomes  quite  cold,  or  the  ground 
is  covered  with  snow.  At  the  very  first  of  the  feeding  season 
the  oldest  and  poorest  of  the  flock  should  be  separated  from  the 
others,  and  put  upon  higher  keeping.  They  should  have  grain 
in  abundance,  and  be  made  ready  for  the  butcher  as  soon  as 
possible.     If  any  of  the  sheep  are  too  poor  to  justify  this  course. 


SHEEP.  723 

they  should  be  killed  and  skinned  without  delay.  This  is  much 
better  than  it  is  to  keep  them  till  spring,  and  then  have  them 
die  of  their  own  accord. 

Too  many  sheep  must  not  be  kept  in  a  single  pen.  The 
Merino  bears  herding  much  better  than  the  long-wooled  sheep, 
but  even  this  may  be  kept  in  too  large  flocks.  It  was  formerly 
supposed  that  the  long-wooled  sheep  could  only  be  kept  in 
flocks  of  from  fifty  to  one  hundred,  but  some  Canadian 
breeders  keep  three  hundred  Cotswolds  together  without  bad 
results.  Mr.  Coleman,  of  Kentucky,  a  prominent  sheep- 
breeder,  says :  "  I  have  handled  in  flocks  of  one  hundred  and 
over.  They  will  do  well ;  but,  like  cattle,  will  do  better  in 
smaller  lots.  This  is  also  true  of  other  breeds  of  sheep." 
Probably,  if  they  have  plenty  of  room,  good  care,  and  abundant 
food,  large  flocks  of  sheep  can  be  kept  without  trouble.  But  if 
the  pens  are  small,  or  the  food  is  poor,  large  flocks  will  soon 
become  diseased,  and  the  owner  will  sustain  a  heavy  loss. 

A  good  shed,  which  is  comfortably  warm  and  thoroughly 
ventilated,  should  be  provided.  Sheep  will  endure  cold  much 
better  than  they  can  impure  air.  Still  they  should  not  be 
exposed  to  the  action  of  wind  or  rain,  and  the  temperature  of 
the  pen  should  not  run  extremely  low.  Small  pens,  which  are 
quite  warm,  should  be  provided  for  the  use  of  sheep  at  lambino- 
time,  and  for  sheep  which  do  not  own  their  lambs.  The  feedino- 
should  always  be  under  cover.  A  convenient  rack,  at  which  all 
the  sheep  can  stand  at  once  without  crowding,  should  be  placed 
in  the  middle  of  the  shed.  This  rack  should  be  arranged  not 
only  to  hold  hay  but  so  that  it  can  be  easily  cleaned,  and  so 
that  roots  or  meal  can  be  fed  in  it  without  waste. 

The  bottom  of  the  shed  should  be  kept  constantly  dry. 
Quite  a  quantity  of  straw,  or  swale  hay,  can  be  profitably  used 
for  bedding.  If  nothing  of  this  kind  is  at  hand,  or  can  be 
spared,  the  pen  should  be  cleaned  every  day.  It  is  not  safe  to 
allow  the  ground  upon  which  the  sheep  and  lambs  are  kept  to 


714  FARMING   J-OR   PROFIT. 

become  either  wet  or  filthy.  Better  use  the  finest  hay  for 
bedding  than  to  allow  the  sheep  to  stand  on  moist  ground- 
Either  course  would  be  extravagant,  but  one  would  only  waste 
the  hay  while  the  other  would  spoil  the  sheep.  On  most 
farms  plenty  of  coarse  hay  or  straw  can  be  supplied. 

Feeding  should  be  done  with  great  regularity.  Many  owners 
feed  only  twice  a  day — once  in  the  morning  and  again  towards 
night.  Some  feed  again  at  noon.  Sheep  do  not  eat  well  in  the 
dark.  Consequently  they  should  have  their  afternoon  meal 
soon  enough  to  finish  it  by  daylight.  Water  should  also  be 
regularly  supplied.  Some  writers  assert  that  sheep  do  not  need 
water  in  the  summer,  and  others  say  that  they  do  not  require  it 
in  winter.  We  are  convinced  that  they  need  it  at  all  times  of  the 
year.  There  are  sheep — we  have  seen  a  few — which  eat  snow  in 
preference  to  drinking  water,  but  nearly  all  those  which  we  ever 
took  care  of  drank  water  as  regularly  as  horses  and  cows. 
Sheep  seem  to  prefer  to  drink  "  little  and  often."  Consequently 
they  should  either  have  constant  access  to  a  trough  of  pure 
water,  or  else  should  be  allowed  to  run  for  an  hour  or  two  at 
morning  and  night  in  a  yard  where  plenty  of  water  can  be 
obtained.  Shallow  troughs  are  better  than  tubs.  When  the 
water  is  low  the  sheep  can  get  it  better  from  troughs,  and  there  is 
less  danger  that  lambs  will  fall  in  and  be  drowned  when  they 
are  full. 

The  quantity  of  food  will  depend  upon  its  quality.  Nothing 
can  be  gained  by  short  keeping.  We  always  designed  to  give 
our  sheep  all  the  rowen  hay  they  would  eat,  and  when  the  ewes 
had  lambs  add  some  roots  or  a  little  meal  to  their  rations. 
Some  owners  give  good  hay  and  straw,  and  one  pound  of 
turnips  per  day  for  each  sheep.  Others  give  one  quart  of  oats 
with  hay  and  straw,  or,  in  place  of  the  oats,  a  pound  of  corn  or 
meal.  An  occasional  feed  of  bright  corn-stalks  will  be  relished 
by  sheep  and  do  them  good.  It  is  not  well  to  keep  breeding 
ewes  very  fat,  and  it  is  absolutely  ruinous  to  allow  them  to  get 


SHEEP.  7i^ 

very  thin  in  flesh.  While  a  variety  of  food  will  be  relished,  and 
will  give  better  results  than  any  one  kind  which  is  continuously 
given,  care  must  be  taken  not  to  overfeed  at  one  time  or  under- 
feed at  another.  Such  a  course  would  injure  the  health  and 
would  damage  the  quality  of  the  wool.  Sheep  which  are  uni- 
formly well  fed  produce  wool  of  uniform  strength  and  size  of 
fibre,  but  those  which  ar^  sometimes  starved  and  sometimes 
stuffed  will  have  fleeces  of  very  uneven  fibre,  and  wool-buyers 
will  be  likely  either  to  reject  such  fleeces  altogether  or  else 
make  quite  a  discount  from  the  ordinary  price. 

Sheep  which  are  to  be  fattened  need  more  grain  and  less  hay 
than  those  v/hich  are  kept  for  breeding.  They  should  be  put 
into  the  winter-quarters  e^rly  and  fed  with  rowen,  clover  hay,  or 
bright  straw,  and  some  kind  of  grain.  The  grain  should  be 
given  in  small  quantities  at  first,  and  gradually  increased  to  one 
pound  of  oil  meal,  or  Indian  corn,  per  day  for  each  sheep. 
Buckwheat  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  meal  or  corn.  The 
same  weight  should  be  given.  We  much  prefer  the  oil  meal  to 
any  other  food  for  fattening  sheep,  and  consider  good  rowen 
and  bright  clover  very  much  superior  to  straw  or  to  most  other 
kinds  of  hay. 

Salt  should  be  kept  in  a  box  to  which  sheep  can  have  access 
at  any  time.  It  seems  to  be  necessary  to  their  comfort,  and  we 
believe  that  it  tends  to  keep  them  in  good  health.  The  cost  is 
slight,  and  if  it  could  be  proved  that  no  special  benefit  except 
the  gratification  of  a  natural  appetite  resulted  from  its  use,  it 
would  still  be  best  for  the  owner  of  the  sheep  to  furnish  all  they 
cared  to  eat.  But  we  think  there  is  plenty  of  evidence  that  salt 
is  a  useful  article  of  diet,  and  that  it  should  be  freely  supplied  to 
all  domestic  animals. 

Exercise. — This  is  a  very  important  matter  and  one  which 
has  not  received  the  attention  which  it  deserves.  .During  the 
summer  the  sheep  roam  in  pastures  and  travel  around  each  day 
in  quest  of  tood.     But  in  winter  they  are  too  often  shut   into 


716  FARMIXG  FOR   PROFIT. 

close  pens,  or  stables,  and  for  several  months  have  nothing 
deserving  the  name  of  exercise.  This  period  of  unnatural  con- 
finement comes  at, a  time  when,  of  all  others,  the  breeding  ewes 
most  need  the  benefits  of  regular  exercise.  The  results  of  this 
neglect  must  be  injurious  to  both  the  sheep  and  their  lambs. 
In  order  to  counteract  this  tendency  to  close  confinement,  some 
writers  recommend  placing  the  feedir\g  racks  at  quite  a  distance 
from  the  pens.  This  would  do  well  in  fair  weather  and  good 
travelling,  but  would  be  open  to  serious  objections  in  stormy- 
weather,  when  the  snow  is  deep  and  when  the  ground  is 
covered  with  ice.  We  have  been  in  the  habit  of  allowing  the 
sheep  to  run  in  the  cattle  yards  an  hour  or  two  each  night.. 
A  larger  yard  and  more  time  spent  therein  would  probably  be 
still  better. 

The  Dise.\ses  of  Sheep  which  are  properly  bred  and  cared 
for  are  few  in  number,  but  neglected  or  ill-bred  flocks  are  liable 
to  a  great  number  of  maladies.  Here,  as  has  already  been 
insisted  upon  in  the  case  of  cattle,  prevention  is  worth  infinitely 
more  than  cure.  We  are  fully  satisfied,  not  only  from  observa- 
tion but  from  an  experience  of  many  years,  that  there  need  be 
but  little  sickness  in  well-kept  flocks  of  sheep.  Having  given 
directions  for  taking  care  of  sheep  so  as  to  keep  them  well,  we 
shall  only  consider  a  very  few  of  the  diseases  to  which  neglected 
flocks  are  exposed.  .And  even  these  diseases  are  sometimes 
better  exterminated  by  destroying  the  sheep  infected  by  them. 
Probably  the  majority  of  sheep-owners  would  do  well  to  follow 
the  course  long  since  marked  out  by  Mr.  Peters,  of  Darien, 
N.  Y.  He  says,  in  a  letter  to  Mr.  Randall:  "After  years  of 
experience  I  discarded  all  medicines  except  those  to  cure  hoof- 
rot  and  scab;  and  I  finally  cured  those  diseases  cheapest  by 
selling  the  sheep.  An  ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  a  pound 
of  cure.  If  sheep  are  well  kept  summer  and  winter,  not  over- 
crowded in  pastures,  and  kept  under  dry  and  well-ventilated 
covers  in  winter,  and  housed  wh'^n  the  cold  fall   rains  come  on, 


SHEEP.  717 

there  will  be  no  necessity  for  remedies  of  any  kind.  If  not  so 
handled,  all  the  remedies  in  the  world  won't  help  them,  and  the 
sooner  a  careless,  shiftless  man  loses  his  sheep  the  better. 
They  are  out  of  their  misery  and  are  not  spreading  contagious 
diseases  among  the  neighboring  flocks."  Unless  the  animals 
are  particularly  valuable,  it  will  pay  better  to  check  the  progress 
of  disease  which  assumes  an  aggravated  form  by  killing  the 
sheep  than  it  will  to  attempt  a  cure. 

Catarrh. — This  disease  is  more  likely  to  affect  the  long- 
wooled  breeds  of  sheep  than  it  is  any  others.  It  is  usually 
caused  by  some  undue  exposure  to  storms — by  getting  chilled 
after  running,  or  by  lying  on  wet  ground.  It  is  not  often  im- 
mediately fatal,  but  sometimes  weakens  the  vital  forces  so  that 
the  sheep  cannot  go  through  the  winter.  Prevention  is  easy. 
Cure,  except  by  good  nursing,  constant  care,  and  extra  food,  is 
very  difficult,  and  even  these  means  are  not  always  successful. 

Colic  is  a  very  painful  and  violent  disease.  It  is" brought  on 
by  improper  feeding,  drinking  cold  water  when  heated,  and 
similar  causes.  Confinement  to  dry  food  for  a  long  time  causes 
constipation  which  frequently  results  in  an  attack  of  colic.  Un- 
less relief  is  soon  obtained  this  disease  is  likely  to  prove  fatal. 

When  a  sheep  is  attacked  with  this  disease  it  has,  at  intervals, 
paroxysms  of  severe  pain,  stretches  itself,  twists  its  head  around, 
and  gets  up  and  lies  down  quite  often.  Give,  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible, one  ounce  epsom  salts  dissolved  in  warm  water,  with  a 
drachm  of  ginger  and  a  teaspoonful  of  the  essence  of  pepper- 
mint. Half  of  this  quantity  is  sufficient  for  a  lamb.  In  mild 
cases,  warm  thoroughwort  tea,  made  very  strong,  may  prov^c 
effectual. 

DiARRHCEA. — This  disease  is  frequently  caused  by  a  sudden 
change  of  food  from  dry  hay  to  grass.  Sometimes  it  is  brought 
on  by  a  general  disarrangement  of  the  digestive  functions.  With 
sheep,  the  best  remedy  is  a  change  of  food.  Lambs  need  more 
thorough  treatment,  and  the  disease  often  proves  fatal  even  when 


718  FARMING   FOR   FROF/T. 

remedial  measures  are  taken.  It  is  usually  caused,  in  lambs,  by 
taking  cold  or  by  acidity  of  the  stomach  which  leads  to  indiges- 
tion. Mr.  Randall  recommends  giving  one-fourth  of  an  ounce 
of  prepared  chalk  in  half  a  pint  of  tepid  milk,  once  a  day  for  two 
or  three  days,  or  until  the  disease  has  abated.  In  very  sdvere 
cases,  when  mucus  is  voided  with  the  dung,  the  first  treatment 
should  be  the  administration  of  a  half-drachm  of  rhubarb,  or  a 
half-ounce  of  epsom  salts.  This  should  be  followed  by  the 
chalk  as  directed  above. 

Garget. — This  disease  is  not  as  common  among  sheep  as  it 
is  with  cows,  but  sometimes  proves  very  injurious.  As  soon  as 
the  udder  presents  an  inOamed  and  swollen  appearance,  or  seems 
to  be  sore,  hot  water  in  which  a  little  opium,  or  laudanum,  has 
been  steeped  should  be  applied.  This  wash  should  be  repeated 
many  times  a  day  until  a  cure  is  effected.  Treatment  of  this 
disease  should  be  prompt,  not  only  in  order  to  cure  the  sheep, 
but  also  to  save  the  lamb,  which,  unless  fed  by  hand  or  put  upon 
another  ewe,  may  not  be  able  to  obtain  milk  enough  to  keep  it 
alive.  If  this  treatment,  closely  followed  for  two  or  three  days, 
gives  no  relief,  a  liniment  of  iodine  and  ammonia  in  equal  parts 
should  be  tried.  But,  if  taken  in  season,  the  hot  water  and 
opium  will  almost  always  effect  a  cure. 

Grub  in  the  Head. — This  name  is  made  to  do  duty  for 
various  diseases  the  causes  and  action  of  which  are  unknown. 
Still  there  are  some  genuine  cases,  and  they  sometimes  prove 
fatal.  A  fly  lays  its  eggs  in  the  nostrils  of  the  sheep,  and  the 
eggs  hatch  into  grubs  which  take  up  their  abode  in  the  head. 
In  order  to  prevent  their  attacks  it  is  well  to  plow  a  few  furrows, 
in  several  different  places,  in  the  pasture  about  the  first  of  July. 
The  sheep  will  put  their  noses  into  the  fresh  earth  and  thu#  keep 
the  fly  away.  Some  owners  cover  the  noses  of  the  sheep  with 
tar.  Others  put  tar  in  the  salt  box,  sprinkle  on  a  little  salt,  and 
let  the  sheep  make  their  own  application. 

It  is  said  that  the  grubs  can  be  destroyed  by  blowing  tobacco 


SHEEP.  719 

smoke  up  the  nostrils  of  the  affected  sheep.  The  bowl  of  the 
pipe  is  covered  with  a  cloth  and  the  smoke  forced  throu<jh  the 
stem 

Hoof-Rot. — This  is  the  worst  of  all  the  diseases  with  which 
sheep  are  affected.  It  is  very  contagious,  and  a  single  sheep 
suffering  from  this  disease  is  capable  of  ruining  the  whole  flock 
to  which  it  belongs.  The  disease  is  not  incurable,  but  prompt 
and  stringent  measures  alone  will  suffice  for  its  extermination. 
If  a  cure  is  attempted  all  the  sheep  which  show  any  signs  of  the 
disease  should  be  wholly  separated  from  the  others  and  medical 
treatment  commenced  at  once.  But,  if  the  sheep  are  not  spe- 
cially valuable,  we  should  prefer  to  sell  the  whole  flock  to  the 
butcher  for  what  they  would  bring,  the  sick  ones  being  of  no 
value  except  for.  their  pelts,  thoroughly  disinfect  the  pens  and 
yards,  and,  after  the  lapse  of  six  months  or  a  year,  obtain  a  new 
stock. 

If  a  cure  is  attempted,  the  sheep  should  be  driven  to  the  pens 
immediately  after  a  rain,  if  possible,  as  the  hoofs  will  then  be 
softer  than  they  will  in  dry  weather.  The  feet  must  be  cleaned 
and  the  operator,  with  sharp  knives,  must  cut  away  the  horn 
which  covers  the  diseased  portions  of  the  foot.  No  more  cutting 
than  is  necessary  should  be  done,  but  what  is  needed  must  be 
thoroughly  performed,  as  the  success  of  the  effort  to  cure  depends 
entirely  upon  the  exposure  o{  all  of  the  affected  parts.  For  this 
work  a  careful,  skilful,  and  if  possible  an  experienced,  operator 
should  be  secured.  The  best  remedies  will  be  useless  if  the  foot 
is  not  properly  prepared.  When  this  has  been  effected  the 
application  of  suitable  caustics  will  effect  a  cure.  Mr.  Randall 
cured  many  cases  by  paring  the  feet  and  applying  a  solution  of 
blue  vitriol.  He  obtained  about  twelve  pounds  of  the  vitriol  for 
one  hundred  sheep.  This  was  dissolved  in  a  quantity  of  hot 
water  and  placed  in  a  washing  tub  large  enough  to  hold  two 
sheep.  The  liquid  was  as  hot  as  could  be  endured  for  a  mo- 
ment by  the  hand,  and  was  kept  at  this  heat  by  frequent  addi- 


720  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 

tions  of  the  hot  solution.  "As  soon  as  a  sheep's  feet  were 
pared  it  was  placed  in  the  tub  and  held  there  by  the  neck  by 
an  assistant.  A  second  one  was  prepared  and  placed  beside  it. 
When  the  third  one  was  ready,  the  first  was  taken  out,  and  so 
on.  Two  sheep  were  thus  constantly  in  the  tub,  and  each 
remained  in  it  about  ten  minutes.  The  cure  was  perfect." 
Doubtless  this  is  a  much  more  efficient,  and,  on  the  whole,  a 
more  merciful  method  than  the  frequent  application  of  caustic 
to  the  feet,  but  it  seems  cruel  to  make  a  sheep  whose  feet  are 
terribl}^  diseased,  and  have  been  pared  down  to  the  quick,  stand 
for  ten  minutes  in  a  strong,  hot  solution  of  blue  vitriol.  Still, 
the  common  method  of  washing  the  feet  with  some  caustic  solu- 
tion is  slow  in  its  effects  and  often  proves  unavailing.  The 
caustic  does  not  touch  all  of  the  diseased,  parts,  and,  by  contact 
with  the  ground,  is  almost  immediately  removed  from  the  spots 
to  which  it  is  applied.  This  necessitates  frequent  painful  appli- 
cations and  involves  great  uncertainty  as  to  the  results.  On  the 
whole,  if  the  sheep  are  to  be  saved,  Mr.  Randall's  method  is 
the  best  one  which  has  yet  been  presented. 

This  terrible  disease  is  much  more  prevalent  among  Merino 
sheep  than  it  is  with  long-wooled  breeds,  and  is  also  much  more 
difficult  to  cure.  This  is  due,  in  part  at  least,  to  a  difference  in 
the  formation  of  the  foot.  Whenever  the  disease  appears  it 
should  be  eradicated  at  once,  and  a  great  deal  of  care  should  be 
taken  not  to  expose  neighboring  flocks.  Feeding  in  the  same 
pasture,  or  driving  over  the  same  road  with  or  soon  after  an 
infected  flock  has  passed,  is  almost  sure  to  fasten  the  disease 
upon  a  large  part  of  the  animals  thus  exposed.  Consequently 
in  purchasing  sheep  care  should  be  taken  to  obtain  those  which 
have  no  trace  of  this  disease,  and  no  exposure  to  it,  howevei 
slight,  should  be  permitted  whenever  it  can  possibly  be  avoided. 

Poison. — Sheep  and  lambs  are  sometimes  poisoned  by  eating 
laurel,  both  the  narrow-leaved  or  "  low  laurel,"  and  the  broad- 
leaved  or  "  spoonwood."     St.  John's  Wort  is  also  said  to  poison 


SHEEP.  721 

sheep  severely.  Soot  which  has  been  applied  to  grass  or  grain 
as  a  fertilizer  is  sometimes  eaten  in  sufficient  quantities  to 
destroy  the  life  of  the  sheep.  Laurel  is  the  most  common 
poison  which  sheep  are  inclined  to  eat.  Mr.  Morrell,  in  his 
work  on  Sheep,  says :  "After  eating  it  the  animal  appears  to 
be  dull  and  stupid,  swells  a  little,  and  is  constantly  gulping  a 
greenish  fluid  which  it  swallows  down ;  a  part  of  it  will  trickle 
out  of  its  mouth  and  discolor  its  lips."  He  says  that  if  in  the 
early  stages  the  greenish  fluid  is  suffered  to  escape  the 
sheep  will  probably  recover.  To  effect  the  escape  of  the  fluid 
he  recommends  the  use  of  a  gag  made  of  a  stick  ''  the  size  of 
your  wrist,  and  six  inches  long — place  it  in  the  animal's  mouth 
— tie  a  string  to  one  end  of  it,  pass  it  over  the  head  and  down 
to  the  other  end,  and  there  make  it  fast.  The  fluid  will  then 
run  from  the  mouth  as  fast  as  thrown  up  from  the  stomach. 
In  addition  to  this,  give  roasted  onions  and  sweetened  milk 
freely."  We  have  never  tried  this  method,  but  have  relied  upon 
the  use  of  cathartics.  The  great  difficulty  with  these  is  that 
they  act  so  slowly  that  the  poison  gets  distributed  throughout 
the  system.  It  is  said  that  a  strong  decoction  of  white  ash, 
made  by  boiling  the  bruised  twigs  in  water  for  an  hour,  and 
given  in  quantities  of  from  one-half  gill  to  one  gill,  and  repeated 
if  necessary,  will  cure  poisoning  by  laurel  if  administered  within 
a  day  of  the  time  the  laurel  was  eaten.  Sweet  oil  in  six  ounce 
doses,  or  one-half  pint  of  linseed  oil,  will  sometimes  effect  a  cure. 
The  immediate  use  of  a  stomach  pump  by  means  of  which  the 
poison  can  be  diluted  with  water,  and  much  of  it  removed,  will 
be  altogether  the  best  method  in  all  cases  in  Avhich  it  is 
available.  When  this  cannot  be  employed  one  of  the  remedies 
named  above  should  be  tried. 

Scab. — This  is  a  disease  of  the  skin,  similar  to  the  itch  in 
men,  which  causes  an  immense  amount  of  pain,  and,  if  allowed 
to  run  its  course,  kills  the  sheep.  It  is  caused  by  a  minute 
insect  which  burrows  under  the  skin,  hatches  its  young,  and  the 


722  FARI^IING   FOR   PROFIT. 

new  generations  come  out  only  to  burrow  in  fresh  places  to 
bring  forth  their  families.  The  affected  sheep  rubs  against  posts 
and  doors,  bites  itself,  and  tears  out  its  wool.  Small  red  spots 
appear  on  the  skin.  These  soon  become  sores  and  are  covered 
with  scabs.  All  infected  sheep  should  be  separated  from  the 
others,  and  the  posts  and  all  other  places  against  which  they 
have  rubbed  should  be  washed  with  strong  tobacco  water. 

If  the  wool  is  short  the  scabs  should  be  rubbed  from  the 
infected  sheep  with  a  stiff  shoe-brush,  and  the  animals  then 
dipped  in  tobacco  water  as  directed  for  killing  ticks,  or  what  is  a 
great  deal  better,  the  Cresylic  Sheep  Dip  should  be  used.  If 
the  wool  is  very  long  it  should  be  parted,  and  the  latter  remedy 
applied  to  all  the  sores.  Short-wooled  sheep  are  not  as  likely 
to  be  attacked  by  this  disease  as  the  long-wooled  breeds,  and 
healthy  sheep  are  much  freer  from  it  than  those  which  are 
weak  and  poor. 

Sore  Eves  should  be  washed  quite  often  with  warm  water. 
If  this  does  not  give  relief,  a  very  little  sulphate  of  zinc  and  a 
small  quantity  of  laudanum  should  be  added  to  the  water.  All 
irritating  remedies  should  be  carefully  avoided. 

Sore  Lips. — The  lips  of  sheep  sometimes  become  so  sore  and 
swollen  in  the  winter  that  they  are  very  painful,  and  render  the 
eating  of  dry  hay  difficult  if  not  impossible.  In  such  cases  an 
ointment  composed  of  tar,  made  thin  by  the  addition  of  butter, 
and  a  small  quantity  of  sulphur,  should  be  applied  twice  a  day 
until  a  marked  improvement  takes  place.  It  should  then  be 
used  occasionally  until  the  cure  is  complete. 

Dogs. — Among  the  worst  enemies  of  the  sheep-owner  are 
the  miserable,  worthless  curs  which  abound  in  almost  ever>' 
community.  In  Massachusetts,  and  we  think  in  a  few  other 
States,  there  is  a  "  dog  law  "  which  imposes  a  tax  upon  all  dogs, 
and  from  the  fund  thus  collected  the  owners  of  sheep  which 
have  been  killed  by  dogs  are  paid  for  the  animals  which  have 
been   destroyed.     Such  a  law  ought  to  be   in   force   in  ever>' 


SHEEP.  rjcyr^ 

State,  and  it  should  be  much  more  stringent  than  it  is  in  Massa- 
chusetts. The  money  received  never  pays  for  the  injury 
sustained.  When  slieep  are  chased  by  dogs  the  whole  flock 
is  demoralized,  and  those  which  are  not  killed  or  wounded  are 
injured  for  life.  Owners  of  sheep  should  insist  upon  having  a 
law  which  will  protect  their  interests.  It  is  right  that  such  a 
law  should  be  passed  and  enforced. 

Until  the  owners  of  dogs  are  obliged  to  keep  them  from 
destroying  their  neighbors'  flocks,  sheep-owners  must  protect 
themselves  as  well  as  possible.  We  have  been  in  the  habit  of 
driving  the  sheep  to  the  barn  every  night  during  the  summer. 
This  injures  the  sheep  and  makes  considerable  extra  work,  but 
it  seems  to  be  a  necessity.  Some  owners  say  that  a  good-sized 
bell  fastened  around  the  neck  of  one  sheep  in  every  ten  of  the 
flock  will  keep  dogs  from  chasing  them.  Others  say  that  it 
is  not  a  sure  preventive.  If  nothing  better  is  at  hand,  this 
method  should  be  tried  by  all  who  cannot  yard  their  sheep  every 
night. 

Sheep  on  the  Prairies  often  prove  a  source  of  very  large 
profits.  The  cost  of  keeping  is  small,  and  good  food  is  easily 
obtained.  During  the  summer  the  sheep  feed  on  the  rich 
and  abundant  prairie  grass.  Turnips,  which  yield  immensely 
on  the  rich  soil,  furnish  green  food  in  the  autumn  at  a  merely 
nominal  cost,  and  Indian  corn  almost  wholly  takes  the  place  of 
hay  for  winter  use. 

Of  course  the  business  is  done  at  a  great  disadvantage,  and 
the  losses  of  sheep  and  lambs  are  very  heavy.  The  sheds 
which  are  put  up  for  winter  do  not  furnish  adequate  protection, 
a  large  variety  of  food  cannot  well  be  provided,  and  the  lambs 
cannot  have  the  care  which  is  usually  bestowed  where  small 
flocks  are  kept.  But  the  expenses  of  keeping  are  so  light  that, 
in  spite  of  all  the  drawbacks,  sheep  husbandry  on  the  prairies  is 
a  recognized  source  of  wealth. 

That  sheep  should  be   more  generally  kept  throughout   the 


724  FARMIXG   FOR   PROFIT. 

country,  and  especially  at  the  South,  we  firmly  believe.  Kept 
in  small  numbers,  in  connection  with  grain-growing  and  other 
lines  of  farm  business,  they  can  be  made  to  yield  very  large 
returns.  The  labor  of  caring  for  them  is  much  less  than  that 
required  where  cows  are  kept.  This  is  an  item  for  the  farmer 
to  consider,  not  only  on  his  own  account,  but  also  for  the  sake  of 
his  wife.  The  difference  in  the  work  of  the  women  where  cows 
and  sheep  are  kept  is  very  great.  We  do  not  assert,  as  an  old 
English  writer  once  did,  that  "  sheep  is  the  most  profitablest 
cattle  that  a  man  can  have,"  but  we  do  believe  that  keeping 
sheep  in  small  flocks,  which  are  carefully  managed,  will  make 
larger  returns  for  the  amount  of  capital  and  labor  than  almost 
any  other  department  of  farm  business. 


SWINE. 

WINE  are  among  the  most  valuable  of  our  domestic 
animals.  They  fill  a  place  which  no  other  animal  can 
^X;^  occupy,  and  supply  a  positive  demand  of  our  domestic 
w  economy.  They  utilize  a  great  deal  of  what  otherwise 
would  be  waste  material,  they  furnish  a  vast  amount  of  food, 
and.  by  concentrating  its  value,  they  enable  the  farmer  who  is  so 
far  from  the  cities  and  towns  that  he  cannot  afford  to  pay  the 
transportation  charges  of  bulky  material  to  get  his  grass  and 
grain  to  a  profitable  market.  They  can  be  kept  on  large  or 
small  farms,  in  droves  or  singly,  as  the  sole  representatives  of 
live-stock  on  the  farm,  with  the  exception  of  animals  kept  for 
their  labor,  or  in  connection  with  cows  and  sheep.  They  save 
so  much  material  which  but  for  them  would  be  lost,  and  furnish 
so  large  quantities  of  valuable  manure,  that  it  is  diflFicult  to  see 
how  any  farmer,  even  the  one  who  does  the  smallest  business, 
can  afford  to  be  without  one  or  more  of  these  animals. 

That  there  exists  a  prejudice  against  swine  is  very  true,  and 
many  people  will  neither  keep  nor  eat  the  flesh  of  one  of  these 


SWINE.    •  725 

creatures.  But  the  facts  that  the  number  of  these  animals  in 
this  country  is  about  twenty-six  milHons,  with  a  total  value  of 
one  hundred  and  seventy-five  millions  of  dollars,  and  that  both 
number  and  value  are  constantly  and  rapidly  increasing,  indicate 
that  the  antagonistic  feeling  is  neither  very  general  nor  very 
powerful.  It  is  too  late  in  the  day  to  assert  that  pork  is  "  not 
nt  to  eat."  Nearly  all  civilized  races  make  a  large  use  of  the 
flesh  and  products  of  the  hog,  and  have  done  so  for  a  long 
period.  Invalids  and  persons  engaged  in  sedentary  employ- 
ments may  not  be  able  to  eat  large  quantities  of  pork  without 
"injury,  but,  when  properly  cooked,  the  flesh  of  a  well-fattened 
pig  may  be  used  with  beneficial  effects  by  the  great  majority  of 
pjople  who  are  in  a  fair  state  of  health.  Too  much  fried  salt 
pork  in  hot  weather  is  not  well  for  any  one  to  use,  but  this  is  no 
reason  why  pork  should  be  wholly  condemned. 

Neither  do  we  regard  the  fact  that  the  Mosaic  legislation 
excluded  pork  from  the  diet  of  the  ancient  Jews  as  an  indication 
that  the  improved  pigs  of  the  present  day  are  unfit  for  food. 
There  were  various  reasons  which  influenced  that  legislation 
which  do  not  apply  to  our  people  and  our  conditions  of  life  and 
society.  The  Jews  were  to  be  "a  peculiar  people,"  and  to  be 
kept  separate  from  the  surrounding  nations.  Much  of  the  legis- 
lation of  the  early  period  of  their  national  history  had  for  its  end 
and  aim  the  strict  keepmg  of  this  separation.  'It  has  also  .been 
suggested  that  the  swine  in  ancient  Egypt  and  vicinity  were 
badly  diseased,  and  that  the  use  of  their  flesh  caused,  or  aggra- 
vated, the  leprosy  from  which  the  people  severely  suffered.. 
Whatever  the  reason,  we  think  that  it  long  since  passed  away 
and  that  all  Christian  people  are  at  perfect  liberty  to  eat  pork 
if  they  desire  to  do  so.  And  it  is  a  noticeable  fact  that  many 
who  insist  that  the  Mosaic  prohibition  was  a  sure  indication 
that  the  flesh  of  swine  is  unwholesome,  do  not  have  the  same 
regard  for  the  other  prohibitions  of  that  legislation,  but  utterly 

ignore  many  of  its  most  stringent  provisions. 
45 


726  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 

Breeds  of  Swine. — Quite  a  number  of  different  breeds  are 
now  very  popular  in  various  parts  of  the  country,  and  there  are 
several  which  have  a  general  instead  of  a  local  reputation. 
Among  those  which,  on  account  of  their  wide  dissemination  as 
well  as  their  valuable  qualities,  have  become  generally  known, 
the  Chester  White,  Suffolk,  and  Yorkshire,  among  the 
white  pigs,  the  Magie,  or  Poland-China,  white  and  black,  and 
the  Essex,  and  Berkshire,  which  are  black,  are  the  most  promi- 
nent. There  are  breeds  which  may,  when  more  widely  known, 
rank  higher  than  some  of  those  named  above.  Each  of  the 
breeds  we  have  named  has  excellent  points.  Some  are  bet- 
ter fitted  to  endure  the  exposure  to  which  pigs  kept  in  large 
droves  are  frequently  subjected  than  others,  which,  when  care- 
fully tended,  arc  equally  good.  There  are  multitudes  of  good 
hogs  which  do  not  belong  to  either  of  the  well-known  breeds, ' 
but  are  called  "natives."  Probably  a  still  larger  number  of  the 
native  pigs  are  extremely  poor  and  are  unprofitable  animals  to 
keep.  In  order  to  obtain  a  fair  profit,  good  pigs,  of  some  kind, 
must  be  secured.  The  farmer  who  kept  the  same  hog  seven 
years  because  he  was  able  to  "eat  all  the  sv.ill  made  on  the 
farm,"  had  a  very  imperfect  idea  of  the  end  for  which  this  class 
(.{  animals  should  be  kept.  What  is  wanted  is  a  pig  which  will 
make  the  largest  possible  returns  for  the  food  which  theowner 
is  able  to  supply.  The  man  who  has  rich  clover  fields  and 
thousands  of  bushels  of  "ten-cent"  corn,  and  who  ships  his  pigs 
to  the  city  market,  wants  a  verj'  different  style  of  an  animal 
from  the  mechanic  in  a  country  village  who  only  keeps  one  pig 
to  utilize  the  waste  of  the  household  and  furnish  part  of  the 
meat  for  family  use.  Thus  it  will  be  readily  seen  that  all  good 
breeds,  however  different  their  characteristics,  have  their  uses, 
and  may  be  made  not  only  available  but  also  profitable.  The 
only  caution  necessary  is  that  the  right  men  get  the  right  breed 
of  pigs. 

Without  giving  a  lengthy  description  of  each  breed,  we  will 


Fin.  lit. 

1.  CHESTFR  WHITF.S  PICS.     "  King  of  Chester  County,"  and  "  Model  of  Perfection.'     Dr.iwn  from  life. 
Ouoed  by  Benson,  .M-iule  &  Co.,  Philadelphi.i,  Pa.     2.  ESSEX  PIC;. 


SWINE.  729 

briefly  mention  a  few  of  the  leading  characteristics  of  the  ones 
which  have  been  named.  The  Chester  White  is  a  "  made- 
up  "  breed  which  originated  in  Chester  County,  Pa.,  and  of 
which  there  are  many  different  strains.  The  better  class  of  pigs 
known  by  this  name  are  entitled  to  a  very  high  rank,  but  the 
popularity  of  the  breed  has  been  greatly  clouded  by  the  action 
of  unprincipled  parties  who  have  sent  out  large  numbers  of  the 
common  pigs  of  that  section  (which  were  no  better  than  the 
same  class  of  pigs  in  other  localities)  as  the  genuine  Chester 
White,  and  taken  high  prices  for  them.  The  better  classes  of 
the  genuine  breed  have  been  well  established  and  will  breed 
true,  but  many  of  the  pigs  sold  under  this  netme  have  not  the 
slightest  claim  to  a  place  with  this,  or  any  other  specified, 
family.  The  real  Chester  is  white,  has  a  short  head,  thin  ears, 
short  and  thick  neck,  long  and  deep  body  with  a  broad  back, 
hams  full  and  deep,  coating  thin,  no  bristles,  and  a  small  tail. 
The  hogs  can  be  made  to  attain  a  great  weight.  Mr.  Harris, 
in  his  work  on  the  Pig,  says  that  this  is  "  a  large,  rather 
coarse,  hardy  breed,  of  good  constitution,  and  well  adapted  to 
the  system  of  management  ordinarily  adopted  by  the  majority 
of  our  farmers." 

The  Suffolk,  is  a  small  but  valuable  breed.  Its  hand- 
some appearance  commends  it  to  those  who  care  for  the  looks 
of  a  pig,  while  the  ease  with  which  it  can  be  fattened  and  the 
shortness  of  the  time  required  to  get  it  into  condition  make  it  a 
favorite  with  villagers  and  with  farmers  who  keep  but  a  few  pigs 
and  who  are  not  particular  about  large  size.  It  is  a  ver^^  old 
and  firmly  established  breed.  Consequently  the  boars  are  ex- 
cellent for  using  with  good  native  sows. 

When  fed  high,  the  pigs  fatten  at  a  very  early  age,  and  can  be 
got  into  condition  to  kill  at  any  time  after  they  are  six  weeks 
old.  If  kept  on  short  rations  during  the  first  few  months 
they  grow  to  considerable  size,  and  can  be  made  to  weigh  four 
hundred  pounds.    If  given  enough  to  eat  they  will  stay  at  home, 


730  FARMING  FOR   PROIIT. 

and  do  nothing  but  eat  and  rest.  They  do  well  when  kept  on 
grass,  and  require  less  grain  than  mcst  other  breeds.  As  they 
are  very  quiet,  they  are  not  as  useful  for  working  over  manure 
piles  as  some  other  pigs,  but  for  making  a  large  quantity  of 
pork  which  contains  but  little  waste  from  the  smallest  possible 
quantity  of  food  they  have  no  superior.  Some  advocates  of 
this  breed  claim  that  the  Suffolk  pig  contains  as  much  meat 
that  is  eatable  "  as  most  hogs  of  double  his  weight,  and  which 
consume  four  times  his  food."  This  is,  probably,  an  overstate- 
ment of  the  case,  but  from  our  limited  experience  with  these 
pigs  we  judge  that  they  utilize  their  food  to  the  best  advantage, 
while  it  must  bfe  clear  to  every  observer  that  the  proportion 
of  offal  is  extremely  small. 

It  is  said  that  the  Suffolk  pigs,  on  account  of  their  thin  hair 
and  tender  skin,  do  not  endure  the  exposure  to  which  Western 
pigs  are  usually  subjected  as  well  as  some  other  breeds.  Also, 
that,  on  account  of  their  strong  tendency  to  fatten,  the  sows  are 
not  as  prolific  as  it  is  desirable  they  should  be.  Still  this  breed 
is  rapidly  growing  in  favor  throughout  the  country,  and  it 
possesses  merit  enough  to  enable  it  to  hold  a  high  position 
among  the  very  best  breeds  in  the  world. 

Yorkshire. — There  are  a  multitude  of  pigs  scattered  through- 
out the  country  which  are  said  to  belong  to  this  breed.  They 
vary  as  much  in  everything  except  color,  which  is  always 
white,  as  they  do  from  other  white  breeds.  There  are  "  large," 
and  "  middle,"  and  "  small  "  Yorkshires,  and  it  is  even  claimed 
"  that  all  the  be.st  white  pigs  of  modern  times  "  are  indebted  to 
Yorkshire  blood  for  their  excellencies.  Several  breeds  which 
have  a  local  reputation  claim  descent  from  the  Yorkshire,  and 
some  declare  the  Suffolk  to  be  only  a  modification  of  this 
breed.  That  many  excellent  pigs  are  called  by  this  name  there 
can  be  no  doubt,  but  a  title^which  covers  large  hogs  and  small 
pigs  of  various  forms  and  different  habits  must  be  pretty  elastic, 
and  the  application  of  the  same  name  to  animals  which  differ  so 


swjNE.  733 

widely  makes  it  very  easy  for  those  who  are  so  disposed  to 
sell  white  pigs  of  unknown  origin  as  genuine  Yorkshires. 

Magie,  or  Poland-China. — Although  this  is  a  comparatively 
new  breed  of  pigs,  the  originators  claim  that  they  have  got  it  so 
well  established  that  the  animals  breed  perfectly  true,  and  that 
this  breed  "  is  unsurpassed."  There  has  been  a  great  deal  of 
dispute  concerning  the  origin  of  this  breed,  and  who  should  have 
credit  therefor.  But  it  seems  to  have  been  proved  beyond  a  doubt 
that  its  perfection,  if  not  its  origin,  is  due  to  the  careful  and 
persevering  labors  of  D.  W.  Magie,  and  several  other  breeders  in 
Ohio.  After  hearing  the  claims  of  various  parties,  the  National 
Convention  of  swine-breeders  decided  that  the  name  of  this 
breed  ought  to  be  Poland-China,  and  that  the  dozen  or  fifteen 
other  names  which  had  been  used  should  be  dropped. 

The  pigs  of  this  breed  are  spotted  black  and  white,  are  quite- 
hardy,  good  feeders,  fatten  well,  and  under  favorable  circum- 
stances attain  a  large  size.  They  are  not  as  fine,  and  do  not 
mature  as  quickly  as  some  other  breeds,  but  seem  to  be  well 
adapted  to  supply  the  wants  of  Western  farmers.  The  sows  of 
this  breed  when  bred  to  Berkshire  boars  bring  forth  finer  pigs, 
which  are  said  to  mature  early  and  fatten  easily. 

Essex. — This  is  a  small  breed  of  pure  black  swine.  It  has 
not  been  extensively  introduced  into  the  great  pork-growing 
sections,  but  has  won  considerable  favor  in  the  Eastern  and 
Middle  States.  With  the  exception  of  color  and  less  troubL 
with  skin  diseases,  this  breed  closely  resembles  the  Suffolk. 
The  pigs  mature  early,  and  fatten  very  easily  either  on  grass  or 
grain.  The  sows  are  not  as  prolific,  and  the  pigs,  when  small, 
are  not  as  hardy  as  those  of  larger  and  coarser  breeds.  They 
are  generally  considered  too  small  to  be  profitably  grown  for 
packing,  but  they  answer  very  well  for  farmers  who  keep  but 
few  hogs,  and  villagers  who  grow  pork  only  for  their  own  use. 
The  boars  are  extremely  valuable  for  crossing  on  sows  of  larger 
and  coarser  breeds. 


734  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

Berkshire. — Probably  this  is  much  th*:  most  popular  breed 
of  swine  in  this  country,  and  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  it  is 
one  of  the  most  profitable.  It  is  an  old  English  breed,  and, 
having  been  carefully  managed  for  a  long  period,  its  character- 
istics are  firmly  established.  These  pigs  arc  black,  with  white 
markings  on  the  face  and  legs.  They  are  very  healthy  and 
vigorous,  fatten  easily,  and  attain  a  medium  size.  The  sows  are 
prolific  and  are  good  milkers,  in  these  respects  being  much 
superior  to  several  of  the  other  breeds,  and  the  boars  transmit 
their  own  good  qualities  when  crossed  with  natives  or  with 
other  breeds.  The  flesh  of  the  Berkshire  pigs  is  said  to  be 
superior,  and,  on  this  account,  this  breed  would  seem  to  be  well 
adapted  to  the  wants  of  those  who  grow  pork  for  home  use. 

While  the  breeds  which  we  have  named  possess  many  excel- 
lencies, and  there  are  several  others  which  are  of  considerable 
value,  there  are  many  pigs  which  have  no  recognized  name 
which  can  be  made  profitable  on  tlie  farm.  It  is  not  desirable 
that  all  the  men  who  keep  pigs  should  keep  thorough-breds 
exclusively.  Raising  thorough-breds  for  the  butcher  would 
hardly  pay,  because  these  pigs  need  more  care  and  better  food 
than  the  average  farmer  gives.  Also,  in  the  case  of  the  small 
and  refined  breeds,  and,  to  some  extent,  the  larger  ones,  because 
a  cross  of  a  thorough-bred  boar  with  a  good,  large,  and  thrifty 
sow  will  be  likely  to  give  stronger  pigs,  which  will  possess  the 
good  qualities  of  the  boar  strengthened  with  the  vigor  of  the 
sow,  than  would  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  a  purely  bred  sow. 
If  the  best  of  care  could,  and  would,  be  given,  thorough-bred 
pigs  would  be  the  best.  But,  as  Mr.  Harris  has  well  remarked, 
"  The  aim  of  a  good  breeder  of  pigs  is  to  get  a  breed  that  will 
grow  rapidly  and  mature  early.  And  the  better  the  breed  the 
more  rapidly  they  will  grow.  But  the  best  stove  in  the  world 
cannot  give  out  heat  without  a  supply  of  fuel ;  neither  can  the 
best  bred  pig  in  the  world  grow  rapidly  without  food ;  and  the 
more  thoroughly  the  power  to  grow  rapidly  has  become  est^ib- 


j^ll^-V 

%i^'"'    . 

'^pf** 


I' 


SWINE.  'J2>1 

lished  by  long  and  careful  breeding  the  less  capable  does  the 
pig  become  to  stand  starvation." 

It  is  only  natural  that  the  offspring  of  pigs  brought  up  under 
adverse  circumstances  should  be  more  hardy  than  that  of  pigs 
which  have  been  very  carefully  bred.  Besides,  it  is  not  neces- 
sary, in  order  that  the  desired  end  may  be  attained,  to  use  thor- 
ough-bred sows.  The  writer  just  quoted  says  of  the  highly 
r.  fined  English  breeds  :  "  Their  real  value  consists  in  their  per- 
fection of  form,  smallness  of  bone  and  offal,  and  the  great  de- 
velopment of  the  ham,  shoulder,  cheeks,  and  other  valuable 
parts ;  and  added  to  this  is  their  ability  to  transmit  these  quali- 
ties to  their  offspring.  This  ability  is  in  proportion  to  the.'f 
purity,  and  hence  the  value  of  pedigree.  When  one  of  theue 
pure-bred  boars  is  put  to  a  good  grade  or  comrhon  sow  we  g<;t 
precisely  what  we  want — pigs  having  the  form,  the  refinement, 
the  early  maturity,  smallness  of  offal,  and  tendency  to  fatten  of 
the  thorough-bred,  combined  with  the  vigor,  constitution,  appe- 
tite, and  great  digestive  powers  of  the  larger  and  coarser  sow. 
In  other  words,  as  far  as  the  production  of  pork  is  concerned, 
we  get  a  perfect  pig — and  there  the  improvement  ends.  We 
have  attained  our  object,  and  all  that  we  have  to  do  is  to  repeat 
the  process."  Here  the  case  is  plainly  stated  and  a  great  deal 
of  truth  condensed  into  a  few  sentences.  Get  g-ood  srade  or 
common  sows  and  use  only  thorough-bred  boars.  This  is  a  safe 
rule  for  farmers,  and  all  who  feed  pigs  for  the  butcher,  to  follow 
so  far  as  this  kind  of  stock  is  concerned.  Of  course,  if  this  plan 
is  to  be  followed,  some  one  must  raise  thorough-bred  pigs  in 
order  to  obtain  the  boars  which  will  be  needed.  The  farmer 
who  keeps  a  large  stock  of  hogs  can  profitably  do  this  himself. 
He  can  keep  a  few  thorough-breds  for  this  special  purpose. 
Those  who  keep  but  few  pigs  can  buy  boars  of  breeders  as  they 
are  needed. 

As  already  indicated,  this  course  is  of  much  more  importance 
when  the  small  breeds  are  kept  than  it  is  with  the  larger  ones. 


738  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 

But  even  with  the  Chester  White,  Poland-China,  and  Berk- 
shire, grades  obtained  in  tlic  manner  described  will  often  be 
found  superior,  as  far  as  the  mere  production  of  .pork  is  con- 
cerned, to  the  thorough-breds.  But  it  is  ail  important  to  the 
success  of  this  plan  that  the  sows  slionld  be  good  anitiials  and 
well  adapted  to  the  purpose  designed.  The  "  razor-back  "  and 
"  race-horse  "  styles  must  be  let  alone,  and  the  best  specimens 
of  good  animals  should  be  selected. 

Whatever  the  sow  may  be,  by  all  means  use  a  thorough-bred 
boar.  A  grade  hog  may  look  just  as  well,  perhaps  even  better, 
but  he  is  wholly  unfit  for  breeding  purposes.  The  qualities  of 
the  thorough-bred  have  been  fixed  by  a  long  course  of  careful 
breeding,  and  he  has  power  to  impress  them  upon  his  offspring, 
but  thd*good  qualities  of  the  grade  have  no  element  of  perma- 
nence, and  nothing  but  disappointment  to  the  owner  and  degen- 
eracy to  the  stock  can  come  of  his  use  as  a  breeder. 

Not  only  should  the  boar  be  purely  bred,  but  he  should  be  a 
good  representative  of  the  breed  to  which  he  belongs.  There  is 
a  great  difference  in  thorough-breds,  and  only  the  finest  should 
be  used  for  breeding.  Some  men  who  sell  pigs  weed  out  their 
stock  and  send  the  specimens  which  are  not  up  to  a  fair  standard 
of  excellence  directly  to  the  butcher.  This  course  should  be 
pursued  by  all  who  deal  in  breeding  stock. 

Not  only  should  good  stock,  both  male  and  female,  be  selected 
for  breeding,  but  the  individuals  should  be  allowed  to  attain  a 
suitable  age  before  they  are  used  for  this  purpose.  Here  is 
where  the  majority  of  farmers  make  a  great  mistake.  They  do 
not  wait  until  the  pigs  are  fully  developed,  but  allow  them  to 
breed  before  they  are  gro\\n.  Too  many  farmers  allow  a  boar 
pig  only  a  few  months  old  to  serve  a  sow  of  the  same  litter,  oi 
one  still  younger,  then  castrate  the  boar  and  fatten  him,  and, 
wlicn  the  pigs  are  weaned,  fatten  the  sow.  By  so  doing  they 
cannot  secure  the  best  class  of  pigs.  From  half-grown  parents 
only  .a  second  or  third  class  of  animals  can  be  secured.     Even 


SWINE.  739 

under  the  most  favorable  circumstances,  and  when  everything 
turns  out  as  well  as  the  owner  expects,  there  is  always  an  indi- 
rect loss.  Pigs  from  stronger  and  older  parents  would,  with  the 
same  care  and  food,  have  produced  a  larger  quantity  of  pork 
than  those  from  parents  of  undeveloped  powers.  But  it  often 
happens  that  the  sow  does  not  prove  a  good  mother,  that  the 
pigs  are  feeble,  and  from  these  and  various  other  causes  the 
effort  to  secure  a  good  litter  of  pigs  proves  a  failure.  If  the  boar 
had  been  kept  until  he  was  a  year  old  before  being  put  to  ser- 
vice at  all,  and  allowed  to  serve  but  few  sows  until  he  was  a 
year  and  a  half  old,  his  pigs  would  have  been  much  more  vigor- 
ous and  would  have  taken  on  flesh  with  much  greater  rapidity. 
If,  in  addition  to  this,  the  sow  had  been  kept  until  a  year  and  a 
half  old  before  bringing  her  first  litter  there  would  have  been  a 
still  greater  gain  in  the  vigor  and  feeding  qualities  of  the  off- 
spring. Of  the  two  it  seems  more  important  that  the  sow 
should  be  well  developed  than  the  boar. 

While  growing,  it  is  all  that  the  sow  ought  to  do  to  perfect 
herself  If,  in  addition  to  this,  she  is  obliged  to  give  much  of 
her  strength  and  vital  power  to  the  production  of  the  young,  her 
growth  will  be  checked,  her  maturity  retarded,  and  she  will  be 
unable  to  impart  to  her  offspring  good  constitutions,  or  a  strong 
tendency  to  make  a  rapid  growth.  Weakness  is  always 
a/.tendant  upon  immaturity,  and  weakness  on  the  part  of  the 
parents  is  sure  to  involve  a  still  greater  degree  of  weakness  on 
the  part  of  their  offspring. 

A  boar  may  be  kept  for  breeding  until  he  is  five  or  six  years 
old,  if  he  is  not  cross  and  he  gets  good  stock.  If  his  pigs  from 
good  sows  do  not  thrive,  if  he  is  not  a  sure  getter,  if  he  does 
not  get  pigs  uniformly  like  himself,  or  if  he  becomes  cross, 
he  should  be  castrated.  But  a  good  boar  which  is  properly 
kept  will  get  much  stronger  and  better  pigs  after  he  is  two  years 
old  than  he  will  before,  and,  as  a  general  rule,  an  old  boar  will 
get  better  pigs  than  one  that  is  young. 


740  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 

Where  farmers  keep  only  from  two  to  a  dozen  hogs,  the  cost 
of  keeping  a  boar  on  each  farm  is  quite  an  item.  Here  the 
principle  of  neighborhood  ownership,  which  has  already  been 
explained  and  advocated,  should  be  applied.  Mr.  Coburn,  in 
his  excellent  work  on  "  Swine  Husbandry,"  advocates  this 
plan,  and  says  :  "Among  the  benefits  resulting  from  this  method 
would  be  the  use  of  a  good  boar,  matured  and  fitted  for  good 
service ;  an  improved  class  of  pigs,  and  a  generous  rivalry, 
encouraging  each  of  his  owners  to  keep  a  better  grade  of  sows, 
under  improved  and  more  profitable  conditions."  When  sev- 
eral farmers  own  a  boar  in  company,  they  can  afford  to  keep 
him  until  he  is  too  old  to  be  serviceable.  The  cost  to  each  on'j 
will  be  very  slight,  yet  each  one  will  have  the  advantage  of 
taking  his  sows  to  a  first-class  and  fully  matured  boar,  and  will 
find  the  extra  value  of  the  pigs  in  a  single  season  more  than  pa/ 
the  whole  expense  in  which  he  is  involved. 

The  sows  which  prove  good  mothers  should  be  kept  for 
several  years.  This  is  a  much  better  way  than  the  course  often 
followed  of  fattening  a  sow  as  soon  as  possible  after  the 
pigs  are  weaned,  and  then  choosing  younger  ones  for  breeders. 
The  old  sows  will  bear  stronger  and  better  pigs  than  young 
ones,  will  take  better  care  of  them,  furnish  them  a  larger  quan- 
tity of  milk,  and  be  less  liable  to  injure  them.  In  every  respect 
matured  animals  are  better  for  breeding  than  those  which  are 
young. 

The  degree  of  success  which  will  be  attained  by  the  farmer 
who  attempts  to  raise  pigs  will,  to  a  great  extent,  depend  upon 
the  care  which  his  breeding  stock  receives.  If  the  animals  are 
neglected  and  half-starved,  the  pigs  will  be  very  sure  to  be  of 
inferior  quality.  If  well  cared  for,  there  will  be  much  more 
certainty  that  their  offspring  will  be  good.  The  boar  and  sows 
should  not  be  allowed  to  run  together,  but  should  have  separate 
pens  and  yards.  The  boar  should  be  kept  in  a  thrifty  condition, 
but  should  not  be  allowed  to  get  very  fat.     He  ought  to  have  a 


SWINE.  74  J 

good  pen  and  a  dry  yard.  In  summer  he  should  also  be  allowed 
to  run  at  will  in  a  small  pasture.  Both  yard  and  pasture  must 
be  strongly  fenced. 

The  sow  should  neither  be  fat  nor  thin  in  flesh.  Either 
'extreme  is  highly  injurious,  and  will  exert  a  bad  influence  upon 
the  pigs.  Both  before  and  after  being  bred  the  sow  which  is  to 
have  pigs  should  be  kept  separate  from  the  fattening  stock, 
and  instead  of  the  heavy  feeding  with  corn  which  they  receive 
she  should  be  fed  upon  slops  in  which  shorts  and  a  moderate 
quantity  of  meal  have  been  mixed.  In  warm  weather,  running 
in  a  clover  pasture  will  prove  highly  beneficial. 

Young  sows  go  with  young  from  one  hundred  to  one 
hundred  and  six  days.  Old  ones  carry  their  pigs  from  a  week 
to  ten  days  longer.  The  best  time  for  spring  pigs  to  come  is  'u\ 
April.  Fall  pigs  should  come  in  September.  If  the  sow  is  to 
raise  two  litters  during  the  season,  she  should  be  taken  to  the 
boar  about  the  first  of  December,  and  again  a  few  days  after  her 
first  litter  has  been  weaned.  But  if  only  one  litter  is  desired, 
the  pigs  should  not  come  until  the  days  are  warm,  and  danger 
of  cold  storms  has  passed. 

The  sow  will  come  in  heat  every  three  weeks.  She  should  be 
served  by  the  boar  only  once.  This  is  not  only  just  as  effective, 
but  is  a  great  deal  better  than  it  is  to  leave  the  two  together 
over  night,  or,  as  some  do,  for  a  day  or  two. 

While  carrying  her  pigs  the  sow  should  be  kindly  treated,  and 
regularly  supplied  with  food  and  water.  As  the  time  for 
farrowing  approaches,  she  should  be  put  into  a  pen  at  night, 
and,  while  permitted  to  run  in  her  yard  and  pasture  during  the 
day,  she  should  be  fed  in  the  pen  in  order  that  she  may  become 
accustomed  to  it  and  regard  it  as  her  home.  A  few  days  before 
time  for  the  pigs  to  make  their  appearance,  a  small  quantity  of 
straw  should  be  put  into  the  pen.  Care  must  be  taken  not  to 
use  too  much  straw,  as  this  will  be  likely  to  cause  the  sow  to 
lie  on  the  pigs.     The  pen  should   be  closely  boarded  so  that 


742  FAA'MIXG   lOR   PKOFJT. 

Straw  will  not  be  needed  for  warmth.  If  the  pigs  come  in  the 
winter,  a  coal  stove  should  be  set  up  in  the  building,  and  the 
temperature  kept  from  going  too  low.  In  order  to  keep  the  sow 
from  crushing  her  pigs  between  herself  and  the  wall,  a  rail 
should  be  placed  around  the  inside  of  the  pen  about  six  inches" 
from  the  floor,  and  eight  or  ten  inches  from  the  walls.  W  hen 
this  is  provided,  and  only  a  little  straw  is  used,  there  will  be  but 
little  danger  that  the  sow  will  lie  on  the  pigs.  But  if  either  of 
these  precautions  is  neglected  the  risk  is  very  great. 

If  the  sow  has  been  made  very  tame  by  previous  scratching 
and  handling  it  will  be  well  for  the  owner  to  watch  her  when 
the  time  for  pigging  arrives,  and  render  assistance  if  it  is 
needed.  But  if  she  is  wild  or  cross,  it  will  be  best  to  let  her 
alone.  If  she  has  been  well  fed  and  kindly  treated  she  will  be 
almost  certain  to  get  along  well. 

For  a  few  days  before  and  after  the  pigs  arrive  the  sow  should 
have  light  and  sloppy  food.  The  quantity  should  be  abundant, 
but  the  quality  must  not  be  rich.  She  should  have  plenty  of 
fresh  water  in  addition  to  the  wet  food.  While  carrying  her 
pigs  she  should  be  occasionally  furnished  with  charcoal  and 
y.shes,  and,  if  kept  in  a  pen,  with  green  grass  or  with  sods. 

If  the  sow  shows  a  disposition  to  eat  her  pigs  they  should  be 
gently  rubbed  with  kerosene,  which  may  be  applied  best  with  a 
ivoollen  cloth  or  a  soft  brush.  Only  a  little  will  be  required,  and 
too  much  will  make  them  sore.  When  the  diet  of  the  sow  has 
been  properly  managed,  and  she  has  had  sufficient  exercise,  she 
will  not  be  inclined  to  eat  her  pigs  unless  she  has  previously 
formed  the  habit  when  badly  kept.  Any  sow  which  does  this 
the  second  time  should  be  rejected  for  a  breeder. 

Care  of  Pigs. — If  strong  and  well,  as  most  pigs  which  have 
suitable  parentage  and  whose  mothers  have  been  properly  cared 
for  will  be,  they  will  look  out  for  themselves.  Most  of  the  weak 
pigs  are  weak  because  either  the  boar  or  sow  was  top  j'oung 
to  breed,  or  di.jeased,  or  not  properly  mated,  or  else  because  the 


SWINE.  743 

sow  has  been  badly  fed  or  kept  in  an  unsuitable  place.  When 
weakness  is  apparent,  the  pigs  must  be  got  to  sucking  if  possible. 
But  if  the  sow  is  not  gentle,  or  has  no  milk,  they  must  be  fed 
by  hand  until  the  mother  is  able  to  care  for  them.  If  she  is  fed 
with  slops  she  will  be  likely  to  have  milk  for  the  pigs  in  from 
owz  to  three  days.  Meanwhile  the  pigs  must  be  fed  several 
times  a  day  with  new  milk  from  a  cow.  To  this  milk  it  may  be 
necessary  to  add  a  little  molasses. 

When  pigs  are  two  or  three  weeks  old  they  will  begin  to  eat 
if  suflable  food  is  provided  for  them.  The  sow  should  be  well 
fed  with  scalded  bran,  meal,  and  roots,  in  order  that  she  may 
give  a  large  quantity  of  milk,  but  it  will  be  much  better  for  her 
and  for  the  pigs  that  they  should  have  a  little  trough  of  their 
own,  to  which  the  sow  cannot  have  access,  in  which  they  may 
be  taught  to  eat.  At  first  a  little  sweet  milk  should  be  given. 
Then  add  a  few  oats.  As  the  pigs  increase  in  size  the  quantity 
of  food  must  be  increased.  They  should  always  have  all  they 
will  eat,  but  no  more.  They  will  soon  be  ready  to  eat  soaked 
corn,  and,  after  a  while,  scalded  meal  and  bran. 

The  boars  should  be  castrated  when  about  six  weeks  old.  If 
they  are  to  be  weaned  early,  the  operation  may  be  performed 
two  weeks  sooner.  The  method  to  be  pursued  is  the  same  as 
described  for  castrating  calves,  except  that  cne  man  should  hold 
the  pig  from  the  ground  by  his  hind  legs  while  the  operator  is 
at  work.  For  castrating  an  old  boar  Mr.  Coburn  gives  the 
following  excellent  directions :  "After  drawing  up  one  hind  leg, 
and  fastening  it  securely  to  a  post  or  stake,  fasten  another  rope 
around  the  upper  jaw,  back  to  the  tusks,  draw  it  tightly,  and 
fasten  it  to  another  stake ;  in  this  position  the  animal  can  offer 
no  serious  resistance.  The  cut  should  be  low  down,  and  as 
small  as  possible ;  the  low  cut  will  afford  a  ready  means  of 
escape  for  all  extraneous  matter,  and  allow  the  wound  to  keep 
itself  clean,  there  being  no  sac,  or  pocket,  left  to  hold  the  pus 
formed  during  the  healing  process.     It  is  not  best  to  perform 


744  FARMING   FOR  PROFIT. 

this  Operation  when  the  boar  is  very  fat,  or  the  weather  too 
warm,  as  the  risk  is  much  greater." 

When  a  large  number  of  hogs  are  kept  and  the  services  of 
some  one  who  is  competent  to  perform  the  operation  can  be 
secured,  it  pays  to  have  the  sows  spayed  when  about  three 
months  old.  Mr.  Coburn  strongly  advocates  this,  but  says  that 
"  unless  it  can  be  done  by  a  person  understanding  it,  it  is  risky 
business,"  and  expresses  the  opinion  that  there  are  "  a  thousand 
men  who  can  do  a  tolerable  job  at  castrating  a  boar,  to  one  that 
is  competent  to  properly  spay  a  sow."  On  account  o§  the 
difficulty,  and,  if  not  perfectly  done,  the  danger  of  the  operation, 
it  will  hardly  pay  the  man  who  keeps  only  a  few  hogs  to  have 
it  performed.  The  owner  of  a  large  drove  can  afford  to  hire 
some  one  who  understands  the  best  method,  and  it  will  pay  him 
well  to  do  so.  Before  undertaking  this  operation  the  beginner 
should,  if  possible,  see  it  perfo.rmed  by  some  competent 
veterinarian.  For  the  benefit  of  those  who  desire  the  infor- 
mation, but  are  not  able  to  visit  a  surgeon,  we  will  give  the 
directions  for  spaying  small  animals  which  Prof.  Law  has 
furnished  in  his  veterinary  work.  "  The  animal  is  stretched  on 
its  left  side,  the  fore  limbs  and  head  being  firmly  secured,  and 
the  hind  limbs  extended  backwards.  The  hair  is  shaved  from 
the  flank  a  little  below  the  angle  of  the  hip-bone,  and  an  incision 
made  from  above  down,  extending  to  an  inch  in  the  pig  or 
bitch,  or  sufficient  to  introduce  the  hand  in  the  heifer.  Then 
with  the  finger  or  hand,  as  the  case  may  be,  the  womb  is  sought, 
backward  at  the  entrance  of  the  pelvis  in  the  interval  between 
the  bladder  and  the  straight  gut.  Being  found,  one  horn  or 
division  is  drawn  up  through  the  wound  until  its  end  is  exposed 
with  the  round  mass  of  the  ovary  adjacent.  The  latter  is  seized- 
and  cut  or  twisted  off  according  to  the  size  of  the  animal.  Then 
the  next  horn  and  ovary  are  brought  out  and  treated  in  the 
same  way.  The  womb  is  now  returned  into  the  abdomen,  and 
the    skin    accurately   sewed   up."      There  are  other  methods  of 


SWINE.  745 

performing  the  operation,  but  we  consider  this  the  best.  After 
a  sow  has  been  spayed  she  must  be  protected  from  cold  and 
storms.  Turpentine  or  buttermilk  should  be  applied  to  the 
wound  if  the  weather  is  warm.  If  there  is  no  danger  from  flies 
apply  a  little  lard. 

Fattening  Pigs. — In  order  to  do  this  to  the  best  advantage  it 
is  necessary  to  commence,  and  well  to  finish,  the  operation  while 
the  animals  are  young.  It  has  been  generally  believed  that  old 
hogs  would  fatten  more  easily  than  pigs,  but  this  is  a  great  mis- 
take. Prof.  Sanborn,  of  New  Hampshire,  who  has  given  this 
subject  considerable  attention,  advises  the  farmer  to  fatten  his 
pigs  by  the  time  they  are  six  months  old,  and  believes  that  the 
man  "  who  keeps  a  pig  more  than  eight  months  loses  twenty  per 
cent."  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  early  maturity  is  advan- 
tageous, and  that  it  is  best  to  fatten  pigs  rapidly.  Many  farmers 
feed  their  pigs  lightly  in  the  spring  and  summer,  just  enough  to 
keep  them  growing  slowly,  and  do  not  really  begin  to  feed  well 
until  fall.  This  is  an  unprofitable  method.  From  the  day  when 
the  pig  leaves  the  sow  until  it  is  killed,  it  ought  to  be  fed  so 
that  it  will  make  a  steady  growth  and  take  on  flesh  as  fast  as  it 
increases  in  size. 

If  the  pigs  have  been  fed  while  with  the  sow,  as  we  have  ad- 
vised, they  will  suffer  but  little  when  weaned.  Having  been 
taught  to  eat  while  with  her,  they  will  eat  readily  when  taken  from 
her.  At  first  they  should  be  fed  several  times  a  day,  early  in  the 
morning  and  in  the  evening,  as  well  as  in  daylight.  Milk,  with 
a  small  quantity  of  corn  meal  which  has  been  scalded,  is  the 
best  food.  If  this  cannot  be  supplied,  slops  and  meal,  or  bran, 
should  be  given.  There  should  be  a  clean  and  comfortable  pen 
provided,  and  plenty  of  fresh  water  should  be  supplied.  In 
warm  weather,  access  to  a  good  clover  pasture  should  be  given. 
With  the  age  of  the  pig  the  quantity  and  quality  of  its  food 
should  be  steadily  increased. 

It  often  happens  that  two  or  three  of  the  pigs  in  a  litter  will 


746  FAKMIXG   FOR   PROFIT. 

be  much  smaller  at  weaning-time  than  the  others.  Sometimes 
these  pigs  do  not  grow  well,  but  we  have  known  them  to  make 
the  best  hogs  of  the  lot.  They  should  have  extra  care  and  food 
It  is  best  to  let  them  remain  a  week  or  two  longer  with  the  sow. 
This  will  be  a  great  benefit  to  her  as  well  as  to  them,  as  it  will 
cause  the  flow  of  milk  to  cease  gradually.  Many  of  the  best 
breeders  never  take  off  all  the  pigs  at  once,  but  leave  two  or 
three  after  the  others  have  been  removed,  and  then  take  these 
off  one  at  a  time.  This  is  a  wise  method  for  all  growers  to 
follow. 

A  great  deal  has  been  said  and  written,  and  many  experi- 
ments have  been  tried,  in  order  to  determine  which  is  the  best 
food  for  pigs  which  are  being  fattened.  No  great  good  ever 
has,  or  will,  come  out  of  these  efforts.  This  because  the  pig,  in 
common  with  all  other  animals,  needs  a  variety  of  food,  and  no 
one  article,  however  good,  can  in  itself  answer  all  the  require- 
ments of  his  system.  Many  farmers,  especially  at  the  East, 
wholly  overlook  the  fact  that  the -pig  is  a  grass-eating  animal 
and  likes  fresh  clover  as  well  as  the  cow.  At  the  West  there  has 
been  a  too  exclusive  use  of  Indian  corn,  and  terrible  visitations 
of  disease  have  been  among  the  results.  Undoubtedly,  when 
fed  as  it  should  be,  corn  is  the  best  article  for  fattening  pigs 
which  wc  have,  but  it  is  altogether  too  heating  and  concentrated 
to  use  alone.  Fed  with  grass  and  roots,  of  which  artichokes  are 
highly  prized  at  the  West,  and  plenty  of  slops,  it  gives  the  best 
results  in  proportion  to  its  cost  of  anything  which  the  farmer 
can  use.  When  the  fattening  process  is  to  go  on  slowly,  and 
the  owner  prefers  to  have  the  pigs  attain  a  larger  size  before 
taking  on  much  flesh,  the  use  of  boiled  potatoes  and  milk  will 
prove  an  efficient  means  for  attaining  the  desired  end.  We 
use  small  potatoes  in  this  manner  and  think  they  are  more 
profitable  than  when  fed  to  cows.  A  diet  of  grass  and  water, 
with  a  little  meal,  will  also  be  good  in  warm  weather.  When 
the  fattening  process  is  to  be  hastened,  the  quantity  of  meal 


SWINE.  747 

should  be  increased  or  ears  of  corn  should  be  fed.  In  order  to 
provide  for  the  summer  drought,  which  usually  ripens  off  the 
grass  in  pastures,  some  peas  may  be  sown  broadcast  in  the 
spring.  These  will  not  only  furnish  green  food  when  it  is  most 
needed,  but  the  peas  will  be  found  very  beneficial.  In  Canada, 
peas  are  extensively  used  for  fattening  pigs,  and  they  will,  in 
time,  be  more  generally  grown  in  this  country. 

It  is  not  well  to  keep  too  many  pigs  in  a  single  yard.  Like 
all  other  animals,  and  to  a  greater  extent  than  some,  pigs  need 
room.  They  want  to  exercise  and  they  want  to  be  clean. 
Though  they  like  an  occasional  mud-bath,  they  do  not  like  to 
be  in  mud  all  th^  time.  When  they  have  the  opportunity  they 
will  keep  as  clean  as  any  domestic  animals.  If  large  numbers 
are  kept  in  filthy  yards,  or  small  pastures,  disease  is  very  likely 
to  carry  off  a  large  proportion  of  them.  Not  only  in  order  that 
the  pigs  m.ay  be  comfortable,  but  also  for  the  profit  of  the  owner,, 
they  should  always  have  plenty  of  room. 

When  taken  from  grass  and  shut  into  the  feeding-yards,  where 
meat  is  to  be  made' with  the  greatest  possible  rapidity,  the  change 
of  food  should  be  gradual.  Bran  slop  with  boiled  potatoes 
and  a  little  meal  should  be  given  at  first.  Gradually  increase 
the  meal,  or  corn,  and  leave  out  the  bran  and  potatoes.  In  a 
short  time  the  hogs  can  be  brought  to  full  rations  of  corn  without 
injury.  The  fattening  should  be  done  before  cold  weather.  We 
do  not  believe  the  average  farmer  makes  it  pay  to  feed  pigs  dur- 
ing the  winter  for  pork.  If  he  has  pigs,  as  he  should,  he  must 
feed  them,  of  course,  but  the  aim  should  be  to  keep  them  thrifty 
and  growing  but  not  to  fatten  rapidly. 

Salt  should  be  given  occasionally,  and  ashes  should  be  placed 

within  reach  of  the  pigs.     In  all  respects  the  animals  should  be 

made  as  comfortable  as  possible.      They  should  always  have 

food  enough — all  that  they  will  eat  clean — but  should  not  be 

allowed  to  leave  any.     The  food  should  never  be  thrown  intO) 

the  mud,  but  ought  always  to  be  given  in  a  clean  place. 
46 


748  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 

Upon  this  point  the  National  Live-Stock  Journal  well 
says:  "  No  hog  will  thrive  when  compelled  to  eat  and  sleep  in 
i:he  mud.  Dry  dust  is  almost  as  injurious  as  mud.  Conse- 
quently, when  hogs  are  confined  to  a  small  lot  or  pen,  it  is 
always  the  best  economy  to  provide  a  good  feeding-floor  of  solid 
boards  for  them.  There  is  no  more  wasteful  practice  in  feeding 
than  that  often  seen  on  our  Western  prairie  farms,  of  hogs  con- 
fined in  an  open  pen,  with  the  black  prairie  soil  converted  into  a 
deep  mud.  in  which  they  must  both  eat  and  sleep.  Although 
all  the  grain  may  be  sought  out  and  eaten,  no  one  ever  saw 
hogs  thrive  under  such  treatment.  The  grain  is  simply  wasted. 
It  will  pay  to  spend  the  price  of  a  few  bushels  of  corn  in  pre- 
paring good  quarters  at  the  beginning  of  the  fattening  season, 
and,  when  once  prepared,  the  shelter  and  feeding-floor  will  last 
for  several  years.  Content  and  comfort  are  absolutely  essential 
to  a  rapid  accumulation  of  fat."  Even  when  the  enclosure  is 
large  enough  to  give  ample  room,  it  is  best  to  have  a  feeding- 
floor.  If  this  is  neglected,  there  will  be  many  stormy  days  in 
which  the  ground  will  be  soft,  and  the  pigs  must  pick  their  food 
out  of  the  mud.  Besides,  in  cold  rains  and  snow  storms,  they 
need  the  shelter  which  a  well-constructed  shed  supplies.  The 
hours  of  feeding  should  be  regular,  and  ought  to  be  very  closely 
observed.  Pigs  which  are  always  fed  "  on  time  "  will  gain  flesh 
much  faster  than  those  which  have  the  same  quantity  and 
quality  of  food,  but  which  receive  it  at  irregular  intervals. 

Whether  it  pays  to  cook  meal  for  hogs  which  are  being  fat- 
tened, is  a  question  upon  which  "  the  doctors  disagree  "  as  freely 
as  they  do  upon  the  same  question  concerning  the  food  for 
cows.  That  it  is  best  to  cook  meal  for  youtig  pigs  we  have  no 
doubt,  and  there  are  many  earnest  advocates  of  cooking  meal 
for  pigs  -which  are  being  rapidly  fattened.  Among  the  advo- 
'Cates  are  many  very  successful  men  who  have  had  an  immense 
amount  of  experience  in  the  business  of  making  pork.  But 
many  carefully  conducted  experiments  go  to  prove  that  cook- 


SWINE.  749 

ing  the  meal  does  not  pay.  At  the  Iowa  College  farm  the 
result  of  a  careful  trial  was  strongly  adverse  to  cooking  the 
food.  Messrs.  J.  M.  Billingsly,  of  Spring  Valley,  Indiana, 
and  R.  L.  Bingham,  of  Bloomington,  Wis.,  each  tried  the 
experiment  on  quite  a  large  scale  and  in  a  very  careful  manner 
with  the  same  result.  Mr.  H.  P.  Beattie,  of  Davenport, 
Iowa,  whose  hog-pen  cost  nearly  one  thousand  dollars,  and  who 
has  a  "  steam-engine,  corn-stone,  corn-sheller,  vats,  and  every 
convenience  that  money  could  purchase,"  and  keeps  a  large 
number  of  hogs,  tried  cooking  their  food  for  three  or  four  years, 
ground  all  his  grain,  and  has  "  come  to  the  conclusion  that 
there  is  no  advantage  in  cooking  food  for  hogs."  At  the 
Maine  Agricultural  College,  a  six  years'  trial  proved  that 
there  the  '*  raw  corn  meal  for  feeding  swine  is  more  economical 
than  meal  that  is  cooked."  In  commenting  upon  the  results  of 
this  last  experiment,  the  editor  of  the  New  England  Farmer 
says :  "  This  accords  with  our  own  experience,  although  con- 
trary to  common  opinion."  Upon  this  point  Mr.  Coburn  says  : 
"  The  surrounding  conditions  and  circumstances  have  much  to 
do  in  deciding  the  question  of  economy ;  and  while  one  farmer, 
under  certain  circumstances,  could  feed  a  considerable  portion  of 
cooked  grain  and  secure  satisfactory  returns  therefor,  another, 
differently  situated,  though  perhaps  in  the  same  neighborhood, 
and  raising  the  same  class  of  swine,  might  be  unable  to  do  so 
without  actual  loss."  This  we  believe  to  be  strictly  true.  The 
circumstances  of  each  farmer  must  be  a  controlling  influence. 
No  one  rule  will  apply  to  all  cases,  and  a  practice  which  will 
pay  one  man  may  involve  his  neighbor  in  a  heavy  loss. 

Diseases. — Nearly  all  of  the  diseases  of  pigs  are  brought  on, 
and  all  of  them  are  aggravated,  by  improper  feeding,  exposure  to 
the  weather  or  to  contagion,  or  the  use  of  unhealthy  and  badly 
mated  breeding-stock.  Here,  as  with  other  animals,  the  great 
reliance  of  the  farmer  must  be  placed  upon  prevention.  Many 
diseases  may  be  prevented  which  cannot  be  cured,  and  those: 


750  •  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 

which  arc  curable  involve  a  great  loss  to  the  owner  of  the  stock 
which  inexpensive  preventive  measures  would  save.  Besides 
a  hog  is  one  of  the  worst  of  all  animals  to  doctor.  Medicines 
are  best  given  in  his  food.  If  so  far  gone  that  he  will  not  eat, 
he  may  be  turned  out  of  his  pen  and  left  to  his  own  devices, 
or,  if  desired,  medicines  may  be  poured  down  his  throat.  The 
former  method  we  have  tried  successfully,  the  latter  we  have 
never  tested. 

In  summer  when  a  pig  refuses  to  eat,  turn  him  into  a  field  in 
which  he  can  have  water  and  shade.  He  will  be  quite  likely  to 
burrow  a  deep  hole  in  the  earth,  get  into  it,  and  lie  there  from 
ten  to  twenty-four  hours.  Then  he  may  come  out  of  his  trouble 
and  remain  perfectly  well.  In  winter  the  sick  pig  must  have  a 
warm  nest,  plenty  of  fresh  water,  and  gruel  if  he  wants  it. 

Among  specific  diseases  the  so-called  "  hog  cholera,"  which 
sweeps  off  millions  of  dollars  worth  of  animals  every  year,  is 
the  most  dreaded  and  the  least  understood.  That  it  is  extremely 
contagious,  and  may  be  carried  on  the  shoes  or  in  the  clothes  of 
men  visiting  an  infected  herd,  there  can  be  no  doubt.  That 
aside  from  the  contagious  influence  the  disease  might  be 
prevented  in  any  given  herd  seems  to  be  admitted  by  the  best 
authorities.  The  men  who  feed  properly,  give  plenty  of  room, 
and  fresh  water,  would  not  be  likely  to  lose  hogs  from  this 
disease  if  they  were  not  exposed  in  some  way  to  the  contagion. 
The  two  things  to  be  done  are  to  be  careful  about  the  feeding 
and  surroundings,  and  to  avoid  all  possible  sources  of  con- 
tagion. 

Many  remedies  have  been  advertised  for  this  disease,  but  a 
genuine  specific  does  not  seem  to  have  been  found.  The  editors 
of  the  National  I.ivfi-STOCK  Journal  have  refused  to  advertise 
these  remedies  because  they  "  honestly  believe  them  to  be 
practically  worthless  as  cures  for  the  disease.  It  may  be  that 
some  of  them  possess  value  as  tonics ;  but  the  man  who  buys 
any  of  the  so-called  cholera  cures,  believing  that  he  has  some- 


SWINE.  751 

thing  that  will  prevent  hog  cholera,  or  cure  it  after  It  has  attacked 
his  herd,  is  destined  to  disappointment."  That  some  affected 
herds  have  been  treated  with  a  certain  degree  of  success  is  true, 
but  we  think  the  cleansing  of  the  premises,  the  change  of 
diet,  and  the  increased  attention  that  was  given  had  much  to 
do  in  securing  the  good  results  which  have  been  attained. 
Medicine  alone,  without  regard  to  diet  and  surroundings,  will  be 
of  no  avail.  When  this,  or  any  other,  disease  appears,  the  sick 
animals  should"  be  immediately  separated  from  those  which  are 
well.  A  good  veterinarian  should  be  employed  when  the 
"  cholera  "  first  appears,  and  the  pens  and  yards  should  be  put 
in  the  best  possible  condition.  Some  of  our  most  eminent 
veterinary  physicians  have  been  closely  studying  in  order  to  find 
the  causes,  and,  if  possible,  a  remedy  for  this  disease.  Part  of 
them  are  still  at  work,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that  their  investi- 
gations will  lead  to  the  discovery  of  means  for  preventing  the 
fearful  loss  which  for  a  {^\\  years  past  the  farmers  of  the  West 
have  been  obliged  to  sustain. 

DiARRHCEA  carries  off  many  little  pigs,  and  injures  many  which 
survive  its  attack.  Improper  feeding  of  the  sow  if  the  pigs  are 
sucking,  and  of  the  pigs  themselves  if  they  have  been  weaned, 
is  the  most  frequent  cause.  Still  many  attacks  are  brought "on 
by  breathing  impure  air,  drinking  dirty  water,  and  taking  cold. 
When  sucking  pigs  are  attacked,  the  sow  should  be  kept  on  dry 
food  for  a  few  days.  Pigs  which  have  been  weaned  can  usually 
be  cured  by  giving  dry  food,  but  if  this  fails  give  a  teaspoonful 
to  a  tablespoonful  of  prepared  chalk  twice  a  day.  Keep  the 
pen  clean'  using  dry  earth  in  summer  and  chloride  of  lime  in 
winter  as  a  deodorizer,  and  secure  thorough  ventilation. 

Constipation,  though  not  immediately  fatal,  may,  if  neglected, 
lead  to  serious  results.  A  change  of  diet  will  usually  be 
sufficient  to  effect  a  cure.  In  summer  give  plenty  of  clover  and 
roots.  In  cold  weather  warm  bran  mashes  with  the  addition  of 
flaxseed  tea  or  slippery-elm  water  will  be  safe  and  reasonably 


752  FARMIXG   FOR   PROFIT. 

sure.  If  these  fail,  an  injection  of  warm  soap-suds  in  which  an 
ounce  of  Epsom  salts  has  been  dissolved  should  be  given. 

Worms  of  various  kinds  give  a  great  deal  of  trouble  to  pigs. 
The  simplest  treatment  for  an  ordinary  case  is  to  give  some 
soap-suds  and  wood-ashes  in  the  swill.  Measles,  similar  to  th^ 
tape-worm  in  man,  is  regarded  as  an  incurable  disease,  but  can 
be  prevented  without  great  difficulty.  No  human  excrement 
should  be  spread  upon  swine  pastures,  or  used  for  growing  roots 
which  are  to  be  fed  raw,  and  pigs  should  not  be  allowed  access 
to  it  at  any  time.  Contact  with  an  infected  herd  had  better 
be  avoided,  though  it  might  not  communicate  the  disease. 

Mange  is  a  troublesome  disease  similar  to  the  itch  in  man. 
It  is  very  contagious,  and,  like  the  scab  in  sheep,  may  be  spread 
by  contact  with  a  rubbing-post  which  has  been  used  by  a 
diseased  animal.  The  affected  animal  should  either  be  covered 
with  soft  soap,  washed  off  three  or  four  hours  after  its  application, 
or  else  washed  in  tobacco  water,  or  water  in  which  caustic  pot- 
ash has  been  dissolved  in  the  proportion  of  one  part  potash  to 
fifty  parts  of  water.  Two  days  after  the  first  treatment  wash  the 
animal  thoroughly  in  strong  soap-suds.  The  pen  and  fence 
should  be  washed  with  a  strong  solution  of  caustic  potash. 

Lice  may  be  removed  by  the  use  of  tobacco  water  or  a  light 
application  of  kerosene  oil.  Carbolic  acid  with  three  times  the 
quantity  of  water  may  be  used  instead  of  the  above.  The  liquid 
should  be  rubbed  upon  the  back,  behind  the  fore  legs,  the  flanks, 
and  between  the  hind  legs. 

Rheumatism. — This  is  almost  invariably  caused  by  exposure 
to  dampness,  sleeping  on  the  cold  ground,  or  lying  in  filthy 
pens.  The  preventive  measures  are  cleanliness,  warmth,  and 
protection  from  storms.  In  the  line  of  treatment,  Mr.  Coburn 
recommends  a  tablespoonful  of  cod-liver  oil  once  or  twice  a  day. 
This  should  be  mixed  with  the  food.  For  large  pigs  give  twice 
the  quantity.     Keep  the  pigs  warm  and  give  soft  food. 

Curing  Pork. — There  are  only  two  methods  by  which  the 


sH-m^.  J53 


average  farn,er  can  keep  pork  in  a  good  condition  for  any  length 
of  tnne.  One  of  these,  vvliieh  is  by  keeping  it  at  a  low  tem- 
perature, can  be  used  only  in  the  winter.  The  other  which 
involves  the  use  of  some  preservative  substance,  can  be  made 
successful  during  the  larger  part  of  the  year.  In  the  winter 
fresh  pork  can  be  kept  at  the  North  for  some  weeks  by  packin<^ 
m  snow  and  placing  where  it  will  be  kept  frozen.  After  it  has 
tliawed  the  meat  will  keep  but  a  short  time. 

Salt  and  smoke,  the  two  preservative  substances  in  common 
use,  can  be  applied  at  all  times  exiept  when  the  weather  is  very 
hot  But  ,f  used  in  the  summer  a  great  deal  more  care  and  skill 
will  be  needed  than  is  required  in  the  winter. 

Before  being  either  frozen  or  salted,  the  meat  must  be  thor- 
oughly cooled.     It  is  to  the  difficulty  of  effecting  this  that  the 
mam  trouble  with  salting  pork  in  hot  weather  is  due.     After  the 
hog  ,s  dressed  he  should  hang  until  well  cooled  off,  but  must 
not  be  allowed  to  freeze.     It  is  sometimes  best  to  split  the  ear- 
-se  down  the  back  in  order  to  facilitate  the  cooling  process. 
When  well  cooled,  the  pork  may  be  cut  and  the  parts  left  in  a 
cool  place  for  a  while  so  that  all  the  animal  heat  may  escape 
The  outs,des  of  the  thick  pieces  will  cool  n.uch  sooner  than 
the,r  centres,  and  meat  often  fails  to  Jeep  well  because,  though 
well  enough  on  the  exterior,  it  was  not  cooled  at  the  middle  and 
around  the  bones. 

The  fat  pieces  are  best  preserved  with  salt.  They  may  be  cut 
m  any  desired  shape  and  packed  closely  into  a  barrel.  Unlike 
some  kmds  of  meat,  pork  will  absorb  no  more  salt  than  it  rieeds. 

quantity.  Eight  or  ten  pounds  of  salt  for  one  hundred  pounds 
of  pork  will  be  sufficient.  The  easiest  way  to  salt  pork  is  to  cut 
.t  mto  pieces  of  convenient  size,  cover  the  bottom  of  the  barrel 
m  which  ,t  ,s  to  be  kept  with  a  layer  of  salt  half  an  inch  thick 
upon  this  place  a  layer  of  pork,  then  another  laver  of  salt  fol! 
lowed  by  another  of  meat,  and  so  on  until  all  is'  packed     The 


754  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 

pieces  should  wedge  into  the  barrel  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
cover  nearly  all  of  the  surface.  If  this  is  neglected,  a  large 
quantity  of  salt  will  be  needed  to  fill  the  openings.  The  top 
layer  of  meat  should  be  covered  with  salt,  and  a  close-fitting 
cover  placed  upon  the  barrel. 

Many  farmers  prefer  to  use  brine  instead  of  relying  upon  dry 
salt.  The  pork  is  to  be  packed  as  directed  above,  and  pure 
water  poured  into  the  barrel  until  all  of  the  spaces  are  filled  and  . 
the  meat  is  well  covered.  A  board  which  will  just  go  inside  the 
barrel,  like  a  follower  to  a  clieese  hoop,  should  be  fitted,  with 
several  holes  bored  through  it,  placed  upon  the  meat  and  a 
weight  put  on  to  keep  it  in  place.  This  is  needed  in  order  to 
keep  the  meat  from  floating  in  the  brine. 

A  method  which  we  consider  much  better  than  either  of  the 
above  is  to  use  a  prepared  brine.  The  following  recipe  for 
making  brine  for  one  hundred  pounds  of  pork  is  as  good  as  any 
with  which  we  are  familiar:  Dissolve  in  pure  water,  using  just 
enough  to  fully  dissolve  the  materials,  four  ounces  of  saltpetre, 
two  pounds  of  good  brown  sugar,  and  seven  pounds  of  salt. 
When  thoroughly  dissoK^ed,  the  mixture  should  be  boiled  and 
all  the  impurities,  which  will  rise  to  the  surface,  skimmed  off. 
When  this  is  cold  it  is  to  be  poured  over  the  meat  and  the 
board  and  weight  put  on  as  already  recommended. 

The  hams  and  shoulders  can  be  put  into  a  brine  (made  as 
directed  for  the  salt  meat)  or  be  covered  with  a  mixture  of  fine 
salt,  molasses,  and  saltpetre,  using,  for  one  hundred  and  fifty 
pounds  of  meat,  twelve  pounds  salt,  two  quarts  molasses,  and 
one-half  pound  saltpetre.  Mix  these  articles  well  and  rub  the 
meat  thoroughly,  then  lay  away  in  a  cool  and  dry  place.  Rub 
the  meat  again  at  the  end  of  a  week  and  once  more  a  week  later. 
The  smoking  process  may  then  be  commenced.  This  should 
be  done  slowly  but  thoroughly.  About  ten  days'  time  will  be 
required  for  pieces  of  ordinary  size.  Many  people  pickle  the 
meat  well  in  brine  and  use  it  without  further  curing. 


SWINE.  755 

Except  in  cool  weather,  a  great  deal  of  care  must  be  taken, 
both  before  and  af:er  the  curing  is  performed,  to  protect  the 
meat  from  flies.  The  smoked  meat  can  be  covered  with  canvas, 
packed  in  tight  barrels,  or  well  buried  in  a  bin  of  shelled  corn. 

It  has  been  often  said  that  meat  cannot  be  salted  successfully 
during  "dog-days."  That  this  is  not  a  good  time  to  salt  meat 
must  be  evident  to  any  one,  and,  under  ordinary  circumstances, 
the  work  should  be  delayed  until  a, more  favorable  season.  But, 
as  some  of  our  readers  may  find  it  convenient  to  put  down  meat 
at  this  time,  we  will  give  a  method  which  was  reported,  by  a 
lady,  in  the  American  Cultivator.  We  have  never  tested  the 
plan,  but  it  was  recommended  by  a  worthy  minister,  and  tried 
by  the  lady  who  sent  the  report,  and  is  said  to  be  safe  and  sure. 
The  method  is  described  as  follows  :  "  Put  in  plenty  of  salt  and 
it  will  be  apt  to  keep.  But  if  it  should  begin  to  hurt,  take  it  out 
of  the  barrel,  meat,  brine  and  all.  Then  get  a  quantity  of  smart- 
weed  and  pack  the  pork  with  the  weed  back  into  the  barrel ; 
lay  plenty  of  it  all  around  each  piece,  or  you  can  pack  it  in 
layers  of  the  weed.  Let  it  remain  four  or  five  days,  then  take 
it  all  out,  throw  away  the  smart-weed,  and  pack  the  pork  in  the 
barrel.  Then  pour  on  the  brine,  having  previously  scalded, 
skimmed,  and  cooled  it.  Never  put  warm  brine  on  meat. 
Your  meat  will  then  be  all  right."  This  plan  is  very  simple  and 
well  worthy  of  a  trial  by  those  who  salt  pork  in  extremely  hot 
and  sultry  weather.  But  it  is  much  easier  to  prevent  mischief 
than  it  is  to  cure  it,  and,  except  under  peculiar  circumstances, 
it  will  not  be  wise  to  attempt  to  salt  pork  in  the  mid-summer 
months. 


756  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

THE  rN"FEBioH  ai^x^^a^s, 

HERE  are  a  few  classes  of  animals  which  can  be  profita- 
bly kept  upon  many  farms,  but  which,  owing  to  their 
small  size,  or  the  limited  range  of  their  usefulness,  do 
not  receive  that  degree  of  attention  which  is  bestowed 
upon  the  classes  which  we  have  thus  far  considered.  To  these 
animals  a  brief  space  should  be  devoted. 

Hens  are  kept  upon  almost  every  farm,  and  may  be  made  to 
pay  well.  But  in  order  to  be  profitable,  they  should  receive 
some  degree  of  attention.  If  exposed  to  cold  and  storms,  and 
kept  half-starved,  they  can  neither  take  on  flesh  nor  produce 
eggs.  A  good  house  should  be  provided  for  their  accommo- 
dation. This  should  be  kept  very  clean.  In  it  feeding-troughs 
and  drinking-pans  should  be  placed.  These  should  be  so 
arranged  that  while  the  fowls  can  eat  and  drink  freely,  they 
cannot  get  into  the  vessels.  Roosting-places  should  be  pro- 
vided, and  instead  of  putting  up  the  perches  in  tiers,  the  front 
one  being  the  lowest,  the  next  one  a  foot  or  two  higher,  and  so 
on  until  the  last  and  highest  one  is  reached,  they  should  all  b(» 
placed  on  a  level,  and  only  three  feet  from  the  floor.  This  is 
very  much  better  than  the  old  method.  When  the  perches  are 
of  different  heights,  too  many  hens  will  try  to  get  upon  the 
highest  one,  the  weaker  ones  will  fall  or  be  crowded  off,  and 
falling  so  far  may  be  seriously  injured.  The  perches  should  be 
made  of  small  poles  of  sassafras-wood  or  wild  cherry  when  they 
can  be  obtained. 

Connected  with  the  house  should  be  a  good-sized  yafd  in 
which  the  hens  can  stay  in  pleasant  weather.  They  like  to  get 
on  the  ground,  and  will  be  much  more  healthy  if  allowed  to  do 
so.  If  the  garden  is  not  close  by,  it  will  be  well  to  let  the  hens 
out  for  an  hour  each  day.  Between  four  and  five  o'clock  in  the 
afternoon  is  the  best  time.  When  the  orchard  is  pastured,  it 
is  well  to  give  the  hens  a  chance  to  run  among  the  trees,  as  they 


FTG.   114. 
I.  P.ROWX  T.FGHORXS.     2.  WHITE  HOT.T.AXD  TURKEYS. 


THE   INFERIOR  ANIMALS.  759 

will  destroy  a  multitude  of  worms,  but  if  the  grass  is  to  be 
made  into  hay  they  will  tread  it  down,  and  do  more  hurt  than 
good. 

Too  many  fowls  must  not  be  kept  together.  A  larger  number 
can  be  kept  in  a  large  house  and  commodious  yard  than  can  be 
safely  put  into  close  quarters,  but  there  is  a  limit  to  the  number 
which  can  be  profitably  kept  in  a  single  enclosure. 

Which  Breed  to  keep  is  a  question  over  which  many 
farmers  have  a  great  deal  of  needless  perplexity.  Any  good 
breed  is  better  than  hens  belonging  to  no  breed,  but  any  one 
of  half  a  dozen  breeds  will  do  well  enough  if  they  receive  good 
care.  If  the  farmer  wants  to  raise  chickens  for  the  market,  or 
his  own  table,  the  Brahma,  Cochin,  Plymouth  Rock,  or 
Dorking,  will  answer  his  requirement.  If  he  does  not  care 
particularly  for  chickens,  but  wants  eggs,  the  Leghorn,  Houdan, 
or  the  Hamburg  will  give  satisfaction.  There  are  also  several 
other  excellent  breeds  which  we  have  not  room  to  notice. 

By  purchasing  a  few  eggs  it  is  easy  to  obtain  fowls  of  any 
desired  breed  for  a  low  price.  These  should  be  bought  as  near 
home  as  possible,  as  transportation  often  destroys  the  vitality  of 
eggs  which  were  good  when  they  were  sent,  and  causes  the 
seller  to  be  unjustly  blamed,  as  well  as  involves  a  loss  to  the 
buyer.  It  is  not  necessary  that  the  ■  farmer  should  keep  the 
breed  perfectly  pure.  Many  prefer  to  cross  a  pure-blood  male 
with  their  finest  native  hens.  Of  course  the  chickens  obtained 
in  this  way  must  not  be  sold  for  pure-blooded  ones,  but  they 
may  be  just  as  good  to  fatten,  or  to  produce  eggs  as  the 
thorough-breds. 

Raising  Chickens. — When  a  hen  desires  to  sit  and  chickens 
are  wanted,  some  fresh  eggs  should  be  obtained,  and  either  put 
into  the  nest  which  she  occupies,  or  else  a  nest  should  be  made 
for  her  in  a  suitable  place,  t*he  eggs  put  into  it,  and  the  hen  put 
over  them  in  the  evening.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  put  some  tansy 
into  the  bottom  of  the  nest.     Do  not  put  in  too  many  eggs. 


/go  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

A  small  hen  should  have  only  nine,  and  a  large  one  not  more 
than  thirteen.  Plenty  of  food  and  fresh  water  should  be  placed 
near  the  nest,  so  that  the  hen  need  not  be  off  long  at  a  time.  In 
three  weeks  the  eggs  should  hatch. 

The  chickens  should  not  be  hurried  from  the  nest,  and  they 
do  not  need  food  for  twenty-four  hours  after  they  are  hatched. 
Then  give  them  a  boiled  &^^,  cut  into  in  the  middle  so  that 
they  can  pick  out  the  meat.  After  this  feed  with  soaked  bread 
and  oat  meal  pudding  for  a  few  days.  Begin  to  feed  cracked 
corn  gradually  with  the  oat  meal.  Also  give  Indian  meal 
pudding  part  of  the  time.  Chopped  meat  is  good  for  them,  and 
green  food,  grass,  lettuce,  or  cabbage  leaves  will  be  relished  and 
prove  beneficial.  For  a  few  weeks  they  must  be  protected  from 
cold  and  storms.  Gix^e  them  plenty  of  ashes  to  roll  in,  and  all 
the  pounded  oyster-shells  and  ground  bone  they  want  to  eat. 
Feed  well  with  a  variety  of  food,  giving  grain,  vegetables,  and 
animal  food  in  abundance.  Furnish  plenty  of  fresh  water,  and 
give  them  room  in  which  to  exercise.  Feed  regularly  and  keep 
them  growing  every  day. 

When  it  is  time  to  fatten  them,  if  the  chickens  have  been 
treated  as  above  advised,  the  work  will  be  already  well  begun, 
and  may  be  very  soon  completed.  The  fowls  should  be  shut 
into  a  house,  or  coop,  two  or  three  weeks  before  they  are  to  be 
killed,  dnd  fed  with  Indian  meal  pudding  given  warm,  and 
warm  baked  potatoes.  The  addition  of  barley  meal  to  the 
pu.lding  is  beneficial.  Fresh  water  should  be  supplied,  and  all 
the  food  the  chickens  will  cat  should  be  given.  Fowls  which 
have  not  been  well  fed  should  be  shut  up  a  much  longer  time. 

Hens  for  laying  must  be  well  fed  or  they  cannot  furnish  a 
large  number  of  eggs.  They  should  have  room,  clean  quarters, 
comfortable  surroundings,  fresh  water,  and  a  variety  of  food. 
Ashes,  ground  bones,  pounded  oyst&r-shells,  and  gravel  should 
also  be  supplied.  Food  should  be  clean,  of  best  quality,  and  a 
large  variety  of  grain,  vegetables  and  meat  should  be  furnished 


THE   INFERIOR  ANIMALS.  761 

Oats  fried  in  lard  are  excellent  for  part  of  the  winter  diet. 
Corn  should  be  given  sparingly,  as  it  tends  to  fatten  the  hens 
rather  than  make  them  lay  eggs. 

Some  breeds  are  better  layers  than  others,  but  no  breed  will, 
or  can,  lay  all  of  the  time.  Hens  must  have  rest  as  truly  as 
other  animals.  There  are  some  breeds  highly  recommended  as 
winter  layers.  These,  generally,  do  not  furnish  many  eggs  in 
summer.  The  hens  which  lay  well  in  the  summer  will  not  lay 
all  winter.  In  order  to  have  eggs  at  all  seasons  hens  of  dif- 
ferent ages  must  be  kept,  and  it  is  well  to  have  some  of  two 
different  breeds,  one  of  which  is  noted  for  winter  and  the  other 
for  summer  laying.  The  latter  is  not  indispensable,  but  the 
former  is  an  absolute  necessity.  If  the  hens  are  all  of  the  same 
age,  they  will  all  lay  at  about  the  same  time  and  stop  laying 
together.  But  if  hens  of  several  different  ages  are  kept,  some  of 
them  will  lay  while  the  others  do  not,  and  when  one  brood 
ceases  another  will  be  ready  to  begin. 

It  does  not  pay  to  keep  old  hens.  During  the  first  year  of 
life  the  hen  lays  more  eggs  than  she  does  during  the  second, 
and  the  number  produced  gradually  decreases  as  she  grows 
older.  The  eggs  of  old  hens  do  not  give  as  strong  chickens  as 
those  of  younger  ones,  and,  except  for  sitting,  the  old  hen  is 
poor  property. 

When  chickens  are  to  be  raised,  one  male  bird  should  be 
kept  for  each  ten  or  twelve  hens.  He  should  be  thorough-bred, 
and  always  well  cared  for.  It  is  not  well  to  keep  him  after  he 
is  two  years  old,  but  during  the  second  year  he  will  be  better 
than  he  was  before.  If  only  eggs  are  wanted,  no  male  need  be 
kept. 

If  properly  kept,  fowls  will  seldom  be  sick;  but  if  badly  fed, 
kept  in   dirty  quarters,  furnished  only  with   impure   water  and 
foul  air,  they  will  be  very  liable  to  disease.     The  wise   ov/ner    ^ 
will  prevent  attacks  of  disease,  as  far  as  he  can,  by  keeping  the 
hens  and  their  surroundings  in  as  good  condition  as  possible. 


762  FARMING   FOR  PROFIT. 

If  sickness  comes,  when  the  cause  is  evident  that  cause  should 
be  at  once  removed.  If  there  is  no  apparent  cause,  if  the 
feeding  and  surroundings  are  right,  take  the  invalid  to  a  block 
and  cut  off  her  head.  It  does  not  pay  to  doctor  a  sick  hen. 
The  chances  are  that  she  will  die  and  also  scatter  disease  and 
death  among  the  whole  flock.  Some  breeders  feed  chopped 
onions  occasionally,  in  order  to  promote  the  health  of  their 
fowls.  Others  give  half  an  ounce  of  sulphur  in  the  food  of 
twelve  fowls  two  or  three  times  a  month.  Either  of  these  plans 
will  prove  beneficial. 

Lice  are  very  likely  to  find  a  home  on  hens,  and  do  a  great 
deal  of  mischief  They  may  be  kept  away  by  dampening  the 
bottoms  of  the  nests  and  washing  the  perches  occasionally  with 
kerosene  oil.  If  the  house  is  shut  up  tight  and  some  brimstone 
burned  in  an  iron  vessel  placed  upon  the  floor,  then  ventilated 
after  two  hours,  and  the  inside  of  the  building  washed  in  a 
strong  solution  of  potash,  and  then  painted  with  kerosene  oil, 
the  old  hay  taken  from  the  nests  and  new  hay  moistened 
slightly  with  the  oil  put  in,  the  work  of  extermination  will  be 
complete. 

Eggs  maybe  kept  for  a  long  time,  and  be  just  as  good  as  new, 
by  packing  in  a  stone  jar,  and  covering  them  with  a  liquid  made 
of  four  gallons  of  boiling  water,  one  pint  of  lime,  and  one  pint 
of  salt.  The  lime  and  salt  should  be  dissolved  in  the  water, 
and  the  liquid  used  when  cold.  This  plan  is  highly  recom- 
mended by  Mr.  Burniiam,  of  Massachusetts,  the  author  of 
several  valuable  works  on  Poultry. 

TuRKKYS  can  often  be  profitably  kept  by  farmers  who  live  in 
thinly  settled  sections.  The  eggs  should  be  put  under  a  large 
hen.     About  four  and  a  half  weeks  are  required  for  hatching. 

Young  turkeys  are  extremely  tender,  and  must  be  carefulh' 
handled.  A  few  hours  after  they  break  the  shell,  they  should, 
with  the  hen,  be  put  into  a  coop  which  stands  in  a  warm  and 
dry  place.     For  at  least  a  month  they  must  be  kept  from  the 


THE   INFERIOR  ANIMALS.  76J 

hot  sun,  must  be  shut  into  the  coop  in  rainy  weather,  and  must 
be  kept  in  every  morning  until  the  dew  is  off  the  grass.  The 
coop  must  not  be  placed  on  grass  land,  and  should  not  be  close 
to  the  mowing-lots.  The  food  should  be  carefully  prepared 
and  regularly  given.  Commence  feeding  the  chicks,  when  six 
or  eight  hours  old,  with  boiled  eggs  and  crumbs  of  bread 
broken  into  fine  pieces.  After  a  few  days,  boiled  sour  milk  with 
cooked  Indian  meal  may  be  given.  Uncooked  meal  should  not 
be  given  to  young  chicks.  A  little  meat  chopped  fine  may  be 
given  occasionally,  and  oat  meal  dough  will  be  good  for  a 
change  of  diet.  Feed  often  and  provide  plenty  of  fresh  water. 
The  latter  should  be  so  arranged  that  they  can  drink  when  they 
choose,  but  still  be  unable  to  get  into  the  dish  containing  it. 

Until  they  are  three  months  old,  the  young  turkeys  must  be 
kept  dry  and  very  carefully  fed.  After  this  time  they  must  be 
fed  well,  but  will  be  able  to  look  out  for  themselves  to  quite  an 
extent.  They  may  be  profitably  fattened  at  any  time  after  they 
are  five  months  old.  When  it  is  desired  to  fatten  them  quickly 
they  should  be  shut  into  a  comfortable  pen,  and  fed  on  cooked 
meal,  boiled  potatoes  and  oats.  It  is  said  that  mixing  a  small 
quantity  of  charcoal,  finely  pulverized,  with  their  food  proves  a 
great  advantage.  Plenty  of  pure  water  should  be  given,  and 
clean  gravel  should  also  be  supplied. 

Ducks  require  either  a  suitable  localit}''  or  else  very  careful 
management  in  order  to  enable  them  to  pay  the  expenses  of 
their  keeping.  The  former  but  very  few  farmers  have,  and  the 
latter  but  very  few  are  willing  to  give.  In  order  to  raise  them 
to  the  best  advantage  the  farmer  should  have  a  pond  on  his 
premises  or  else  live  near  a  river,  marsh,  or  large  brook.  The 
ducks  will  naturally  take  to  water,  and  will  wander  away  in 
search  of  it  if  it  is  not  close  by.  When  no  pond  or  brook  is 
convenient,  large  tubs  of  water  should  be  put  out  for  the  ducks 
to  swim  in. 

The  eggs  may  be  placed   under  a  duck  or  a  common  hen. 


754  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

When  hatched,  the  chicks  should  be  put  into  a  coop,  and  kept 
therein  for  a  while  unless  the  weather  is  very  fine.  Large  but 
shallow  pans  of  water  should  be  placed  close  to  the  coops. 
These  pans  should  often  be  emptied  and  filled  again  with  fresh 
water.  For  food  they  should  at  first  be  supplied  with  bread- 
crumbs soaked  in  milk,  and  hard-boiled  eggs  chopped  fine.  In 
a  short  time  they  will  eat  boiled  Indian  meal  and  milk,  boiled 
potatoes,  and  green  stuff  from  the  garden.  By  the  time  they 
are  three  months  old  they  will  eat  almost  anything  which  any 
fowl  can  swallow,  and  will  need  -  an  immense  amount  of  food. 
They  may  be  allowed  to  run  in  the  garden,  where  they  will  get 
many  worms,  but  should  be  kept  out  of  the  grass  which  is  to  be 
cut  for  hay. 

Geese  need  water  and  green  food,  but  if  plenty  of  the  latter 
is  given  they  can  be  kept  where  there  is  neither  a  pond  nor 
stream.  Still,  they  do  much  better  when  they  can  sail  on  a 
pond  at  will.  Whether  they  can  be  made  to  pay  on  the  farm  is 
a  question  which  most  farmers  will  probably  answer  in  the 
negative.  A  few,  who  live  near  large  cities  in  which  the  flesh 
can  be  readily  sold,  and  who  have  water  on  their  farms,  may 
make  some  money  by  keeping  geese. 

An  old  breeder  has  said  that  the  principal  requisites  for 
success  with  geese  are  "good  housing  and  feeding!'  Though 
they  like  to  swim  in  the  water,  dampness  about  their  houses 
proves  wy-  injurious.  Geese  should  have  a  house  by  them- 
selves, as  they  are  quite  apt  to  quarrel  with  other  fowls.  A 
gander  should  be  kept  for  fiv^e  or  six  geese.  Not  more  than  six 
or  eight  of  these  birds  should  be  kept  in  one  house,  and  plenty 
of  dry  straw  should  be  furnished. 

When  a  goose  is  about  to  commence  laying,  which  will  be 
evident  by  her  gathering  straw,  she  should  be  shut  up.  As  she 
will  be  likely  to  continue  laying  wherever  she  drops  her  first 
^^Z,  it  is  quite  an  object  to  induce  her  to  begin  in  her  appropriate 
quarters.     If  the  eggs  are  allowed  to  remain  in  the  nest,  the 


FIG.    115. 
«.  PEKIN  DUCKS,     2.  PLYMOUTH  ROCK  FOWLS.     Owned  by  Benson.  Maule  &  Co.,  of  Philadelphia,  Pa. 


THE   INFERIOR  ANIMALS.  767 

goose  will  lay  only  from  ten  to  twenty,  but  if  regularly  taken 
out  she  will  lay  many  more.  When  she  wants  to  set,  put 
fifteen  eggs  in  the  nest.  She  should  have  food  and  water  near 
the  nest,  so  that  she  will  not  be  obliged  to  be  off  long  at  a  time. 
The  eggs  hatch  in  about  four  weeks.  The  goslings  should  be 
taken  out  of  the  nest  as  fast  as  they  are  hatched,  put  into  a 
basket  of  wool  and  covered  with  a  cloth.  When  the  hatching 
is  completed,  the  little  ones  should  be  put  back.  Twelve  hours 
afterwards  they  should  be  fed  with  bread-crumbs  soaked  in 
milk,  bran  pudding  and  boiled  potatoes.  The  food  should  be 
given  quite  warm.  They  must  be  protected  from  storms,  and 
should  not  go  into  water  until  two  or  three  days  old. 

Geese  eat  a  great  deal  of  grass,  and  like  green  food  from  the 
garden  extremely  well.  In  addition  to  what  they  can  pick  up 
for  themselves  they  should  be  regularly  fed  morning  and  night. 
When  they  are  to  be  fattened,  grain  should  be  given,  and  plenty 
of  warm  boiled  potatoes,  oat  meal  and  milk,  or  else  meal  mixed 
with  water.     They  should  also  have  green  food  in  abundance. 

Honey  Bees. — Farmers  who  have  time,  and  a  good  location 
for  keeping  bees,  may  make  it  profitable  to  try  the  business  on  a 
small  scale.  But  where  it  must  be  pursued  at  a  disadvantage, 
and  the  care  of  the  bees  is  irksome,  there  is  little  use  in  making 
the  attempt. 

If  any  one  chooses  to  make  a  trial  of  the  business  of  bee- 
keeping, a  few  things  must  be  borne  in  mind.  The  very  first 
thing  to  be  done  is  to  get  a  comprehensive  work  on  bee-culture, 
which  is  up  to  the  times  (King's  Bee-Keepers'  Text-Book  is 
an  excellent  one,  and  is  very  cheap),  and  study  it.  This  must 
be  done  in  order  that  the  work  may  be  commenced  intelligently, 
and  that  mistakes  involving  heavy  losses  may  be  avoided. 

Then  some  good  hives  must  be  obtained.     It  is  not  necessary 

to  get  the  newest  style  of  expensive  hives,  but  it  is  wasteful  and 

foolish  to  use  the  old  boxes  which  were  common  thirty  years 

ago.     Good  bees    must  also  be   secured.     There    is    as    much 
47 


768 


FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 


difference  in  bees  as  there  is  in  the  different  breeds  of  cattle. 
When  buying  an  effort  should  be  made  to  get  those  which  are 
the  best  adapted  to  the  conditions  under  which  they  are  to  be 
kept.  They  may  cost  a  little  more  than  poor  ones,  but  they 
will  be  three  times  as  profitable.  Provide  a  good  place  for  them 
in  the  summer,  and  a  dark,  but  dry  and  well-ventilated,  cellar  in 
which  to  keep  them  in  the  winter.  Get  a  honey-extractor, 
knife,  some  rubber-gloves,  a  veil  made  for  the  purpose,  and  all 
other  necessary  implements  and  fixtures.  Then  take  good  care 
of  the  bees,  study  their  habits,  and  supply  their  wants.  Furnish 
them  plenty  of  buckwheat  and  clover  pasturage  in  summer,  and 
do  all  that  can  be  done  to  aid  them  in  their  work. 


FIG.  ii6.— JERSEY  BULL,  LE  BROCQ'S  PRIZE  3350, 
Imported  August,  1878,  by  Chukchman    &   Jackson, 
Indianapolis,  Ind. 


FIG.  X17.— BERKSHIRE  PIGS.    Owned  by  T.  S.  Coopiii, 
CoopersbuiK,  Pa> 


FRUIT-GRO\VING  AND  GARDENING. 


(769) 


CONTENTS    OF   F^HT   III. 


FRUIT  Oli   THE    FARM. 

TRANSPLANTING   TREES- 

CULTIVATION    AND    PRUNING. 
THINNING    FRUIT. 

GATHERING    FRUIT. 
DRYING   FRUIT. 

DISEASES   AND   ENEMIES. 
PROPAGATION. 

THE    LARGER    FRUITS. 
SMALL   FRUITS. 

THE   FARM   GARDEN. 


(770) 


FRUIT  ON  THE  FARM.  77I 


FHXJIT  ©M  THE  FmBM . 

HAT  there  should  be  a  liberal  supply  of  fruit  grown  on  every  farm  is  a  fact 
which  no  extended  argument  is  needed  to  enforce.  Fruit  is  almost  as 
much  of  a  family  necessity  as  bread.  Its  free  use  tends  strongly  to  pre- 
vent disease.  It  furnishes  nutriment  to  the  system,  and  as  an  article  of 
food  is  of  great  value.  It  also  gratifies  a  natural  appetite,  and  is  a  source 
of  a  great  deal  of  enjoyment. 

Fruit  should  also  be  grown  on  a  farm  for  the  sake  of  the  profit  which  its  culture 
insures.  It  is  very  fashionable  just  now  to  say  that  fruit-growing  does  not  pay. 
Farmers,  who  own  large  apple-orchards,  assert  that  they  are  of  no  benefit.  They 
say  that  the  trees  only  bear  every  other  year,  and  that  the  market  is  always  so 
crowded  with  fruit  when  they  have  some  for  sale,  that  it  hardly  pays  the  expense  of 
gathering  and  marketing.  But  this  argument  of  crowded  markets  and  low  prices 
has  been  advanced  against  almost  every  crop  ever  grown  on  the  farm,  and  yet  the 
owners  grow  these  same  crops,  and  make  money  enough  to  support  their  families, 
and  pay  their  taxes.  There  are  times,  it  is  true,  when  fruit  sells  for  very  low  prices. 
But  all  this  is  true  of  all  other  crops.  It  is  also  true  that  there  is  a  partial  remedy 
for  this  difficulty.  Better  care  and  more  skilful  treatment  can  make  the  difference 
between  the  bearing  and  unfruitful  years  less  marked,  can  improve  the  quality  of  the 
fruit,  and  increase  the  price  for  which  it  can  be  sold.  There  is,  also,  a  strong  prob- 
ability that  there  will  be  a  permanent  market  for  AMERICAN  fruits,  in  very  large 
quantities,  in  foreign  lands. 

Even  in  the  worst  seasons,  fruit  will  be  very  sure  to  pay  all  the  cost  of  its  pro- 
duction, and  will  enable  the  farmer  to  turn  his  time  and  labor  into  money.  In  times 
of  scarcity,  it  will  pay  still  better;  while  in  average  seasons,  it  will  be  a  source  of 
considerable  profit. 

Another  reason  why  fruit  should  be  grown  upon  every  farm  may  be  found  in  the 
fact  that  it  will  increase  the  selling-price  of  the  land.  This  fact  is  not  fully  realized 
by  the  majority  of  farmers.  But  it  is  a -fact  that  a  good  orchard  will  do  more 
towards  selling  a  farm  for  a  high  price  than  many  other  things  which  are  a  great 
deal  more  expensive.  When  a  man  puts  out  a  lot  of  nice  fruit  trees,  h^  tVien  and 
thereby  makes  a  permanent  improvement  of  great  value.  If  he  thinks  a  fa^m  with- 
out fruit  trees  will  sell  just  as  well  as  one  with  them,  he  has  only  to  try  the  experi- 
ment to  be  undeceived.  A  farm  which  is  well  stocked  with  fruit  trees  is  worth 
much  more  money,  and  can  be  sold  much  more  readily,  than  it  could,  if  there  had 
been  no  trees  put  out. 

Farming  and  fruit-growing  naturally  go  together.  A  farm  without  fruit  is  defi- 
cient in  one  of  the  finest  products  of  the  soil.  Of  course,  fruit  can  be  grown  in  such 
a  manner  that  it  will  not  pay.  The  same  is  true  of  corn  and  of  all  other  crops.  It 
would  not  be  wise  to  cover  the  best  half  of  the  farm  wiih  trees.  But  between  the 
two  extremes  of  growing  no  fruit  at  all  and  producing  a  large  over-supply,  there  is 
a  middle  course  which  will  give  the  farmer  and  his  family  a  great  deal  of  comfort, 
and  add  quite  a  sum  to  the  actual  profits  of  his  business. 


772  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 


TitaKSFEtaNTING  TREES, 

T  is  very  important  that  the  land  devoted  to  an  orchard  should  he  thoroughly 
prepared,  and  that  the  work  of  transplanting  the  trees  should  be  carefully 
performed.  If  the  soil  is  wet,  it  should  be  well  drained  before  the  trees 
are  put  out. 

The  soil  should  be  made  very  fine  and  mellow.  If  this  is  neglected, 
and  the  earth  which  is  thrown  upon  the  roots  of  the  trees  is  in  coarse  lumps,  there 
will  be  many  spaces  into  which  the  air  and  water  will  penetrate,  and  the  ground 
will  freeze  much  harder  in  winter  than  it  would  if  the  dirt  was  fine.  The  soil 
should  also  be  very  fine  in  order  that  the  little  fibres  of  the  roots,  which  are  the 
feeders  of  the  tree,  may  obtain  the  nourishment  which  they  need.  Until  a  tree  gets 
well  started,  it  needs  all  the  food  which  it  can  obtain.  Removal  from  a  nursery 
will  be  very  likely  to  check  its  growth  considerably,  if  it  has  the  best  of  treatment 
which  the  buyer  can  give.  If  carelessly  put  out,  the  tree  will  grow  but  little  for 
many  years.  The  question  whether  at  the  end  of  ten  years  the  orchard  shall  be 
productive  and  profitable,  or  the  trees  shall  be  small  and  stunted,  with  hardly  fruit 
enough  upon  them  to  prove  whether  or  not  they  are  true  to  name,  is,  in  a  very  great 
measure,  decided  at  the  time  the  trees  are  put  out. 

It  is  very  true  that  trees  need  care  and  food  after  they  are  set,  and  that  no  amount 
of  skill  or  labor  at  any  one  period  can  atone  for  neglect  at  all  other  times;  but  it 
usually  follows  that  a  man  who  has  put  out  trees  in  a  finely  prepared  soil  and  done 
the  work  with  the  highest  degree  of  skill  of  which  he  was  capable  does  not  stop  there, 
but  gives  all  needed  care  to  his  growing  trees.  On  the  other  hand,  the  man  who 
puts  the  trees  out  in  a  careless  manner  is  very  likely  to  neglect  them  ever  after. 
They  do  not  start  very  well,  he  thinks  it  is  doubtful  if  they  ever  "  come  to  much," 
and  so  he  lets  them  go  to  their  natural  doom.  Thus  it  happens  that  the  time  of 
setting  is  a  critical  one  in  the  life  of  the  tree,  and  an  important  one  in  the  relation 
which  it  bears  to  the  financial  interests  of  the  owner. 

It  is  not  best  to  use  large  quantities  of'  stimulating  manures  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
trees.  It  is  much  better  to  make  the  land  very  rich  before  the  trees  are  put  out,  and 
then  fertilize  moderately  each  year.  But  in  some  manner  the  land  must  be  made 
fertile  if  it  is  not  already  rich,  or  the  orchard  will  not  pay. 

Fruit  trees  may  be  grown  on  the  farm  and 'grafted  when  quite  small,  or,  what  is 
usually  a  better  way,  purchased  of  some  reliable  nurseryman  who  has  a  reputation  to 
sustain,  and  who  thoroughly  understands  his  business.  Huying  of  unknown  ped- 
dlers has  involved  m.iny  farmers  in  a  heavy  loss.  There  is  no  excuse  for  purchasing 
trees  of  irresponsible  parties.  There  are  plenty  of  reliable  nurserymen,  and  trees 
can  be  packed  so  that  they  can  safely  be  transported  to  all  parts  of  the  country. 

If  trees  cannot  be  set  as  soon  as  they  are  received,  they  should  be  taken  to  the 
garden,  their  roots  placed  in  a  trench  and  covered  with  earth.  If  they  are  to  remain 
in  this  position  several  days,  the  tops  should  be  shaded  from  the  sun.  In  this 
manner  they  can  be  kept  alive  for  some  time,  but  it  is  better  to  set  them  as  soon  as 
possible. 

The  method  of  setting  trees  is  simple,  but  the  work  should  be  carefully  performed. 
All  the  broken  or  mutilated  roots  should  be  trimmed  with  a  sharp  knife,  and  three- 
quarters  of  the  previous  season's  growth  of  the  branches  should  also  be  removed. 
Tiiis  is  vegr  important,  as  a  large  part  of  the  root-surface  has  been  removed,  and  the 


TRANSPLANTING    TREES.  773 

natural  balance  between  the  roots  and  the  branches  has  been  destroyed.  A  large, 
but  not  deep,  hole  should  be  dug,  and  the  roots  of  the  tree  dipped  into  a  bed  of  thin 
mud.  The  tree  should  then  be  put  in  the  place  which  it  is  to  occupy.  It  should 
not  be  set  deeper  than  it  originally  stood. 

If  the  trees  are  large,  a  strong  stake  should  be  driven  down  for  a  support.  This 
should  be  done  before  the  roots  are  covered.  Then  fill  the  hole  with  finely  pulver- 
ized earth.  Care  should  be  taken  to  straighten  out  the  fibres,  and  to  pack  the  earth 
very  closely  under  and  around  all  the  roots.  It  is  well  to  carefully  tread  the  dirt 
two  or  three  times,  and  if  the  ground  is  dry  the  use  of  water  for  settling  and  com- 
pacting the  soil  is  to  be  highly  commended. 

When  the  hole  is  filled  tie  the  tree  to  the  stake.  A  piece  of  woollen  cloth,  or 
some  straw,  should  be  placed  between  the  stake  and  the  tree  in  order  to  prevent 
chafing  of  the  bark.  Then  mulch  well  with  straw  or  coarse  hay.  Write  the  name 
and  location  of  each  tree,  with  the  date  of  its  setting,  in  a  book  which  will  be  pre- 
served for  reference.  Then  take  care  of  the  tree,  manure  it  well  when  it  needs  to 
be  fertilized,  and  it  will  soon  become  fruitful. 

Whether  the  spring  or  the  fall  is  the  best  time  for  setting  trees  is  an  undecided 
question.  Each  season  has  many  and  strong  advocates.  As  far  as  theory  goes,  we 
think  those  who  favor  setting  in  the  fall  have  the  advantage ;  but  in  practice,  we 
have  much  the  best  results  from  spring  planting.  In  other  locations  the  reverse  may 
prove  true.  At  the  South  an  intermediate  time  should  be  chosen.  Far  South 
mid-winter  is  considered  the  best  time.  In  other  sections  it  will  be  well  to  try  both 
spring  and  fall  setting,  and  choose  that  which  experience  proves  to  be  the  best  for 
the  particular  location.  Still,  seasons  differ  greatly,  and  an  unfavorable  spring  suc- 
ceeded by  a  favorable  fall  may  point  to  the  latter  time  as  the  best  when  a  longer 
trial  would  reverse  the  decision.  On  this  account  the  test  should  be  made  several 
times. 

In  starting  an  orchard  the  great  majority  of  men  who  have  not  been  taught  better 
by  practical  lessons  derived  from  their  own  personal  experience  crowd  the  trees  too 
near  together.  Trees  need  a  great  deal  of  room,  and,  if  they  are  to  do  their  best, 
they  must  have  this  requirement  fully  supplied.  The  roots  of  a  good-sized  fruit 
tree  occupy  a  large  area  of  land,  and  the  branches  spread  to  quite  a  distance  from 
the  trunks.  If  the  trees  are  crowded,  the  roots  will  not  have  room  for  their  proper 
development,  and  will  not  be  able  to  obtain  sufficient  food  to  promote  the  rapid 
growth  of  the  trees  and  make  them  productive.  The  branches  will  also  interlock 
and  interfere  with  each  other.  This  will  keep  out  the  sunlight  which  is  needed  for 
ripening  and  coloring  the  fruit,  and  for  drying  off  the  ground  after  rains.  It  will 
also  make  it  difficult  to  get  around  among  the  trees,  and  increase  the  labor  of  pick- 
ing the  fruit. 

When  trees  are  small  they  require  so  little  room,  that,  if  set  as  far  apart  as  they 
ought  to  stand  when  grown,  there  will  seem  to  be  a  great  waste  of  land.  On  this 
account  it  is  well  to  set  dwarf  trees  between  the  standards.  During  the  life  of  the 
dwarfs  there  will  be  room"  for  all,  and,  when  the  dwarfs  are  gone,  the  others  will 
rapidly  occupy  the  land.  This,  where  a  nice  orchard  is  desired  as  soon  as  possible. 
When  there  is  no  haste,  and  appearances  are  not  specially  cared  for,  the  dwarfs 
may  be  omitted.  Place  the  large,  strong-growing  sorts  of  apple  trees  forty  feet 
apart.  The  smaller  kinds  may  stand  from  thirty-three  to  thirty-five  feet  from  each 
other.  If  dwarfs  are  to  be  grown,  place  them,  in  the  rows,  just  half  way  between 
the  standards.     Pear  trees  should  be  grown  twenty-five  feet  apart.     Dwarfs  fifteen 


774  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

feel  from  each  olher.  Peach  ti'ees  should  stand  twenty  feet  from  each  other,  tinlesi 
a  vigorous  course  of  pruning  is  to  be  pursued.  In  this  case,  fifteen  feet  will  give 
sufficient  room.  Standard  cherry  trees  should  be  twenty  feet  apart.  Dwarfs,  from 
ten  to  twelve  feet.  Dukes  and  Morellos  need  only  fifteen  feet  for  standards  and 
eight  to  ten  for  dwarfs.  Plum  trees  should  be  fifteen  feet  apart,  and  quince  bushes 
from  six  to  eight  feet. 

On  an  ordinary  farm  a  few  trees  should  be  set  each  year.  When  this  is  done, 
time  enough  can  be  spared  to  do  the  work  well,  and  the  trees  will  be  more  likely 
to  receive  needed  care  than  they  will  if  a  large  number  are  put  out  at  once.  Then, 
too,  there  will  be  trees  in  all  stages  of  growth  and  productiveness  in  the  orchard. 
As  soon  as  an  old  tree  begins  to  fail  it  can  be  removed,  for  there  will  be  plenty  of 
younger  ones  which  will  come  into  bearing  as  fast  as  the  older  ones  fail.  There 
will  also  be  a  greater  probability  of  securing  fruit  every  year  if  trees  are  regularly 
put  out.  Some  of  the  trees  will  be  likely  to  come  into  bearing  during  the  odd 
years  when  most  of  the  large  trees  are  unfruitful.  Experience  has  fully  proved  the 
superiority  of  this  method  over  the  "  once  for  all "  practice  of  setting  an  orchard, 
and  we  have  no  hesitation  in  recommending  the  putting  out  of  a  few  trees  each 
year.  The  cost  is  small,  the  labor  insignificant;  but  the  returns,  though  gradual, 
will  be  abundant  in  quantity  and  satisfactory  in  quality. 


o  y|  F  a  fine  tree  is  well  set  out,  and  then  allowed  to  care  entirely  for  itself,  it 
J I  will  not  be  very  productive,  and  the  quality  of  the  fruit  which  it  does  pro- 
'oll  duce  will  be  decidedly  inferior.  Therefore,  we  think  it  will  pay  the  far- 
"^  mer  well  to  cultivate  the  land  devoted  to  trees  for  a  few  years  after  ihey 
are  put  out.  Old  trees  can  be  heavily  mulched  and  well  manured,  and 
thus  be  able  to  get  along  belter  without  cultivation  than  small  ones.  The 
land  in  a  young  orchard  need  not  remain  idle.  A  crop  can  be  produced  without 
injury  to  the  trees  if  the  right  kind  of  one  is  selected.  It  is  not  well  to  plant  corn 
in  a  young  orchard,  as  the  stalks  grow  so  large  and  high  as  to  shade  the  trees  too 
much.  Either  grass  or  grain  will  prove  highly  injurious.  But  potatoes,  beans,  or 
root  crops,  may  be  grown  to  good  advantage. 

In  plowing  the  land,  care  must  be  taken  not  to  bark  the  trees  or  break  off  their 
roots.  There  should  be  a  good  team,  and  a  skilful  man  should  hold  the 
plow.  Weeds  ought  to  be  kept  down,  and  the  surface  soil  should  be  kept  fine  and 
mellow.  Manure  ought  to  be  spread  upon  the  land  every  year  and  harrowed  in. 
It  is  not  well  to  put  all  the  manure  close  to  the  body  of  the  tree.  The  roots  of  a 
tree  which  is  six  inches  in  diameter  often  extend  twenty  feet  from  the  trunk,  and 
the  great  majority  of  the  fibres  which  obtain  the  food  are  at  least  eight  feet  from  the 
body.  Consequently,  spreading  fertilizers  close  around  the  trunk  can  do  hut  very 
little  good.  While  the  trees  are  small  we  pile  a  quantity  of  compost  manure  around 
the  trunk  of  each  tree  late  in  the  autumn.  This  keeps  away  the  mice  which  would 
be  glad  to  eat  the  bark.  In  the  spring  the  manure  is  spread  under  the  tree.  In 
addition  to  this  the  crop  which  is  grown  upon  the  land  should  be  liberally  fertilized. 
If  the  owner  feels  unable  to  continue  the  cultivation  of  trees  after  they  become 
productive,  the  land  can  be  seeded  down  to  grass.     When  this  is  done,  manure 


CULTIVATION  AND   PRUNING.  775 

shottld  be  applied  as  often  as  every  other  year,  and  the  land  should  be  plowed  once 
in  four  or  five  years.  But  small  trees  ought  not  to  be  allowed  to  stand  in  grass  ol 
weeds.  Many  trees  now  bear  poor  and  scabby  specimens  of  fruit,  and  only  a 
Small  quantity,  which  would  yield  a  large  and  nice  quality,  and  an  abundant  quan- 
tity, if  the  soil  around  their  roots  was  properly  stirred.  No  variety  of  fruit  should 
be  condemned  as  small  or  of  inferior  quality,  while  the  tree  producing  the  speci- 
mens which  are  tested  stands  in  an  unbroken  sod.  Some  of  the  varieties  which 
are  of  the  highest  excellence  when  the  land  is  cultivated  are  absolutely  worthless 
when  this  is  neglected. 

Pruning  fruit  trees  is  very  simple  and  easy  work,  if  it  is  taken  in  season,  and  prop- 
erly performed ;  but  if  neglected  too  long,  it  becomes  quite  difficult,  and  its  results 
are  not  always  satisfactory. 

If  a  tree  is  old,  and  its  pruning  has  been  neglected  for  many  years,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  cut  away  considerable  of  its  top,  in  order  to  get  it  into  a  good  form;  but  the 
indiscriminate  cutting  of  young  trees,  which  some  men  practice  under  the  name  of 
pruning,  is  very  injurious,  and  often  proves  utterly  ruinous  to  the  trees  upon  which 
the  operation  is  performed.  When  properly  managed,  no  large  branches  need  be 
taken  from  a  tree. 

The  pruning  should  begin  when  the  tree  is  set,  and  every  spring  the  sprouts 
which  are  not  wanted  should  be  removed.  For  some  years  a  sharp  jack-knife  will 
be  large  enough  to  do  all  the  cutting  that  will  be  desirable.  When  the  tree  attains 
a  larger  size,  pruning-shears  and  a  fine  saw  will  l)e  needed.  But  there  must  be  a 
constant  watchfulness  and  an  effort  to  keep  down  all  shoots  which  are  not  wanted 
permanently  on  the  tree.  Many  buds,  which  start  out  in  places  which  ought  to 
be  vacant,  can  be  rubbed  off  during  the  summer.  Any  one  can  see  that  the  cutting 
off  of  a  limb  two  or  three  inches  in  diameter  involves  a  great  waste  of  the  vital 
forces  of  the  tree.  It  often  causes  a  wound  which  does  not  readily  heal,  and  leads 
to  premature  decay.  But  if  this  evil  is  avoided,  there  is  a  waste  of  all  the  growth 
of  the  limb  which  is  removed.  If  this  growth  had  been  wisely  directed,  it  would 
have  added  to  the  size,  strength  and  productiveness  of  the  tree.  When  the  bud 
first  started,  it  could  have  been  easily  rubbed  off.  At  the  end  of  the  first  season  of 
its  growth,  the  shoot  could  have  been  clipped  off  with  a  knife.  But  after  a  few  years 
it  must  be  cut  with  a  saw;  all  its  growth  is  wasted;  while  its  removal  mutilates  the 
tree  and  makes  an  ugly  wound.  It  does  not  pay  to  grow  trees  in  this  manner. 
The  formation  of  wood,  which  must  be  thrown  away,  should  be  prevented,  and  the 
growth  of  the  tree  directed  to  the  securing  of  the  desired  shape  and  the  utilization 
of  all  the  vital  forces. 

If  he  commences  when  it  is  small,  the  owner  of  a  tree  can  do  a  great  deal  toward 
determining  its  form  when  it  is  fully  matured.  He  can  decide  whether  the  tree 
shall  branch  very  low  or  very  high,  and  whether  the  top  shall  be  large  or  small. 
Many  people  think  that  the  trunk  of  a  tree  increases  in  length  as  rapidly  as  it  does 
in  circumference.  Acting  upon  this  principle,  they  allow  twigs,  which  in  time  will 
become  the  lower  tier  of  branches,  to  start  out  only  two  or  three  feet  from  the 
ground.  But  the  tree  does  not  grow  as  they  expected,  and  when  the  full  size  is 
reached,  the  branches  are  no  farther  from  the  ground  than  they  were  when  the  tree 
came  from  the  nursery. 

Whether  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  trees  branch  high  or  low  is  a  question  which 
will  be  determined  by  the  circumstances  of  each  particular  case.  In  localities 
where  strong  winds  prevail,  and  where  the  weather  is  extremely  cold,  there  are 


776  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

certain  advantages  in  having  trees  short  and  low.  When  the  land  is  to  be  cnlti. 
vated,  the  work  can  be  more  easilj'  done  if  the  trees  branch  some  distance  from  the 
ground.  It  is  inconvenient  to  get  under  a  very  low  tree  and  still  more  difficult  to 
prune,  or  pick  the  apples  from,  a  very  high  one. 

In  pruning  a  tree,  all  the  sprouts  which  incline  to  grow  crooked,  and  those  which 
interfere  with  limbs  which  are  already  established,  should  be  cut  out.  The  top 
should  neither  be  very  dense  nor  very  open.  If  the  branches  are  so  thick  that  the 
sunlight  cannot  enter  freely,  the  fruit  will  not  ripen  perfectly,  and  will  not  be  as 
finely  colored  as  it  should  be.  If  the  top  is  too  open,  the  branches  are  not  protected 
as  they  should  be  from  the  severity  of  the  winter  winds,  which  dry  the  bark,  and  the 
burning  of  the  summer  sun,  which  scalds  it.  The  common  method  of  cutting  all 
the  twigs  from  large  limbs  almost  their  whole  length,  and  "  leaving  a  little  brush  on 
the  end  of  the  limb  like  a  cow's  tail "  is  extremely  pernicious.  By  this  means  the 
limbs  are  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  elements,  and  there  are  not  enough  leaves 
left  to  fully  elaborate  the  sap  and  keep  the  tree  healthy  and  productive.  Neither 
should  the  branches  be  wholly  covered  with  twigs,  as  this  would  keep  out  the  light 
and  spoil  the  appearance  of  the  tree. 

If  the  pruning  is  attended  to  promptly,  year  by  year,  there  will  be  but  little  diffi- 
culty in  keeping  the  trees  in  good  shape.  If  neglected,  the  owner  must  suffer  the 
penalty  which  neglect  always  imposes.  A  little  work  at  the  right  time  will  prevent 
the  necessity  of  doing  a  great  deal  at  some  other  time,  and  the  results  will  be  much 
more  satisfaciury. 


THINNINa  FRUIT, 

"^  UT  few  farmers  are  in  the  habit  of  thinning  their  fruit,  and  to  this  fact  may 
be  traced  the  imperfection  of  a  great  deal  of  the  fruit  and  the  irregularity 
with  which  the  trees  are  fruitful.  Too  often  the  trees  are  heavily  loaded 
one  year  and  produce  but  very  little  fruit  the  next  summer.  During  the 
bearing  season,  the  vital  forces  of  the  trees  are  strained  to  their  utmost  in 
growing  and  ripening  an  excessive  quantity  of  fruit.  Nature  does  her 
best,  but  is  not  always  able  to  carry  out  all  that  has  been  begun.  Much  of  the  fruit 
drops  from  the  tree  before  it  is  fully  formed,  and  a  large  part  of  what  remains  is 
only  imperfectly  developed  and  ripened. 

But  the  partial  failure  to  perfect  the  fruit  is  not  the  greatest  evil  which  is  involved 
in  this  over-production.  The  tree  is  so  exhausted  by  its  overload  that  it  cannot 
recover  at  once.  The  wood  which  it  has  formed  during  the  season  cannot  be  thor- 
oughly ripened  and  is  frozen  during  the  winter.  The  next  spring  but  few  blossoms 
are  put  forth  and  little  or  no  fruit  is  formed  during  the  summer.  This  is  the  natu- 
ral result  of  over-bearing.  If  the  trees  are  left  to  themselves  the  trouble  becomes 
permanent.  One  year  there  is  a  great  excess  of  fruit,  while  the  next  year  there  is 
an  equally  great  scarcity. 

The  best,  perhaps  the  only,  remedy  is  to  be  found  in  thinning  the  fruit  early  in 
the  season.  It  does  no  good  to  apply  stimulating  manures.  This  would  be  like 
pouring  oil  on  a  fire.  The  natural  method  of  checking  the  evil  is  to  commence  as 
soon  as  the  fruit  is  fairly  set  and  pick  off  a  large  proportion  of  the  specimens.  It 
will  not  do  to  wait  until  the  fruit  is  half  grown,  as  the  energies  of  the  tree  would 
then  be  seriously  impaired.     Some  good  would  be  done,  but  the  remedy  would  b« 


THINNING  FRUIT. 


777 


applied  too  late  to  insure  the  best  results.  A  few  growers  have  tried  the  plan  of 
whipping  off  the  blossoms,  but  this  is  liable  to  permanently  injure  the  bearing  twigs. 
Others  clip  off  the  blossoms,  or  the  small  fruit,  with  pruning  shears. 

The  only  objection  raised  against  thinning  fruit  is  that  it  involves  considerable 
work.  But  this  really  amounts  to  but  little.  The  plan  proposed  merely  changes 
the  time  of  doing  part  of  the  labor,  but  tends  to  diminish  rather  than  increase 
the  amount.  It  is  no  more  work  to  pick  half  the  apples  on  a  tree  in  June  than  it 
is  in  October.  If  picked  early,  and  merely  dropped  upon  the  ground,  the  work 
can  be  done  much  faster  than  it  can  when  all  the  specimens  are  to  be  saved. 
It  is  true  that  the  farmer  is  usually  more  busy  in  the  summer  than  he  is  in  the  fall, 
but,  when  they  are  overloaded,  he  can  spend  time  enough  to  thin  the  fruit  on  his 
best  trees,  and  he  can  hardly  use  the  time  to  better  advantage. 

Mr.  Joseph  Harris,  whose  opinions  upon  other  subjects  we  have  had  occasion 
to  quote,  has  given  the  farmers  of  this  country  a  fine  illustration  of  the  advantages 
of  thinning  fruit.  He  has  an  orchard  of  Northern  Spy  trees,  occupying  four  acres 
of  land,  from  which  he  has  sold  more  than  twelve  hundred  dollars  worth  of  apples 
in  a  single  year.  The  trees  were  young  and  were  expected  to  produce  a  much  larger 
quantity  when  full  grown.  The  apples  were  extremely  large.  One  hundred  and 
eighty-six  specimens  filled  one  barrel,  and  one  hundred  and  ninety  another.  Many 
of  the  trees,  though  young  and  small,  produced  five  barrels  each.  The  large  size 
was  obtained  by  good  cultivation  of  the  trees  reinforced  by  thorough  thinning  of  the 
fruit.  Early  in  the  summer,  one-half  of  the  apples  were  picked  from  the  trees. 
This  gave  the  remainder  an  opportunity  to  grow,  and  the  half  which  was  left  prob- 
ably filled  as  many  barrels  as  they  all  would  have  done  if  they  had  been  allowed  to 
remain.  If  the  fruit  had  not  been  thinned,  a  large  part  of  the  specimens  would  have 
been  small  and  many  of  them  imperfect.  The  fruit  which  remained  was  probably 
worth  twice  as  much  as  the  whole  would  have  been.  Then,  too,  the  benefit  to  the 
trees  was  very  great.  They  were  obliged  to  perfect  only  half  as  many  seeds,  and, 
consequently,  required  but  comparatively  little  food  from  the  soil.  The  growth  of 
the  seed  does  far  more  to  exhaust  both  the  tree  and  the  land  than  the  formation  of 
all  the  other  parts  of  the  fruit.  The  large  apple  gets  much  of  its  food  from  the 
atmosphere,  but  the  small  one  takes  a  much  larger  proportion  from  the  soil. 

As  a  barrel  of  large  and  finely-formed  apples  is  worth,  in  almost  any  market, 
twice  as  much  as  an  equal  quantity  of  small  and  imperfect  ones,  the  draft  upon  the 
vital  forces  of  the  tree  and  the  elements  of  fertility  in  the  soil  is  only  half  as  great, 
and  the  labor  of  picking  the  fruit  is  less  if  part  of  it  is  taken  off  early  in  the  season' 
there  seems  to  be  a  fine  opportunity  for  farmers  to  advance  their  interests  and 
mcrease  the  profits  of  their  orchards  by  thinning  the  fruit  when  the  trees  show  an 
inclination  to  over-bear. 

This  applies  not  only  to  the  production  of  apples,  but,  to  a  still  greater  extent,  also 
to  pears  and  peaches.  Every  year  large  quantities  of  peaches  are  thrown  away  after 
they  have  been  transported  to  city  markets,  and  still  larger  quantities  are  wasted  at 
home.^  This  mvolves  a  heavy  loss,  and  is  mainly  caused  by  imperfect  growth  and. 
ripening.  If  the  fruit  had  been  properly  thinned,  a  large  proportion  of  this  loss 
would  have  been  prevented.  Pears  often  look  pretty  well,  while  their  flavor  is 
extremely  poor.  Sometimes  they  are  badly  formed  and  partially  covered  with  scabs. 
These,  and  similar  evils,  are  often  due  to  a  neglect  to  thin  the  fruit.  In  some  cases, 
want  of  cultivation  and  care  of  the  tree  help  make  up  the  result,  but,  when  trees  are 
well  cared  for,  neglect  to  thin  the  fruit  is  the  principal  cause  of  its  imperfection. 


778  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 


CS^aTKERING  FRUIT, 

'ARE  in  gathering  the  crop  is  one  of  the  essentials  of  success  in  fruiU 
growing.  Many  farmers  obtain  good  fruit  in  the  autumn  who  do  not  suc- 
ceed in  keeping  it  through  the  winter.  Tlie  most  perfect  method  of  growing 
fruit  will  give  only  temporary  benefit  if  the  gathering  is  carelessly  done. 
If  the  fruit  is  not  picked  at  the  right  time,  or  if  it  is  bruised  or  imper- 
fectly sorted,  it  will  not  keep  well,  and  will  not  command  the  highest 
market  price.  A  great  deal  of  fine  fruit  is  injured  every  season  by  bad  handling, 
and  by  storage  in  improper  places,  and  with  imperfect  specimens. 

The  time  for  picking  fruit  depends  very  much  upon  the  variety  and  the  purpose 
for  which  it  is  to  be  used.  Fruit  which  is  designed  for  long  keeping  should  be 
picked  earlier  than  that  which  is  to  be  used  at  once.  A  great  deal  of  the  summer 
and  autumn  fruit  which  is  sold  in  the  city  markets  is  not  well  ripened  on  the  trees, 
but  is  picked  while  green  in  order  that  it  may  be  enabled  to  bear  transportation. 
By  this  means  the  desired  end  is  secured,  but  the  flavor  of  the  fruit  is  seriously 
impaired.  An  apple  which  is  picked  while  hard  enough  to  be  safely  transported  to 
market,  has  a  very  different  flavor  from  one,  which  was  originally  no  better,  which 
is  allowed  to  remain  on  the  tree  until  it  is  mellow. 

Fruit  which  is  to  be  sold,  and  winter  fruit  for  long  keeping,  should  be  pickpd 
when  quite  hard.  For  family  use  apples  of  the  early  varieties  should  hang  upon 
the  trees  until  they  change  color  perceptibly,  and  begin  to  grow  mellow.  With  the 
exception  of  a  very  few  varieties  pears  are  better  to  be  picked  from  the  trees  before 
they  are  fully  ripe.  When  careful  raising  of  the  fruit  causes  the  free  separation  of 
the  stem  from  the  twig  upon  which  it  grew,  the  best  time  for  gathering  has  arrived. 
A  few  varieties  will  bear  still  earlier  picking,  but  nearly  all  kinds  will  be  better  to 
remain  until  this  time,  and  some  will  utterly  spoil  if  gathered  earlier.  It  is  not 
always  safe  to  allow  pears  to  remain  on  the  trees  as  advised  for  early  apples,  as 
many  varieties  will  rot  at  the  core  if  left  to  fully  ripen  on  the  trees. 

All  kinds  of  fruit  should  be  gathered  before  very  hard  frosts.  Winter  pears  will 
safely  endure  a  greater  degree  of  cold  than  apples,  but  they  should  not  be  too  much 
exposed. 

When  the  winter  fruit  is  sufficiently  matured,  the  gathering  should  be  performed 
as  rapidly  as  possible.  The  work  should  only  be  done  in  good  weather,  or,  if  the  fruit 
is  gathered  when  wet,  it  should  be  carefully  dried  before  being  put  into  winter- 
quarters.  The  picking  should  be  done  by  hand,  and  the  greatest  care  ought  to  be 
taken  not  to  bruise  the  fruit  even  in  the  slightest  degree.  A  sack  hung  over  the 
shoulder,  and  its  mouth  kept  open  by  means  of  a  hoop  or  a  stick,  is  very  much 
better  than  a  basket.  Each  specimen  must  be  carefully  laid  into  the  sack  or  basket, 
and  not  dropped  even  for  the  shortest  distance.  Some  apples  bruise  very  easily, 
and  when  dropped  two  or  three  inches  upon  other  specimens,  will  surely  be  injured. 
Sometimes  the  bruises  are  so  slight  as  to  escape  notice  at  the  time,  but  after  the 
apples  have  been  picked  a  few  days,  and  fermentation  has  set  in,  they  become 
plainly  visible.  These  little  bruises  cause  the  premature  decay  of  a  large  quantity 
of  hand-picked  fruit. 

If  apples  are  picked  into  a  basket  they  must  not  be  turned  out  but  carefully 
removed  by  hand.  If  a  sack  is  used  they  can,  if  sufficient  care  is  taken,  be  turned 
into  a  barrel  or  upon  a  pile.     It  is  a  good  plan  to  spread  the  apples  on  the  floor  of 


GATHERING   FRUIT.  '^fQ 

t 
a  store-room  or  the  barn,  and  allow  them  to  "  sweat  "  for  a  few  days  or  weeks  before 

they  are  put  away  for  the  winter.     This  adds  greatly  to  the  keeping  quality  of  the 

fruit,  and,  what  is  still  more  important,  furnishes  an  opportunity  for  a  more  careful 

selection  and  grading  thaa  would  otherwise  be  secured. 

When  apples  are  put  into  barrels  as  soon  as  they  are  picked  from  the  trees,  some 
imperfect  specimens  are  almost  sure  to  find  their  way  into  the  company  of  the  best 
fruit.  These  defective  apples  soon  decay,  and  cause  the  early  destruction  of  the 
better  ones  with  which  they  have  been  in  contact.  The  loss  of  the  imperfect  fruit 
is  small  when  compared  with  the  injury  done  to  that  which  was  good  when  the 
barrels  were  filled.  Some  growers  prefer  to  pile  the  fruit  on  the  ground  instead  of 
under  cover.  If  the  room  is  well  ventilated,  and  the  door  kept  open  during  the 
day,  there  can  be  no  harm  in  having  the  apples  on  the  floor,  and  in  case  of  storms 
they  will  be  better  protected  than  they  can  be  if  left  out  of  doors. 

Before  the  weather  becomes  cold  enough  to  injure  them  the  apples  should  be  car- 
ried into  the  cellar  or  fruit-room  in  which  they  are  to  be  kept.  Whatever  the  con- 
dition in  which  they  were  when  gathered  from  the  trees  they  must  be  perfectly  dry 
when  put  into  the  barrels.  The  presence  of  dew  or  rain  will  be  fatal  to  theii 
keeping  qualities.  It  is  also  important  to  carefully  assort  the  fruit.  The  riper 
specimens,  which  may  be  easily  detected  by  the  change  in  their  color  and  by  indi- 
cations of  early  mellowing,  should  be  placed  in  different  barrels  from  those  which 
are  hard  and  not  fully  mature.  Large  and  small  ones  should  be  put  into  separate 
packages.  The  presence  of  a  small  proportion  of  small  apples  in  a  barrel  of  large 
ones  will  add  but  very  little  to  the  measure,  but  will  take  considerable  from  the 
price.  Eight  barrels  of  large  apples  will  bring  more  money  than  ten  barrels  of  large 
and  small  ones,  although  in  the  whole  lot  there  may  not  be  more  than  a  single  barrel 
of  inferior  specimens.  When  the  fruit  is  placed  in  barrels,  care  must  be  taken  not  to 
bruise  it.  Slight  bruises  which  do  not  break  the  skin  cause  speedy  decay,  while 
the  larger  ones  start  the  process  of  fermentation  still  sooner. 

If  the  fruit  is  to  be  sold,  the  barrels  should  be  gently  shaken  occasionally  while 
being  filled.  The  head  should  be  pressed  in  by  a  lever  and  securely  fastened.  It 
is  not  safe  to  omit  this  pressure,  as  the  fruit  will  then  shake  in  the  barrels,  and  be 
badly  bruised  while  being  transported.  If  properly  pressed,  the  fruit  cannot  move 
and  will  go  safely  any  required  distance. 

If  the  fruit  is  to  be  used  at  home,  it  should  be  gathered  and  assorted  with  as  much 
care  as  though  it  were  to  be  shipped,  but  the  barrels  need  not  be  headed.  If  this 
plan  were  followed,  the  complaints  which  farmers  so  often  make,  that  their  apples 
do  not  keep  well,  would  not  be  so  commonly  heard,  and  the  frequent  "  picking 
over"  of  the  apples  to  get  out  those  which  are  partially  decayed  could  be  aban- 
doned. If  proper  care  is  used  in  gathering  and  packing,  and  the  cellar  is  fairly 
good,  the  best  apples  will  keep  a  long  time  without  showing  signs  of  decay.  But  if 
large  and  small,  ripe  and  unripe,  perfect  and  imperfect,  specimens  are  mixed 
together  there  will  very  soon  be  decayed  apples  in  the  barrels,  and  all  the  fruit  must 
be  sorted  over  in  order  to  remove  those  which  are  spoiled,  and  are  doing  all  they 
can  to  spoil  those  with  which  they  are  in  contact. 


780 


FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 


©HYING  FRUIT. 

'^^T  has  long  been  a  common  custom  in  all  the  fruit-growing  sections  to  dry 

part  of  the  fruit  produced  on  the  farm.     Windfall  apples,  and  those  which 

showed  signs  of  early  decay,  peaches,  and  other  fruits  have  been  dried  in 

order  to  prevent  loss  to  the  owner,  and  preserve,  as  far  as  possible,  the 

good  qualities  of  the  fruit.     Berries   have   also    been  dried  in  immense 

quantities,  and  thus  kept  for  an  indefinite  period. 

But  the  old-fashioned  process  of  drying  did  not  prove  wholly  satisfactory.     It 

required  considerable  time,  and  involved  a  great  amount  of  labor;  and  it  did  not  fully 

answer  the  purpose  for  which  it  was  designed.     It  secured  the  preservation  of  the 


fruit,  but  did  not  keep  its  quality  unimpaired.  In  too  many  cases  the  drying  was 
about  as  injurious  as  the  decay  which  it  prevented  would  have  been.  The  quality 
of  much  of  the  dried  fruit  found  in  farm-houses  and  in  market  is  extremely  poor. 

In  order  to  prevent  the  deterioration  in  the  quality  of  fruit,  which  seemed  insep- 
arable from  the  common  method  of  drying,  many  farmers  and  fruit-growers  have 
tried  the  plan  of  canning  fruit  which  they  wished  to  preserve.  This  is  a  great 
improvement,  but  it  involves  a  great  deal  of  labor  and  considerable  expense.  Besides, 
.  the  results  are  not  always  good.  Many  cans  leak,  many  glass  jars  do  not  seal  tightly, 
and  the  contents  are  spoiled.  The  addition  of  quite  a  quantity  of  sugar  is  also 
required,  and  it  is  necessary  to  at  least  partially  cook  the  fruit. 

What  has  long  been  needed  is  a  process  which  should  fully  preserve  the  fruit  in  its 
natural  state  (i.  e.,  without  cooking),  and  without  the  addition  of  foreign  material. 
This  need  seems  now  to  be  fully  supplied.     Several  machines  for  evaporating  fruit 


DISEASES  AND   ENEMIES.  73 j 

have  been  brought  before  the  public.     One  of  the  very  best  of  these  is  represented 

by  Figure  118. 

In  this  machine  the  moisture  of  the  fruit  is  quickly  removed  by  currents  of  dry, 

hot  air.    The  cell  structure  of  the  fruit  is  preserved  unbroken,  and  there  is  no  cooking! 

over-heating,  or  partial  decomposition,  as  there  always  is  when  fruit  is  dried  in\' 

common  oven   or  in   the   sunlight.     The   fine  flavor  of  the  fruit  is  fully  retained. 

Nothing  but  water  is  removed,  and  the  addition  of  water  restores  the  fruit  to  its 

original  condition  in  size  and  appearance,  makes  it  as  tender  as  fresh  fruit,  and  seems 

to  increase  its  sweetness. 

After  being  dried  in  one  of  these  evaporators,  the  weight  of  a  bushel  of  apples  is 

only  six  and  one-half  pounds,  and  one  hundred  quarts  of  blackberries  weigh  only 
forty  pounds.  Fruits,  which  have  been  cured  in  this  manner,  can  be  preserved  as 
long  as  desired,  and  their  quality  will  remain  unimpaired.  There  is  no  cost  for 
sugar,  cans  or  jars,  but  the  fruit  can  be  packed  in  boxes,  or  paper  bags,  and  kept 
until  wanted  for  use. 

The  introduction  of  this  method  of  preservation  will  give  a  great  impetus  to  the 
business  of  fruit  production.  Not  only  are  several  stock  companies  now  doing  a 
large  business,  representing  several  millions  of  dollars  per  year,  in  drying  fruits,  but 
the  way  is  now  open  for  farmers  to  profitably  dispose  of  all  the  fruit  which  they  can 
produce.  If  there  seems  to  be  an  over-production  in  the  fall,  and  fruit  in  its  natural 
state  will  not  find  a  ready  sale,  the  surplus  can  be  quickly  and  cheaply  evaporated, 
and  thus  put  into  a  condition  in  which  it  will  be  wanted  in  market,  and  will  com- 
mand prices  which  will  be  satisfactory. 


iiKE  all  other  things  of  value,  fruit  trees  have  their  enemies,  and  are  subject 

(^     to  various  evils.     In  some  localities  they  are  more  exposed  to  injuries  than 

^m     ^^^^  ^"^  '"  °'^^''''  ^"^  ^°'"e  varieties,  which  are  perfectly  hardy  in  some 

(Jr^     sections,  are  tender  and  exposed  to  disease  in  other  parts  of  the  country 

V^     There  are  plenty  of  fruits  which  are   adapted  to  the  various  degrees  of 

temperature,  and  where  one  variety  fails,  another  can  be  substituted,  and 

made  to  thr.ve.     But  there  should    be  no  wholesale  change  until  all    reasonable 

efforts  have  been  made  to  check  the  disease,  or  drive  off  the  insects,  and  get  the  trees 

already  m  the  field  into  a  healthy  condition 

Good  cultivation,  which  tends  to  promote  a  vigorous  growth  and  development  of 
the  trees,  does  very  much  to  ward  off  disease,  and  enable  the  vital  forces  to  resist  the 

:  nt  Ij'kTb  '  °''^^^'"  '"^^"''  P^^^^  ^-^  '^-'-^^'--  Some  diseafe 
Tay  ^^"'^  '"''"'"*'  ^"'  ^"'"^   ^'^^-^  °f  '--'^  -n  ^^e  driven 

of  BLIGHT  This  attacks  the  pear,  apple  and  quince,  but  proves  the  most  destruc- 
tive w.th  the  former.  The  effect  of  this  disease  is  to  wither  and  blacken  the  leaves 
enti  tl  m  -Pf  y-g-wing  branches.  Sometimes  this  spreads  over  Z 
entire  tree,  and  all  the  leaves  fall  off  in  mid-summer.     In  many  cases  the  evil 

tht    ffeTt  Tfl  T'  '"'  ^'^  '""^'^^  "P°"  -^-^  "^^y  ^—      The  ends  of 

the  affected  limbs  perish,  and  the  fatal  affection  rapidly  extends  toward  the  trunk 


782  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

If  left  to  itself,  the  whole  tree  is  very  soon  destroyed.  The  remedy  is  simple,  but 
must  be  applied  quickly,  and  with  x\\  unsparing  hand.  Delay,  even  for  a  few  days, 
endangers  the  life  of  the  tree.  All  the  .dTctied  branches  should  be  cut  off  two  or 
three  feei  below  the  point  at  which  there  is  on  external  manifestation  of  the  disease. 
These  limbs  should  be  immediately  burned.  If  the  branches  are  not  cut  quite  a 
distance  below  the  point  which  seems  to  be  the  limit  of  the  disease,  the  poison  will 
not  all  be  removed  and  the  evil  will  not  be  eradicated.  The  disease  may  spread  when 
prompt  measures  are  taken  for  its  suppression,  but  it  can  usu.illy  be  checked.  If, 
after  the  removal  of  diseased  portions,  other  branches  are  affected,  they  must  also  be 
removed,  and  the  pruning  must  be  kept  up  until  the  disease  is  checked,  or  the  whole 
tree  is  destroyed.  If  the  attack  is  sudden  and  malignant,  and  appears  to  involve 
the  whole  tree,  the  axe  had  better  be  laid  at  the  roots,  and  the  whole  commiued  to 
the  flames.  Delay,  or  half- way  measures,  will  cause  the  rapid  spread  of  the  disease, 
and  the  loss  of  many,  if  not  all,  of  the  trees  in  the  immediate  vicinity. 

There  is  another  disease,  known  as  Leaf  Blight,  which  attacks  pear  trees,  and  for 
which  no  certain  remedy  is  known.  The  leaves  turn  black,  and  fall  from  the  tree, 
and  all  growth  is  checked.  It  i>  more  liable  to  attack  small  trees  than  large  ones, 
though  both  the  leaves  and  fruit  of  full-grown  trees  are  sometimes  affected. 

By  keeping  the  soil  rich,  and  giving  good  cullivation,  the  grower  should  endeavor 
lo  prevent  the  appearance  of  this  disease. 

In  its  attacks  upon  the  apple  and  quince,  the  blight  does  not  prove  as  destructive 
as  it  does  with  the  pear,  but  in  some  portions  of  the  West,  apple  trees  are  often 
severely  injured  from  this  cause.  The  disease  affects  the  growth  of  the  season 
in  which  it  appears,  and  causes  the  falling  of  the  leaves  and  death  of  the  diseased 
wood. 

The  Black  Knot  is  a  disease  which  attacks  plum  and  cherry  trees,  and  occa- 
sionally the  peach.  An  irregular  swelling  appears  on  the  affected  twig  and  limb. 
It  commences  early  in  the  summer,  and  grows  until  the  end  of  July.  Year  by  year 
it  becomes  larger  and  more  poisonous  until  the  life  of  the  tree  is  destroyed.  The 
disease  also  spreads  to  surrounding  trees.  The  remedy  consists  in  promptly  cutting 
away  all  diseased  limbs  a  few  inches  below  the  point  reached  by  the  disease.  If 
the  excrescences  appear  on  the  trunk  or  large  limbs,  ihey  should  be  cut  out,  and  the 
wound  washed  with  a  solution  of  chloride  of  lime.  Every  particle  of  the  diseased 
wood  must  be  removed,  or  the  labor  will  be  in  vain. 

The  Yellows  is  a  disease  which  attacks  the  peach  and  often  proves  very  destruc- 
tive. It  causes  a  premature  ripening  of  the  fruit,  with  discoloration  of  the  flesh, 
and  a  yellow  appearance  of  the  leaves.  The  diseased  trees  seem  to  be  filled  with 
poison,  and  the  knife  used  in  pruning  them  will  carry  it  to  those  which  are  healthy. 
The  disease  also  spreads  without  actual  contact,  and  sometimes  destroys  whole 
orchards.  No  cure  is  known.  The  diseased  trees  should  be  cut  and  burned  as  soon 
as  they  appear  to  be  affected.  No  trees  should  be  set  in  the  places  recently  occu- 
pied by  the  diseased  ones,  as  the  poison  would  rapidly  spread  from  the  roots. 

Mildew  is  a  disease  which  attacks  both  the  grape  and  the  goosebeir)-,  and,  to  a 
limited  extent,  the  peach.  It  attacks  the  foreign  varieties  of  the  grnpe  when  the 
vines  are  grown  in  the  open  air,  and  several  of  our  native  varieties  are  affected  in 
unfavorable  seasons.  As  soon  as  the  disease  a-ppears,  the  vines  should  be  dusted  with 
sulphur,  and  this  treatment  repeated  every  fortnight  as  long  as  it  is  needed.  When 
hardy  varieties  are  planted  far  enough  apart,  the  branches  properly  thinned,  and 
good  culture  is  given,  there  will  be  little  trouble  from  this  source. 


DISEASES  AND  ENEMIES.  7^3 

This  disease  affects  the  goosebeny  still  more  seriously  than  it  does  the  grape.  It 
is  due,  ill  a  great  measure,  to  climatic  influences,  but  may  be  moditied  by  pruning 
and  good  cultivation.  Mulching  heavily  in  the  spring  with  salt  hay  is  said  to  be  an 
efficient  remedy. 

When  peach  trees  are  attacked  by  mildew,  soap-suds  should  be  thrown  over  them 
with  a  fountain-pump.  The  addition  of  lime-water  to  the  soap  suds,  and  the  subse- 
quent dusting  of  the  trees  with  sulphur,  is  also  highly  recommended  by  growers  who 
have  had  considerable  expeiieTice  with  the  disease. 

There  are  other  diseases  which  result  from  neglect,  and  some  which  are  subject  to 
climatic  changes.  These,  and  the  ones  we  have  named,  can  be  much  more  readily 
prevented  than  cured.  If  no  diseased  tree  is  allowed  in  the  vicinity,  no  grafts  or 
buds  from  affected  trees  are  used,  and  all  contagion  by  means  of  the  pruning-knife  is 
avoided,  it  is  almost  always  possible  by  giving  good  cultivation,  constant  care,  and 
suitable,  pruning,  to  keep  the  trees  healthy  and  vigorous.  In  buying  trees,  care 
should  be  taken  to  obtain  the  most  healthy  and  hardy  varieties,  and  to  get'tre.'s 
which  have  not  been  exposed  to  the  contagious  influence  of  any  form  of  disease. 

The  trees  and  fruit  are  both  exposed  to  the  attacks  of  several  enemit? 
which,  if  allowed  to  remain  unmolested,  would  soon  destroy  them.  Among  thesft 
enemies  the  various  insect  tribes  prove  the  most  formidable.  They  not  only  do  an 
immense  amount  of  mischief,  but  they  are  very  difficult  to  dislodge  or  destroy. 

The  Curculio  is  a  small  but  very  destructive  insect  which  attacks  the  plum, 
apricot,  cherry,  apple,  and  some  other  fruits.  When  the  fruit  is  very  small,  the  insfct 
makes  a  crescent-shaped  puncture  and  deposits  an  egg.  The  egg  soon  hatches,  and 
the  larvae  work  their  way  to  the  centre  of  the  fruit.  After  a  few  weeks,  the  injured 
specimens  fall  to  the  ground,  the  insect  passes  into  the  earth,  and  is  changed  to  the 
perfect  beetle  which  lays  eggs  and  thus  provides  for  a  continuance  of  its  race.  This 
insect  makes  its  appearance  nearly  every  year,  and,  unless  measures  are  taken  to 
prevent  its  depredations,  it  will  destroy  almost  the  entire  crop  of  plums  and  quite  a 
proportion  of  the  cherries.  Sometimes  it  takes  every  plum  from  a  fruitful  tree 
There  are  a  ^^yi  very  thick-skinned  varieties  which  partially  resist  its  attacks,  but  the 
finest  K.nds  fall  an  easy  prey  to  its  destructive  efforts. 

Although  very  rapacious  if  let  alone,  the  curculio  can  be  more  easily  destroyed 
than  some  other  enemies  with  which  the  fruit-grower  is  obliged  to  contend.  Two 
methods  are  in  common  use.  One  aims  at  the  destruction,  the  other  at  the  driving 
away  of  the  insects.  The  former  gives  the  best  results.  The  best  way  is  to  shake 
the  insects  down  upon  sheets  spread  under  the  trees,  and  then  destroy  all  that  fall 
In  the  morning  these  insects  are  very  sluggish,  and  can  be  easily  captured  The 
tree  should  be  jarred  suddenly.  This  will  bring  down  twice  as  many  insects  as  an 
ordinary  shaking.  Saw  off  a  limb  an  inch  or  two  from  the  trunk,  and  upon  the  pro- 
jection thus  formed  strike  with  a  hammer.  For  large  trees  a  sledge  may  be 
required.  The  work  should  be  commenced  as  soon  as  the  fruit  sets,Vrformed 
every  morning,  and  continued  until  the  time  for  ripening.  If  any  specimens  of  fruit 
fall  to  the  ground,  they  should  be  removed  at  once  and  fed  to  the  pigs  or  otherwise 
destroyed. 

The  other  class  of  remedies  has  for  its  object  the  driving  away  of  the  insects  For 
this  purpose,  fine  coal-ashes  have  been  highly  recommended,  and  liave  often  been 
effective.  The  trees  should  be  dusted  two  or  three  times  a  week  from  the  time  the 
blossoms  fall  until  the  fruit  is  ripe. 

The  Caterpillar,  of  which  there  are  several  species,  is  one  of  the  most  destruc- 
48 


784  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

live  enemies  of  the  apple  tree.  It  feeds  upon  the  leaves,  and  often  makes  large 
trees  wholly  unfruitful.  As  the  leaves  are  "  the  lungs  of  the  tree,"  if  naturally 
follows  that  ihe  removal  of  any  considerable  portion  ol  them  must  be  very  injurious. 
It  will  check  the  growth  of  the  tree,  and  cause  the  fruit  to  wither,  nnd  fall  prema- 
turely to  the  ground. 

The  common  Tent-Caterpillar  is  hatched  at  the  time  the  leaf  buds  open  in 
spring,  and  gradu.iHv  increases  in  size  until  it  is  two  inches  long.  Aftor  reaching  its 
full  size,  meanwhile  voraciously  eating  the  leaves,'  it  "  spins  a  cocoon  and  passes 
into  the  pupa  slate.  In  the  latter  part  of  summer  it  comes  out  a  yellowish  brown 
miller,"  lays  a  large  number  of  eggs,  in  rings  around,  and  near  the  ends  of  the 
smaller  branches,  and  then  dies.  These  eggs  hatch  out  the  next  spring,  and  each 
collection  makes  a  nest  of  caterpillars  which  is  capable  of  destroying  the  leaves  and 
injuring  the  fruit  of  a  large  branch.  The  best  way  to  fight  these  enemies  is  lo  clip 
off  the  branches  upon  which  their  eggs  are  deposited,  and  burn  them.  This  can  be 
done  during  the  winter,  or  when  the  eggs  are  hatching  in  spring,  but  should  not  be 
delayed  until  the  insects  are  grown  and  commence  their  work.  If  any  are  over- 
looked, tlie  cater])illars  should  be  brushed  off  and  destroyed. 

The  Fall  Web  Worm  is  another  destructive  caterpillar  which  attacks  many 
different  kinds  of  trees.  The  eggs  are  "  deposited  on  the  under  side  of  a  leaf,  near 
the  end  of  a  twig.  These  soon  hatch,  and  the  larvre  commence  feeding  on  the 
upper  surface,  spinning  their  threads  from  side  to  side,  and  then,  attaching  two 
or  three  leaves  together,  they  soon  make  a  web.  They  continue  feeding  and  spin- 
ning along  the  twig  as  they  consume  the  tender  portion  of  the  leaf,  leaving  the 
:mere  skeleton."  These  caterpillars  are  small,  pale  yellow,  with  a  broad,  dark- 
colored  stripe  on  the  back,  and  another  beneath,  thickly  covered  with  white  hair, 
and  have  bh.ck  heads  and  feet.  They  appear  in  OHIO  at  the  end  of  May,  and  con- 
tinue until  OcTOHER.  They  not  only  attack  fruit,  but  also  forest  trees.  The 
.methods  of  de-;truction  are  the  same  as  recommended  for  the  tent-caterpillars. 

The  Canker  Worm  attacks  both  fruit  and  leaves,  and  often  proves  very  deslruc- 
'tive.  The  female  is  nearly  destitute  of  wings,  and  fruit-growers  take  advantage  of 
this  fact  to  keep  her  from  the  trees.  A  cloth  band  coated  with  tar,  printing  ink,  or 
a  mixture  of  tar  and  oil,  is  fastened  around  the  trunk  of  the  tree.  The  mixture 
-needs  to  be  applied  frequently,  as  it  gets  dry  in  a  few  days  or  weeks.  It  should 
not  be  applied  directly  to  the  tree,  as  it  will  prove  injurious.  The  insects  cannot 
ipass  the  belt,  but  stick  to  its  moist  surface,  and  will  soon  perish  or  can  be  easily 
destroyed.  "Tree  Ink,"  manufactured  by  George  H.  Morrill  &  Co.,  of 
Boston,  Mass.,  has  been  extensively  and  successfully  used  for  a  dozen  years  as  a 
"  canker-worm  exterminator,"  and  is,  probably,  the  best  thing  for  the  purpose  which 
has  yet  been  devised.  In  using  this  a  band  of  tarred  paper  six  inches  wide  should 
be  securely  fastened  around  the  trunk  of  the  tree  about  four  feet  above  the  ground. 
This  is  saturated  thoroughly  with  the  Exterminator.  The  application  can  be 
made  with  a  paint  brush,  and  should  be  repeated  before  the  band  gets  dry.  Only 
a  few  apjilications  will  be  required  during  the  season.  Tin  bands  with  the  outer 
edges  turned  downwards  are  sometimes  used,  and  shallow  vessels  filled  with  oil 
have  been  successfully  tried.  The  moth  attempts  to  ascend  the  tree,  for  the  purpose 
of  laying  her  eggs,  in  the  mild  days  of  winter  r^nd  oarly  in  the  spring.  Son-.etimes 
the  moths  commence  in  the  autumn.  Consequently  preventive  measures  must  be 
taken  promptly  and  kept  up  for  a  long  time.  It  is  very  much  easier  and  belter  to 
keep  the  moths  from  ascending  the  trees  than  it  is  to  fight  the  canker  worms  after 


DISEASES  AND  ENEMIES.  785 

they  have  taken  possession.  Still  if  the  worms  make  their  appearance  they  should 
be  dislodged  as  soon  as  possible. 

The  Cherry  Slug  often  injures  cherry  and  pear  trees,  and  prevents  the  ripening 
of  their  fiuit.  This  creature  is  "  about  half  an  inch  long,  and  of  a  dark,  greenish 
brown  when  filled  with  food.  Its  smooth,  shining,  and  jelly-like  skin,  and  snail- 
like appearance  have  given  it  the  name  "  of  slug.  It  can  be  driven  away  by  dusting 
the  trees  with  dry  ashes  daily,  while  the  leaves  are  wet  with  dew. 

The  Apple  Worm  (the  insect  parents  known  as  the  "  codling  moth")  often 
proves  very  destructive  to  this  variety  of  fruit.  It  enters  at  the  blossom,  and  feeds 
at  the  core  of  the  fruit,  causing  much  of  it  to  fall  prematurely,  and  seriously  injuring 
much  that  remains  upon  the  tree.  Mr.  Thomas  says  "the  best  preventive  is  to 
allow  swine  or  sheep  to  pick  up  the  wormy  fvuit  as  it  falls,  thus  destroying  the 
enclosed  insect,  and  preventing  its  spread."  By  rubbing  the  trunks  with  a  piece  of 
liver,  the  sheep  can  be  kept  from  gnawing  the  bark  of  the  trees. 

The  Rose  Bug  often  eats  the  flowers  and  leaves  of  the  apple  and  grape,  as  well 
as  the  rose.  When  this  pest  comes  in  large  numbers,  as  it  does  in  some  seasons,  it 
does  a  great  deal  of  damage.  When  rose  bugs  attack  the  grape  flowers  they  should 
be  picked  off  and  destroyed.  The  work  should  be  done  early  in  the  morning,  and 
must  not  be  given  up  until  the  enemy  disappears.  When  small  apple  trees  are 
attacked,  the  insects  may  be  caught  by  placing  basins  or  pails  containing  water  undei'- 
neath,  and  then  jarring  the  limbs.  When  the  work  of  destroying  them  is  com- 
menced early,  and  performed  with  care  and  vigor,  these  pests  will  be  disposed  of  in 
a  short  time.  But  it  will  not  do  to  allow  them  to  take  their  own  course,  and  then 
expect  to  obtain  a  fair  crop  of  grapes  or  a  large  yield  of  apples.  If  the  fruit  is 
wanted,  the  enemies  must  be  destroyed. 

The  Currant  Worm  eats  the  leaves  of  the  currant  and  gooseberry,  sometimes 
entirely  stripping  the  bushes  in  a  few  days'  time.  The  removal  of  the  leaves  pre- 
vents the  ripening'of  the  fruit,  and  also  injures  the  bushes.  Powdered  white  helle- 
bore  is  a  certain  remedy.  As  soon  as  the  worms  appear  this  should  be  applied.  If 
used  dry  a  small  quantity  should  be  dusted  upon  the  leaves,  from  a  dredging-box 
with  fine  openings,  when  they  are  wet  with  dew.  A  better  way,  as  there  is  less 
danger  that  the  operator  will  inhale  the  dust,  is  to  dissolve  a  tablespoonful  of  the 
poison  in  a  pailful  of  water,  and  sprinkle  the  hushes  with  the  mixture.  The  bushes 
must  be  closely  watched,  as  these  pests  often  come  in  great  numbers,  and  sometimes 
devour  all  the  leaves  before  their  presence  is  suspected.  After  the  first  brood  has 
been  destroyed  another  may  appear.     If  it  comes  the  same  course  must  be  ]iursued. 

Aphides,  or  plant-lice,  of  various  kinds,  often  take  up  their  abode  upon  the  leaves 
of  fruit  trees  and  cause  severe  injury.  We  have  seen  a  cherry  tree  which  was  large 
enough  to  produce  a  bushel  of  fine  fruit  kept  from  bearing  for  several  years  by  these 
minute  enemies.  Soon  after  the  blossoms  appeared  the  leaves  began  to  curl,  the 
growth  of  the  tree  was  retarded,  and  the  formation  of  the  fruit  was  checked.  Upon 
the  under  side  of  the  leaves  multitudes  of  black  lice  were  located,  and,  by  sucking 
the  juices,  they  caused  the  leaves  to  curl  and  the  fruit  to  perish.  Throwing  a  solu- 
tion of  whale-oil  soap  over  the  tree  will  prove  an  eflicient  remedy.  For  this  pur- 
pose a  fountain-pump,  or  large  syringe,  is  needed.  The  liquid  must  not  be  too 
slron^f,  as  then  it  would  injure  the  leaves  as  well  as  kill  the  lice.  A  test  should  be 
made  upon  a  single  branch  in  order  to  determine  the  quantity  required.  The  appli- 
cation should  he  made  in  the  evening,  and  repeated  as  often  as  necessary. 

The  Apple- Bark  Louse  attacks  the  smooth  bark  of  apple  trees,  and,  in  connection 


7SG  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

with  other  evils,  often  proves  fatal.  Of  thus  'nsect,  Dr.  Kitch  say> :  "  It  makes  its 
appeal ance  xs  a  litlle  lirow"  ?-c.iIe,  one-eighlh  of  an  inch  long,  the  ?hape  of  an  oysicr- 
shell.  fixed  to  the  smooth  burk,  resembling  a  litlle  blister.  This  scele  is  the  dried 
remains  of  the  body  of  the  female,  covering  and  protecting  her  cgg<-,  fron\  a  dozen 
to  a  hundred  of  which  lie  in  the  cavity  under  each  scale.  These  eggs  hatch  the 
latter  pan  of  May,  and  the  young  lice  diffuse  themselves  over  the  barli,  appearing  as 
minute  white  atoms,  almost  invisible  to  the  eye.  They  puncture  the  b.Trk,  and  suck 
the  sap  from  it."  For  treatment,  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  tar  and  linseed  oil 
appli-jd  to  the  bark' warm,  but  not  hot,  early  in  the  spring,  has  proved  very  useful. 
Mr.  Thomas  says:  "Scraping  and  scrubbing,  in  summer,  with  a  stilT  brush,  in 
.soap-suds  are  useful.  Thriftiness  from  good  culture  is  the  best  preventive,  and  trees 
badly  affected  should  be  cut  up  and  burned." 

1  HE  Borer  is  a  dangerous  enemy  of  the  apple,  quince,  and  some  other  trees.  It 
enters  the  tree  near  the  ground,  cuts  its  way  through  the  wood  in  various  directions, 
and  seriously,  often  fatally,  injures  it.  The  eggs  are  laid  under  the  loose  scales  cf 
the  bark,  and  the  insects  which  are  hatched  from  them  eat  through  the  bark  whi»n 
quite  small.  They  remain  under  the  bark,  and  feed  upon  it,  for  several  months. 
When  they  are  about  half  grown  they  work  their  way  into  the  wood.  Their  pres- 
ence,  even  in  the  early  stages  of  their  attack,  may  be  detected  by  the  powder  which 
comes  out  of  the  bnrk  where  they  are  at  work.  If  taken  in  season,  the  insect  may 
be  cut  out  with  a  sharp-pointed  knife,  but,  after  it  has  passed  into  the  wood,  a  sharp, 
flexible  wire  should  be  pushed  into  the  hole  which  it  has  ni.ide  and  the  intruder 
crushed,  if  possible.  This  effort  is  not  always  successful,  as  the  channels  ure  often 
very  crooked.  The  trees  should  be  examined  frequently,  from  early  in  the  spring 
uniil  autumn,  and,  when  there  are  any  indications  observable  of  the  presence  of 
borers,  they  should  receive  immediate  attention.  It  is  better  to  cut  the  tree  to 
quite  an  extent,  if  the  borei-s  cannot  otherwise  be  destroyed,  than  it  is  to  alloir 
them  to  continue  their  work.  But,  if  taken  in  season,  only  a  little  cutting  will  be 
required. 

There  is  also  a  worm,  or  grub,  which  attacks  the  peach  tree.  It  enters  the  bark 
just  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  but  does  not  go  far  into  the  wood.  It  can 
easily  be  found  1  y  means  of  the  dust  and  gum  which  issue  from  the  cavity  which  it 
makes.  The  dirt  should  be  scraped  away,  and  the  intruder  destroyed  with  a  sharp 
knife.  Every  tree  should  be  examined  early  in  the  spring  and  in  the  summer.  If 
a  little  heap  of  ashes,  air-slaked  lime,  or  earth,  is  formed  around  the  trunk  early  in 
the  season,  or  the  trunk  is  encased  with  pasteboard  or  some  similar  substance,  the 
enemv  will  be  kept  entirely  away. 

.Mice  often  prove  terribly  destructive  to  voutk?  free":,  and  many  apple  orchards 
have  been  almost  wholly  destroyed  in  a  single  season.  Their  method  of  operation 
is  to  gnaw  the  bark  from  the  trunk  of  the  tree,  often  completely  girdling  it  and  caus- 
ing  its  death.  They  frequently  work  under  the  snow,  but  sometimes  go  from  tree 
to  tree  on  the  crust  formed  by  the  freezing  of  rain  on  top  of  the  snow.  When  trees 
stand  in  the  turf,  and  long  grass  is  left  around  them  in  the  fall,  the  mice  oftenlake 
refuge  in  and  make  their  nests  out  of  it.  The  best  way  of  protecting  trees,  one 
which  we  have  tested  many  years  with  unvar)'ing  success,  is  to  make  a  mound  of 
compost  manure,  a  foot  or  more  in  height,  around  the  trunks  late  in  the  autumn. 
This  is  packed  closely  around  the  stems.'and,  when  the  mice  travel  on  the  ground, 
proves  an  effectual  barrier.  No  str.-iwy  material  should  be  used,  as  this  would  not 
pack  closely  enough,  and  the  mice  would  use  it  for  their  nests.     Soon  after  the 


DISEASES  AND  ENEMIES.  7S7 

snow  is  gone  in  the  spring  we  spread  the  manure  under  the  trees,  and  thus  make  it 
perform  an  additional  service  in  promoting  the  grovvlli  and  fruitfulness  of  the  trees 
which  it  has  protected  during  the  winter. 

Many  farmers  go  among  their  trees  after  each  snow-storm  and  tramp  down  the 
snow  as  closely  as  pos^^ible  around  the  trunks.  If  this  is  faithfully  performed  it 
answers  the  purpose  very  well,  but  it  requires  considerable  time  and  is  liable  to  be 
forgotten. 

Rabbits  prove  very  dangerous  enemies  to  trees  in  some  localities,  working  in  the 
same  manner,  but  much  mure  extensively  than  mice.  We  have  known  tame  riihbits 
to  seriously  injure  a  fine  orchard  before  thfeir  owner  Iiad  any  idea  that  they  were  in 
mischief.  But  the  greatest  injury  is  caused  by  those  which  have  not  been  domesti- 
cated, A  fruit-grower  in  a  section  in  which  these  animals  abound,  says,  that  if  one 
is  killed,  and  his  flesh  and  blood  rubbed  over  the  trunks  of  the  trees,  the  others  will 
let  them  entirely  alone.  This  treatment  should  be  repeated  every  few  wetks,  and 
the  trees  careluUy  watched  to  see  ihat  it  proves  efficient.  When  this  method  does 
not  seem  practicable,  the  trunks  of  the  trees  should  be  rubbed  with  a  piece  of  fresh 
liver.  This  should  be  done  once  in  every  two  or  three  weeks.  Encasing  the  trunks 
with  tin — old  tm  pans  can  be  made  to  furnish  part  of  the  material — or  with  stiff 
paste-board,  is  a  still  more  certain  protection. 

Sheep  and  lambs  often  gnaw  the  bark  of  apple  and  pear  trees  when  they  find 
access  to  them.  Rubbing  the  trunks  with  liver,  as  recommended  for  kee]>ing  rab- 
bits away,  is  a  very  good  i)reventive.  A  board  box  amund  the  trunk,  to  be  kept  on 
only  as  long  as  the  sheep  are  in  the  orchard,  would  be  a  still  belter  method  of  pro- 
tection. Fencing  around  each  tree  would  also  prove  beneficial,  and  is  the  method 
which  we  have  followed  for  many  years.  But  this  method  cuts  off,  in  a  great  meas- 
ur;,  the  main  advantage  which  is  to  be  secured  from  the  pasturing  of  sheep  in 
orchards  of  small  trees.  The  great  benefit  of  keeping  sheep  among  fruit  trees 
ccmes  from  their  eating  the  immature  specimens  which  fall  to  the  ground,  and  thus 
dtstroying  the  insects  which  spoiled  the  fruit.  But,  if  fences  are  built  around  the 
trunks  so  as  to  keep  sheep  from  the  bark,  they  must  either  be  very  closely  boarded 
oi  else  must  he  quite  a  little  distance  from  the  trees,  and  allow  considerable  fruit  to 
fi.'.l  between  the  fences  and  trees  where  the  sheep  cannot  get  it. 

Cattle  often  prove  very  destructive  when  allowed  to  feed  in  an  orchard.  They 
bite  off  the  ends  of  the  limbs  of  young  trees,  and  use  the  trunks  for  rubbing-posts  so 
effectively  as  to  loosen  the  roots  and  break  the  stems  or  the  lower  branches.  Con- 
sequently they  should  never  be  allowed  to  run  in  an  orchard. 

Concerning  both  diseases  and  enemies,  the  wise  fruit-grower  will  always  act  upon 
the  princin'e  thnt  prevention  is  a  grent  deal  belter  than  cure.  Many  of  the  diseases 
and  accidents  to  which  trees  are  linble  can  be  easily  prevented,  but  can  never  be 
cured.  Others,  which  are  not  necessarily  fatal,  retard  the  t^rowth  of  the  tree,  or  pre- 
vent the  ripening  of  the  fruit,  and  thus  make  it  impossible  for  the  owner  to  obtain  a 
fair  compen'^ation  for  his  time  and  labor.  If  properly  managed,  fruit  may  be  made 
one  of  the  best  paying  crops  which  the  fanner  can  produce;  but  if  the  trees  are 
neglected,  they  will  soon  fall  a  prey  to  the  evils  to  which  they  are  exposed,  and  the 
owner  will  often  come  to  his  orchard  "  seeking  fruit,  but  finding  none." 


788  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 


9© 


FROFiiGiLTION'. 


'j  LTHOUGH  there  are  several  different  forms,  there  are  hut  two  mcJically 
^  different  methods  of  propngaling  trees  and  plants.  These  nicinuus  aic  by 
seeds,  which  is  a  natural  process,  and  by  buds,  which,  in  the  case  of  most 
trees  and  many  plants,  is  an  artificial  method.  Fruit  trees  are  often 
started  from  the  seed,  but  afterwards  modified  by  buds  from  other  trees. 
A  bud  is  more  fully  developed  than  a  seed,  and  is  more  certain  to  possess 
the  characteristics  of  the  parent.  An  apple  seed  will  not  often  produce  fruil  like  the 
specimen  from  which  it  is  taken,  but  a  bud  from  any  given  tree  vill  yield  fruit 
closely  resembling  that  of  the  parent.  Consequently,  for  all  farm  purposes,  the 
propagation  of  varieties  of  trees  and  small  fruit  plants  should  be  mainly  by  .ucans  of 
buds  in  preference  to  the  use  of  seeds. 

The  various  processes  of  budding  and  gmfting  trees,  and  the  methods  of  propa- 
gating plants  and  vines,  can  be  easily  described,  but  as  Mr.  Elliott,  in  his  tiAND- 
BooK  FOR  Fruitgrowers,  has  said,  it  is  best  for  the  "  beginner  to  visit  a  leading 
nursery-man  or  amateur  fruit-grower  in  his  immediate  neighborhood,  where  he  can 
learn  more  in  half  a  day  of  observation  than  all  of  what  is  printed." 

The  principal  methods  which  are  to  be  used  on  the  farm  for  the  propagation  of 
small  fruits  and  vines  are  by  the  use  of  CUTTINGS,  l.AYnRS  and  Runners.  For  the 
propagation  of  specific  varieties  of  the  larger  fruits,  BUDUING  and  GRAFTING.  All 
these  methods  require  the  use  of  buds. 

Cuttings,  for  out-door  use,  are  to  be  made,  in  the  autumn,  of  the  growth  of  the 
previous  season.  A  little  of  the  older  wood  is  often  left  upon  the  lower  end  of  the 
cutting.  This  method  is  used  in  propagating  the  gra|)e  and  many  other  plants  and 
vines.  The  cuttings  should  be  made  by  severing  the  cane  immediately  IipIow  the 
lower  bud,  and  from  one-fourth  to  one  and  one- fourth  inches  above  the  upper  bud. 
These  pieces  are  often  left, a  foot  and  a  half  long,  but  those  having  only  three  buds 
are  much  better.  Some  prefer  only  two  buds,  and  when  vines  are  pecially  '  ilua- 
ble,  single  bud-cuttings  are  often  used.  They  should  be  made  from  well-ripened 
wood.  If  not  secured  in  the  fall,  they  can  be  taken  from  the  ine  at  any  time, 
except  in  freezing  weather,  before  the  buds  swell  in  the  spring.  But  it  is  ihe  l>est 
way  to  cut  them  between  the  falling  of  the  leaf  and  the  coming  of  winter,  and  pack 
them  in  moist  sawdust,  or  moss,  in  a  cellar,  or  else  bury  them  in  the  ground.  If 
ke|.t  in  a  cellar,  they  shouM  be  secured  from  the  attacks  of  mice,  and  if  buried  in 
the  ground,  they  should  h'>  put  in  a  dry  place. 

Tne  following  directions,  by  a  well-known  horticultural  writer,  for  setting  cuttings 
are  a-,  good  a  can  be  given  :  "  T..ke  a  s]>ade,  and  open  a  place  anywhere  in  your 
garden  as  deep  as  the  cuttings  are  long,  leaning  the  side  against  which  'he  cuttings 
are  to  be  set  on  a  slight  slant  or  angle.  You  then  set  them  with  ihe  upper  ^^ud  of 
each  even  with  the  surface  of  the  };round  when  smoothed  off,  or  as  nearly  even  as 
you  can,  it  making  no  very  great  difference  if  some  of  the  buds  are  above  the  level 
of  the  ground.  When  you  have  thus  set  the  cuttings  along  the  slanting  side  of  the 
exc.ivation,  and  about  six  inches  apart,  then  fill  in  th ;  soil  around  the  lower  buds 
half  way  to  the  top  of  the  cuttings,  and  then  with  your  foot,  stamp  the  earth  against 
the  bottom  buds  as  compactly  as  you  can  ;  then  fill  up  and  stnnijj  again,  not  perpen- 
dicularly, but  against  the  cuttings  as  they  stand  on  an  angle.  Thty  miy  be  set  at 
any  lime  in  April  or  May,  but  always  soon  alter  being  received.     I'lobably  ten  out 


PROPAGATION. 


789 


of  twelve  will  grow,  and  make  good  vines  by  fall.  They  do  not  generally  take  root, 
and  grow  freely  till  the  last  of  June,  in  the  latitude  of  New  Jersey.  I  generally 
protect  the  buds  from  the  heat  of  the  sun,  which  sometimes  kills  ihem  before  the 
roots  start,  by  placing  a  board  on  the  sunny  side  on  its  edge,  slanting  a  little  over  the 
cuttings,  so  that  they  will  have  shelter  from  eleven  A.  M.  to  four  v.  M.  Water  them 
in  a  drought  once  or  twice  a  week,  thoroughly,  and  you  will  be  suie  to  meet  with 
>uccess." 

Some  plants  are  more  easily  propagated  by  means  of  cuttings  from  the  roots 
than  they  are  from  buds  growing  on  liie  wood.  The  kinds  which  throw  up  sprouts 
from  the  roots  belong  to  this  class.  The  Blackberry  and  Red  Raspberry  are 
examples.  The  Plum,  Pear,  and  Cherry  trees  can  be  grown  in  the  same  way, 
but  the  fruit  of  the  new  plants  may  not  be  like  that  of  the  parents.  The  method  of 
obtaining  these  cuttings  is  very  simple.  Take  up  the  roots  and  cut  them  in  pieces 
from  two  to  four  inches  in  length.  Plant  these 
pieces 'in  drills,  covering  them  from  one-half 
inch  to  one  inch  in  depth.  Buds  will  soon  be 
developed,  and  nearly  every  piece  of  root  will 
form  a  plant. 

Layers  furnish  an   easy  and  very  successful 
method  of  propagating  the  plants  to  which  it  is 
adapted.    The  Grape,  Quince,  and  Red  Rasp- 
berry are    common    examples    of    this    class. 
This  is  a  more  certain  method  than  propagation 
by  cuttings,  and  if  not  carried  to  excess  does  not 
injure  the  parent  plant.     It  is  best  to  put  down 
only  one  or  two  canes  of  a  strong  grape  vine, 
and   but  part  of  the  shoots  of  other  plants,  and 
allow  the  remainder  to  grow  in 
the  natural  manner.     When  the 
buds  begin  to  start  in  the  spring, 
grape  vines  should  be  put  down. 
If  only  one  new  plant  is  wanted, 

all  that  will  be  necessary  with  '^'^^^^^^-^^^'^s-^.' 
most  varieties  is  to  bend  down 
a  strong  shoot  into  a  hole  in  the 
ground,  fasten  it  with  a  peg,  and  cover  it  to  the  depth  of  a  few  inches  with  fine  soiL 
Figure  1 19  represents  this  method  of  propagation.  The  end  of  the  shoot  may  be  cut 
back  to  one  strong  bud,  which  should  be  left  out  of  the  ground  to  form  the  stalk  of 
the  new  plant. 

A  few  varieties  do  not  form  roots  readily.  In  these  cases  "  tonguein£r "  is  resorted 
to.  "  This  is  simply  cutting  into  the  caue  or  branch  where  it  is  bent  down  into  the 
ground,  and  making  a  slit  forward  through  the  centre  for  an  inch  or  two.  The  cut 
is  usually  commenced  just  below  a  bud,  and  may  be  above,  below,  or  at  the  side." 
When  this  is  done,  fasten  down  the  vine  and  cover  with  earth.  Sometimes  slightly 
twisting  the  branch  where  it  is  bent  in  the  ground  will  answer  every  purpose.  When 
several  plants  are  wanted  choose  a  strong  cane  which  starts  near  the  ground,  dig  a 
narrow  trench  six  inches  deep,  lay  in  the  cane,  and  fasten  it  with  wooden  pegs. 
When  the  buds  have  grown  a  'iti^'  inches  fill  the  trench  with  fine  earth.  This  will 
cause  a  plant  to  grow  from  each  bud  on  the  cane,  as  shown  in  Figure  120.     Some 


FIG.    119. — layer. 


FIG.    120. — SPROUTS    FROM    LAYERED    CANE. 


790 


FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 


growers  do  not  wait  for  the  buds  to  start,  but  fill  the  trench  at  once.  When  Rasp- 
berry and  similar  plants  are  to  be  propagated  by  layering,  the  work  is  not  com- 
menced until  the  tips  of  the  plants  grow  nearly  free  from  leaves  and  are  of  a  dark 
purple  color.  This  will  be  in  August  or  September.  Then  cover  the  top  of  the 
canes  in  trenches,  three  or  four  inches  deep,  dug  at  an  angle  of  furty-five  degrees. 
In  a  few  weeks  there  will  be  plenty  of  roots,  and  the  plants  can  be  taken  up.  The 
canes  should  be  cut  off  about  six  inches  alxjve  the  new  roots. 

With  some  plants,  like  the  strawberry,  propagation  by  RUNNERS  is  a  natural  pro- 
cess which  the  grower  often  has  occasion  to  check  rather  than  encourage.  When 
plants  are  to  be  obtained  in  this  manner,  the  ground  between  the  rows  should  be 
kept  mellow.  If  the  new  plants  are  wanted  to  occupy  certain  positions,  so  as  lo 
form  other  rows,  the  end  of  the  runner  should  be  placed  where  the  plant  is  to  stand 
and  covered  with  a  little  dirt.  In  six  or  eight  weeks  the  plant  will  be  well  rooted, 
and  the  runner  should  be  cut  off. 


FIG.    121. — CUTTING  A   BUD. 


FIG.  122. — IRE. 
PARED  STOCK 
AND   BUD. 


Budding  is  the  method  which  is  in  the  most  common  use  for  propagating  par- 
ticular varieties  of  the  larger  fruits.  It  can  be  done  easily  and  rapidly,  the  nevr 
shoots  are  very  likely  to  grow,  and  by  its  means  the  rapid  multiplication  of  trees  of 
any  special  variety  can  be  effected.  Budding  can  be  done  when  the  trees  are  only  a 
year  or  two  old,  or  small  branches  of  full-grown  trees  can  be  subjected  to  this  oper- 
ation. Nurserymen  do  this  work  when  the  trees  are  quite  small.  The  best  time  .'or 
budding  is  in  midsummer.  The  stock  in  which  the  bud  is  placed  should  l>e  grow- 
ing in  order  that  the  bark  may  slip,  and  the  new  growth  which  is  lo  l)e  used  for 
propagation  must  be  sufficiently  advanced  to  hnve  plump  and  well-matured  buds. 
The  method  is  described  as  follows  by  Mr.  Jenkins,  a  well-known  nurser)man  of 
Winona,  Ohio,  in  his  valuable  work  on  the  "Art  of  Propagation  :  "  "A  transverse 
cut  is  made  at  a  smooth  spot  on  the  stock,  and  a  perpendicular  slit  downward  from 
this  for  a  distance  of  one  or  two  inches.  The  corners  of  the  bark  being  slightly 
elwated  with  the  point  of  the  knife.  The  opt-rator  tiien  takes  the  stick  of  buds,  and 
entering  the  knife  above  brings  it  out  one-half  an  inch  below  the  bud  or  eye.     A 


PROPAGATION'. 


79-1 


little  wedge  of  wood  is  thus  cut  out  with  the  bud  and  bark,  the  removal  of  which  is 

advised  by  some  nurserymen,  but  as  it  does  not  seem  to  interfere  at  all  with  the 

uuitino-  of  the  tissues,  and  the  removal  is  tedious  and  fraught  with  some  danger  to 

the  eye  of  the  bud,  it  is  usually  omitted.     Into  the  cut  previously  made  in  the  stock 

the  bud  is  now  inserted   and  pressed' downward   under  the  bark,  then 

tied    by  passing   strings   of  bass   matting  or  cotton  yarn   around   the 

stock,  thus  pressing  the  bark  closely  over  the  bud;  care  must  be  used 

not  to  allow  the   ligature  to  rest  on  the  eye  of  the  inserted  bud."      In 

ten  days  the  ties  should  be  cut  at  the  back  of  the  slock.     If  the  bud 

is  not  fully  united  to  the  stock,  it  must  be  tied  as  before  and  left  until 

the  union  is  complete.     The  next  spring  the  stock  should  be  cut  off  (if 

the  tree  is  small ;   or  the  branch,  if  the   tree  is  large)  an   inch  or  two 

above  the  point  of  insertion.      All  the  sprouts  which  start  upon  the 

stock  must  be  rul)bed  off  so  that  the  growth  may  all  be  utilized  by  the 

bud.     Figure  121  shows  the  method  of  cutting  a  bud.     Figure  122 

shows  both  the  stock  and  bud  after  they  are  prepared. 

A  little  practice  will  enable  any  one  of  ordinary  dexterity  to  perform 
the  operation  of  budding  rapidly  and  successfully.  The  beginner 
should  remember  that  the  incision  in  the  bark  of  the  stock  is  to  be 
formed  nearly  like  the  letter  T,  that  only  perfectly  formed  and  fairly 
matured  buds  should  be  used,  and  that  the  buds  must  neither  be  wet 
with  water,  nor  exposed  to  the  drying  wind  or  sunlight.  As  soon  as 
they  are  cut  from  the  tree  all  leaves  should  be  removed  from  twigs 
from  which  buds  are  to  be  taken. 

Ring  Budding  consists  in  taking  off  a  ring  of  bark,  quarter  of  an 
ii(ch  wide,  from  the  stock,  and  in  the  place  which  it  occupied  inserting 
a  similar  ring  containing  the  bud  which  it  is  desired  to  have  grow. 
For  ordinary  use  it  is  not  better  than  the  method  above  described,  but 
is  said  to  be  more  successful   in  the  budding  of  hard  wood  trees,  and 

of  the  grape  vine. 

Grafting  is  a  method  of  propagation  largely 
used  by  nurserymen,  and  is  applicalile  to  trees 
of  all  sizes  as  well  as  to  the  fools  of  small  trees. 
There  are  several  different  ways  of  per- 
forming the  operation.  The  best  ones  for  use 
on  the  farm  are  whip-grafling  for  small  trees 
and  cleft-grafting  for  those  of  larger  growth. 
In  the  former  method  the  stock  and  scion, 
which  should  be  of  the  same  size,  are  shaved 
to  a  like  angle,  fitted,  as  shown  in  Figure  123, 
so  that  they  will  lock  together,  and  then 
bound  or  tied  as  directed  for  budding.  Cleft- 
grafting  is  practised  when  the  stock  is  much 
larger  than  the  scion,  and  is  used  when  trees  of 
considerable  size  are  to  be  grafted.  The  stock  should  be  cut  off  with  a  fine  saw, 
square  across,  split  in  the  middle;  and  two  scion-;,  tht-  lower  ends  of  which  have 
been  shaved  in  the  form  of  a  wedge,  are  inserted  in  the  crack.  Figure  124  shows 
the  method  of  preparing  the  stock,  and  how  to  set  the  scions.  Some  operators  set 
the  scions  nearly  straight,  while  others  slant  them  considerably.     The  former  is  the 


FIG.    123. 

whip- 
grafting. 


FIG.    124. — CLEFT-GRAFTING. 


792  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

best  way  if  skilfully  done,  but  the  latter  is  surer  when  carelessly  performed.  The 
point  to  be  gained  is  to  have  the  inner  bark  of  the  scion  exactly  meet  the  inner  bark 
of  the  stock.  It  the  scions  are  set  nearly  straight  the  bark  upon  the  two  pieces  may 
be  made  to  join  for  quite  a  little  distance,  but  if  care  is  not  used  they  may  not  meet 
at  all.  But  if  the  scions  are  set  at  an  angle,  there  will  be  a  spot  w  here  the  inner 
bark  of  each  will  come  m  contact.  After  the  scions  are  set,  the  end  of  the  limb, 
and  the  sides  as  far  as  it  was  split,  should  be  well  covered  with  grafting  wax. 
This  may  be  made  of  equal  parts  of  rosin,  bees-wax,  and  tallow.  These  articles  are 
to  be  melted  together,  and  thoroughly  mixed.  Working  it  with  the  hands  when  it 
is  nearly  cold  improves  the  quality  of  itie  wax. 

Scions  should  not  be  cut  in  very  cold  weather,  but  with  this  exception  they  may 
be  taken  from  the  trees  at  any  time  between  the  falling  of  the  leaves  in  autumn 
and  tiie  swelling  of  the  buds  in  spring.  Tl\fty  should  always  be  taken  from  healthy 
and  vigorous  trees.  If  cut  in  the  fall,  they  should  be  protected  as  advised  for 
cuttings.  Or  the  following  method,  described  in  the  Rural  World,  may  be 
adopted.  "  Bury  them  in  a  dry  place  out-of-doors,  in  an  inverted  open  box.  Fill 
the  box  partly  full  with  them,  nail  two  or  three  strips  across  to  hold  them  in  place, 
and  then  place  the  box  in  a  hole  dug  for  the  purpose,  with  the  open  side  down,  and 
bury  them  half  a  foot  or  so  in  deptii.  They  do  not  come  in  contact  with  the  earth, 
and  remain  perfectly  clean  ;  and  the  moisture  of  the  earth  keeps  them  plump  and 
fresh  without  any  danger  of  their  becoming  water-soaked." 

Wood  of  the  previous  season's  growth  is  usually  taken  for  scions,  though  some 
fruit-growers  assert  that  there  are  certain  advantages  in  using  wood  that  is  two 
years  old.  Each  scion  should  have  al  least  two  buds.  Near  the  base  of  the  lower 
bud  the  cutting  which  forms  the  bottom  into  the  shape  of  a  wedge  should  be  com- 
menced, and  the  top  of  the  scion  should  be  cut  oflf  a  little  above  the  upper  bud. 
The  work  of  grafting  is  to  be  performed  in  the  spring  after  the  circulation  of  the 
sap  has  become  well  established. 


THE  ^mHQER  FHlLriTS. 

'N  all  lists  of  fruit  for  this  country  the  apple  is  entitled  to  stand  at  the  head. 
It  is  more  extensively  grown  than  any  other  kind  of  fruit,  and  succeeds 
better  than  most  sorts  in  adapting  itself  to  its  surroundings.  There  are 
varieties  of  apples  which  can  be  easily  grown  in  MAINE  and  MINNESOTA, 
and  other  sorts  which  succeed  in  Georp.ia  and  the  surrounding  States. 
The  quality  of  any  particular  kind  will  be  varied  by  differences  in  soil 
or  climate,  and  it  is,  therefore,  very  important  that  the  grower  should  strive  to 
obtain  those  sorts  which  are  best  adapted  to  his  crrcumstances  and  surroundings. 
.The  farther  South  an  apple  tree  is  taken  the  earlier  it  will  ri]ien  its  fruit.  Some  of 
the  finest  winter  sorts  in  New  England  become  autumn  apples  when  grown  at  the 
SouTFt,  and  a  few  kinds  which  succeed  far  North  become  almost  worthless  in  the 
Middle  States. 

For  the  extreme  North,  the  most  hnrdy  vnrieties  of  the  apple  should  be  selected. 
Dr.  T.  H.  Hoskins,  of  Newport,  Vermont,  has  made  a  specialty  of  fruit  trees 
for  the  cold  North,  and  has  done  a  great  service  to  the  people  of  that  section  by 
giving  them  some  excellent  varieties  in  place  of  the  old-fashioned  crabs  which  they 
had  supposed  were  the  only  sorts  suited  to  their  locality.     For  summer,  he  recom- 


THE   LARGER  ERUITS.  793 

mends  the  Tetofsky,  a  large,  yellow,  sub-acid  apple  which  ripens  in  August ;  the 
Red  Astrachan,  a  large,  red,  acid  apple  which  ripens  the  last  of  August;  and  the 
Summer  Harvey,  which  resembles  in  color  and  flavor  the  Rhode  Island  Green- 
ing, and  ripens  the  last  of  August.  Each  of  these  trees  are  hardy  and  productive, 
the  former  being  "  perfectly  iron-clad  in  hardiness."  Among  the  autumn  apples, 
the  Duchess  of  Oldenburgh,  Pringle  Sweet,  and  St.  Lawrence  are  highly 
recommen<led.  For  winter  use,  the  Fameuse,  Ben  Davis,  Magog  Red  Streak, 
and  Scott's  Winter,  are  hardy,  productive,  and  of  excellent  quality.  For  the 
severest  localities,  the  Siberian  crabs.  Transcendent,  and  Lady  Elgin  are 
excellent;  and  the  Meader's  Winter  is  a  fruit  of  equal  quality  with  the  best 
varieties  of  large  apples. 

For  the  localities  between  the  extreme  North  and  the  Southern  States  a  large 
number  of  kinds  are  well  adapted.  The  Tetofsky,  Early  Harvest,  Red  As- 
trachan, Porter,  Gravenstein,  Hubbardston  Nonesuch,  King  of  Tompkins 
Co.,  Bell  Flower,  Canada  Red,  Rhode  Island  Greening,  Westfield  Seek- 
no-further,  Tallman  Sweet,  Baldwin,  Roxbury  Russet,  and  Northern 
Spy,  have  all  been  thoroughly  tested  and  prove  excellent  and  productive.  We  con- 
sider the  Porter,  King  of  Tompkins  Co.,  Esopus  Spitzenburgh,  Canada  Red, 
Westfield  Seek  no-further,  Baldwin,  and  Roxbury  Russet,  extremely  valu- 
able. The  trees  are  reasonably  hardy,  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  RoXBURY 
Russet  (which  is  one  of  the  best  keeping  apples  known,  and,  consequently,  entitled 
to  a  place  in  every  orchard),  very  productive,  while  the  fruit  is  of  excellent  quality. 
The  Porter,  Westfield  Seek-no  further,  and  Canada  Red  are  splendid  apples 
for  eating,  and  the  first  and  third  are  excellent  for  cooking  purposes. 

For  the  South  and  Southwest,  the  following  varieties  have  been  recommended 
by  competent  authorities:  Early  Harvest,  Red  Astrachan,  Gravenstein, 
Fall  Pippin,  Bell  Flower,  Newtown  Pippin,  Smith's  Cider,  American 
Golden  Russet,  Shockley,  Rawle's  Janet,  and  Stevenson's  Winter. 

In  the  above  lists  we  have  only  mentioned  a  few  of  the  very  best  kinds  which 
are  adapted  to  the  localities  named.  As  there  are  nearly  three  thousand  named 
varieties  of  apples,  it  would  be  both  useless  and  impossible  to  give  a  complete  list 
in  this  work. 

While  the  farmer  should  have  several  varieties  of  apples,  in  order  to  furnish  a 
succession  in  time  of  ripening,  it  is  not  wise  for  him  to  attempt  to  grow  many  kinds 
for  the  market.  For  family  use  the  earliest  and  latest  ripening  varieties,  with  sev- 
eral sorts  ripening  at  various  times  between  these  two  extremes,  should  be  chosen. 
But  even  here  there  should  be  a  limit  to  the  multiplication  of  varif  .ies,  and  only  the 
very  best  ones  should  be  grown.  The  farmer  who  has  fifty  trees  representing  thirty 
different  varieties  of  apples  has  made  a  great  mistake  in  his  selection.  Of  this  fact 
he  will  1)6  fully  convinced  when  picking-time  arrives,  and  he  tries  to  keep  each  sort 
by  itself.  But,  in  growing  ajiples  for  the  market,  it  is  much  more  important  not  to 
have  too  mnny  varieties.  For,  if  the  farmer  has  a  great  many  different  kinds,  he 
will  have  but  a  few  barrels  of  any  one  sort,  and  the  buyers  will  be  likely  to  want 
only  the  ones  which  are  the  best  known.  If  the  apples  were  all  of  some  standard 
variety  the  whole  crop  could  be  readily  sold,  but  where  there  are  many  kinds,  and 
but  few  of  a  kind,  it  is  much  more  difficult  to  make  sales. 

In  point  of  quality.  Pears  are  among  our  finest  fruits;  i)ut  there  is  a  very  gen- 
eral, though  unfounded,  imjiression  that  the  trees  are  tender,  and  thnt  it  is  very  diffi- 
cult to  obtain  a  good  quality  of  fruit.     The  tree  is  hardy,  and   is  longer-lived   than 


794  FARMING   FOR    FN 01-7 T. 

the  apjile  tree.  While  skilful  cultivation  and  handling  add  largely  to  the  profits  of 
the  business,  yet,  if  he  will  give  modt;rale  culture  and  properly  ihin  the  fruit,  every 
faimer  who  has  a  good  soil  and  location  can  grow  fine  pears  without  great  expense. 
The  fruil  does  not  keep  as  long  as  the  apple,  but,  by  a  proper  selection  of  varieties, 
and  care  in  storing  them,  pears  can  be  had  from  August  until  the  next  spring. 

Pear  trees  need  a  rich  and  deep  soil,  but  one  which  is  either  not  very  wet  or  else 
has  been  well  drained.  They  send  their  roots  quite  deep,  and,  on  thin  soils,  are 
likely  to  suffer  from  drought.  Mulching  is  highly  beneficial,  and,  if  salt  hay  is 
used,  it  will  give  better  results  than  almost  anything  else.  Many  varieties  of  the 
pear  succeed  well  as  dwarfs,  and  a  few  do  even  better  in  this  way  than  when  grown 
as  standards.  But  there  are  many  other  sorts  which  do  not  thrive  as  dwarfs,  and 
which  the  farmer  should  never  attempt  to  grow  in  this  manner.  The  pear  is  usually 
dwarfed  by  grafting  on  the  quince.  The  principal  object,  in  most  cases,  is  to  obtain 
trees  which  will  bear  at  a  very  early  age.  The  trees  are  often  very  fruitful,  but  do 
not  attain  a  large  size,  and  are  not  very  long-lived. 

In  many  instances  growers  would  have  better  success  with  their  dwarf  pear  trees, 
if  they  would  set  them  deeper  in  the  earth.  When  set  so  that  the  junction  of  the 
pear  and  quince  is  about  four  inches  below  the  surface  of  the  soil,  and  the  earth  is 
packed  very  closely  around  the  trunks,  roots  are  often  sent  out  by  the  pear,  and  the 
tree  becomes  part  dwarf  and  part  standard.  It  has  been  claimed  that  roots  enough 
would  be  thrown  out  in  this  manner  to  keep  the  trees  growing  and  productive  after 
the  quince  roots  were  dead,  thus  virtually  converting  it  into  a  standard.  When  this 
plan  is  tried,  a  large  hole  should  be  dug,  and  some  rich  soil  obtained  for  filling  it. 
If  the  quince  roots  are  placed  in  the  cold  sub-soil,  the  tree  will  make  but  little 
growth.  The  farmer  who  has  no  penrs  will  find  it  profitable  to  set  two  or  three 
d\rarfs,  merely  ti>  furnish  a  supply  of  fruit  until  the  standards,  which  are  set  at  the 
same  time,  and  which  should  be  his  main  reliance,  come  into  bearing.  To  this  rule 
wi  should  make  an  exception  of  the  Beurre  D'Anjou,  Duchess  D'Angoui.eme, 
Flemish  Beauty,  and  Vicar  of  Winkkield.  Of  each  of  these  sorts,  we  would 
recommend  one  or  more  dwarfs  and  an  equal  number  of  standards. 

Pears  should  be  dry  and  warm  when  picked,  and  should  be  handled  with  a  great 
d(.al  of  care.  If  wanted  for  home  use,  they  should  be  put  into  a  dark  closet,  or 
in  the  drawers  of  a  bureau.  Lay  them  on  a  woollen  cloth,  and  spread  another 
cloth  of  the  same  material  over  them.  By  putting  some  in  an  attic,  others  in  a 
cooler  chamber,  and  others  in  a  cellar,  we  have  ri]iened  pears  from  one  tree  so  as 
to  furnish  a  succession  for  several  weeks.  When  pears  are  ripened  in  this  way, 
they  should  be  clv)sely  watched,  and  used  before  they  become  too  mellow. 

Varieties  are  very  numerous,  but  it  is  not  an  object  for  the  farmer  to  grow  a 
large  number.  The  following  is  a  brief  list,  but  it  embraces  some  of  the  finest  sorts; 
and  most  of  the  kinds  will  succeed  in  a  large  part  of  the  country.  The  farmer  who 
grows  any  three  of  these  kinds  well,  and  ripens  them  carefully,  will  have  some 
splendid  fruit.  In  localities  where  these  sorts  fail  (though  they  will  not  oil  ia.\\  in 
any  section),  the  local  nurserymen  will  be  likely  to  have  varieties  which  will  suc- 
ceed— Bi.ooiKioon.  Bartlett,  Bfairre  D'Anjou,  Duchess  D'Angouleme,  Flem- 
ish Beauty,  Howell,  Lawrence,  Seckel,  Vicar  ok  Winkkield,  Winter 
Nelis. 

With  the  exception  of  the  extreme  North,  Peaches  can  be  gtMwn  in  nearly 
all  parts  of  the  United  States.  They  were  formerly  grown  in  Maine,  but  the 
removal  of  forests  and  consequent  increased  exposure  of  the  trees  to  the  severity  of 


THE  LARGER  FRUITS.  797 

the  climate  renders  it  difficult  to  grow  them  now  in  the  upper  portions  of  the  State. 
In  central  NEW  ENGLAND  the  trees  do  not  thrive  as  they  did  twenty  years  ago, 
but  the  fruit  can  be  grown  by  farmers  who  are  willing  to  give  the  trees  a  moderate 
degree  of  care  and  attention.  A  writer  in  the  Fruit  Recorder  has  said  that  if 
peach  trees  are  pruned  every  year  by  cutting  off  from  the  ends  of  the  limbs,  in 
Seprember,  more  than  one-half  the  season's  growth,  and  thinning  out  the  branches 
after  the  leaves  have  fallen,  this  fruit  can  be  successfully  grown  in  the  Northern 
States.  He  also  recommends  setting  the  trees  (when  grown  in  the  North)  with 
Northern  and  Western  exposures,  so  that  the  buds  will  not  start  in  the  winter, 
nor  too  early  in  the  spring.  Treated  in  this  way,  he  thinks  the  peach  tree  may  be 
made  to  last  and  be  productive  for  from  fifteen  to  twenty  years.  We  do  not  think 
that  ordinary  trees  will  live  as  long  as  this,  but  have  no  doubt  that  peaches  can  be 
grown,  if  properly  managed.  If  they  would  set  two  or  three  trees  each  year,  so  as  to 
have  those  of  different  ages  constantly  in  the  orchard,  and  thus  provide  a  succession 
of  young  and  vigorous  trees  to  take  the  places  of  the  older  ones  as  they  decay  (  v 
become  unfruitful,  farmers  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  country  might  have  plenty  ci 
peaches  for  home  use. 

Only  a  few  varieties  should  be  grown.  Of  the  many  kinds  in  cultivation  the  fol 
lowing  are  among  the  best  for  the  farm.  For  the  North,  Waterloo,  EARVn 
Beatrice,  Early  York,  Red  Rareripe,  Old  Mixon  Free,  Crawford's  Lat/i. 
For  the  MIDDLE  States,  Alexander,  George  the  Fourth,  Old  Mixon  Frf.j;, 
Surpasse,  Susquehanna.  For  the  South,  all  the  above  varieties,  and  Chinesij 
Cling,  La  Grange,  Governor,  Thurber,  Tuskuna. 

Plums  are  excelletit  fruit,  and  if  the  curculio  is  kept  away  they  can  be  easier 
grown.  The  tree  is  hardy  and  vigorous,  and  very  productive.  The  trees  should  biJ 
near  the  house,  in  order  that  the  curculio  may  be  the  more  easily  destroyed, 
and,  for  the  same  reason,  as  well  as  on  account  of  the  general  objections  to  having 
trees  in  turf,  no  grass  should  be  allowed  to  grow  beneath  their  branches.  Pruning 
should  be  done  in  spring,  when  one-half  the  previous  season's  growth  should  be 
removed.  Vigorous  sprouts  may  also  be  pinched  back  during  the  summer.  The 
best  varieties  for  the  farmer  are  the  following:  Green  Gage,  Imperial  Gage, 
Lombard,  Purple  Favorite,  Smith's  Orleans.  These  sorts  succeed  over  a  wide 
range  of  country,  and,  if  the  enemies  and  diseases  which  have  been  described  in  a 
previous  chapter  are  kept  at  bay,  will  furnish  an  abundance  of  very  fine  fruit.  There 
are  many  other  good  varieties,  and  in  some  locations  there  may  be  an  advantage  in 
putting  out  some  of  them  in  preference  to  part  of  those  which  we  have  named,  but 
for  general  cultivation  those  in  the  list  are  first-class. 

The  Apricot  belongs  to  the  plum  tribe  and  is  an  excellent  fruit,  but  cannot  be 
easily  grown  at  the  North.  It  requires  a  deep,  dry  and  rich  soil,  and  very  careful 
pruning.  The  trees  should  stand  on  the  north  side  of  a  building  or  tight  fence. 
The  ends  of  the  shoots  should  be  pinched  in  during  the  summer,  and  all  feeble 
buds  rubbed  off.  There  are  but  izw  varieties  at  all  adapted  to  farm  cultivation. 
The  Breda  is  one  of  the  hardiest  trees,  and  the  fruit,  though  very  small,  is  rich  and 
high  flavored.  The  Hemskirke  is  "  one  of  the  largest  and  best"  varieties  of  this 
kind  of  fruit. 

The  Cherry  succeeds  well  in  all  parts  of  the  country  except  the  extreme  North 
and  South,  and  there  are  a  few  sorts  which  can  be  grown  in  those  sections.  The 
trees  are  hardy  and  vigorous.  They  do  the  best  in  a  rather  dry  and  light  soil,  and 
require  less  fertilizing  and  pruning  than  the  trees  of  most  other  varieties  of  fruit. 


798  FARMLVG  FOR   PROFIT. 

They  produce  fruit  when  quite  young,  and  live  to  be  very  old.  The  following  arc 
valuable  kinds  for  the  farm  :  Beli.e  D'Orleans,  Black  Tartarian,  Coe's 
Transparent,  English  Morello,  Governor  Wood,  May  Duke. 

The  Quince  grows  in  the  form  of  a  ijush  rather  than  a  tree,  and  produces  a  large, 
rich  fruit  which  is  excellent  for  use  and  profitable  for  the  market.  Tiie  fruit  can  be 
kept  and  transported  better  than  many  kinds,  and  the  jjushes  are  very  easily  grown. 
A  deep  loamy  soil  is  best  for  the  quince,  but  if  manure  and  salt  are  freely  used  it 
will  grow  almost  anywhere.  Mulching  is  very  beneficial.  The  pruning  of  the 
quince  is  a  very  simple  operation,  and  consists  in  cutting  off  the  "suckers"  which 
start  out  near  the  roots,  shortening  in  the  branches  which  grow  the  fastest,  and  thin- 
ning out  the  top  enough  to  freely  admit  the  light  and  air.  There  are  but  few  varie- 
ties. The  Orange,  though  rather  tender,  is  an  excellent  fruit,  and  is  worthy  of  a 
place  on  every  farm.  A  few  bushes  of  the  .\ngers,  which  is  a  hardy  and  productive 
variety,  should  also  be  put  out,  and  a  trial,  on  a  small  scale,  may  be  made  of  Rea's 
Mammoth.  The  farmer  who  will  take  a  little  pains  to  destroy  the  borer,  and  to 
mulch  and  fertilize  the  bushes,  can  have  an  abundance  of  excellent  quinces,  and 
from  them  his  wife  can  make  the  very  finest  of  preserves  and  jellies. 

The  Grape  is  one  of  the  most  delicious  of  all  our  fruits,  and  is  very  easily  grown. 
There  are  varieties  which  succeed  in  the  extreme  NoRTH,  others  in  the  middle  sec- 
tion of  the  country,  others  at  the  South,  and  a  few  which  can  be  relied  upon  almost 
everywhere.  When  buying  vines  select  those  which  are  only  one  or  two  years  old. 
The  land  should  be  in  good  condition,  but  need  not  be  extremely  rich,  and  no 
manure  should  come  in  contact  with  the  roots.  Spade,  or  plow,  the  soil  to  the 
depth  of  a  foot,  set  the  vines  from  six  to  nine  inches  deep,  where  they  are  to  remain, 
and  from  ten  to  twelve  feet  apart.  If  room  is  scarce,  the  vines  can  be  placed  only 
eight  feet  apart,  trained  up  to  a  stake,  and  closely  pruned,  but  it  is  better  to  give  a 
greater  distance. 

A  one-year  old  vine  should  be  allowed  to  grow  only  one  cane  the  first  year. 
Save  the  most  vigorous  one,  and  rub  off  the  other  buds.  Vines  two  years  old  may 
grow  two  canes.  They  should  be  tied  to  a  slake  or  run  on  a  trellis.  The  first 
year's  growth  should  be  cut  back,  in  the  fall  after  the  leaves  have  dropped,  to  three 
or  four  buds.  The  next  spring  two  canes  should  be  allowed  to  grow  from  this  stem, 
and  the  other  buds  ought  to  be  rubbed  off.  With  the  exception  of  pinching  off  the 
weakest  shoots,  no  summer  pruning  should  be  given  this  season.  In  the  autumn 
cut  the  two  canes  back  to  three  or  four  buds  each,  and  leave  a  bud  upon  the  main 
stalk  to  grow  another  cane  the  next  year.  The  third  summer  the  two  strong  canes 
may  be  allowed  to  bear  a  few,  and  only  a  few,  clusters  of  fruit.  Many  vines  are 
ruined,  and  others  are  weakened,  by  being  allowed  to  overbear  when  small.  If  any 
iruit  sets  before  the  third  summer  cut  it  off,  and  thin  the  third  year's  product  to  a 
very  small  quantity.  Do  this  thinning,  the  cutting  out  of  the  small  stems,  and  the 
gathering  of  the  fruit,  with  sharp  scissors.  They  are  much  more  convenient  than  a 
Jcnife,  and  the  work  can  be  d(me  in  a  better  manner. 

After  reaching  the  third  year  the  vine  can  be  trained  in  any  desired  style.  A 
wire  trellis  should  be  provided  the  second  season.  This  will  be  more  dur.able  than 
wood,  and  the  vines  will  attach  themselves  to  the  wires,  thus  saving  the  grower 
much  time  and  labor  which  would  be  needed  for  tying  up  the  branches  if  a  wood 
trellis  were  used.  A  plain  trellis  will  do  as  far  as  practical  matters  go,  but -a  pretty 
one  will  be  not  only  useful,  but  also  ornamental.  For  a  plain  trellis  set  strong 
posts  in  the  ground,  in  a  straight  line,  about  eighteen  feet  apart.     If  a  long  line  is 


THE   LARGER   FRUITS.  799 

bo  be  stretched,  the  end  posts  may  need  bracing.  Draw  ihe  wires  tight,  and  fasten 
them  with  staples  to  each  post.  The  posts  should  be  six  feet  in  length  above  the 
ground.  Place  the  lower  wire  eighteen  inches  from  the  ground,  one  near  the  top 
of  the  posts,  and  two  more  at  equal  distances  between  those  already  located. 

In  pruning  bearing  vines  cut  away  old  wood  and  leave  the  new,  for  the  fruit  buds 
are  on  the  new  growth.  A  few  strong  branches  should  be  left  every  year  to  provide 
a  succession  of  canes  for  the  next  season.  All  the  small  stems  of  fruit  should  be 
picked  off  as  soon  as  the  fruit  is  well  set,  and  some  summer  pruning  may  be  given 
if  the  vine  is  loo  thick  to  admit  the  light  freely.  Care  should  be  taken,  however, 
not  to  remove  leaves  from  bearing  canes,  or  from  canes  which  are  to  bear  fruit  the 
next  year.  To  this  rule  the  exceptions  of  pinching  off  the  bearing  shoots  "three 
leaves  beyond  the  last  stem  of  grapes,"  and  the  shortening  in  of  the  future  bearing 
canes  when  they  are  as  long  as  it  is  desirable  that  they  should  grow,  may  be  safely 
made. 

In  order  to  obtain  the  best  quality  of  fruit  from  the  vine,  the  grapes  must  remain 
thereon  until  they  are  fully  ripe.  They  are  good  some  time  before  this  period,  and, 
en  account  of  early  frosts,  or  because  they  are  wanted  for  immediate  use,  they  are 
ofien  gathered  when  well-colored,  but  still  only  partially  ripened.  If  a  vine  is 
trained  to  the  south  side  of  a  building,  and  the  fruit  remains  quite  late,  it  will  be 
much  sweeter  and  better  than  specimens  of  the  same  variety  grown  in  the  ordinary 
manner,  and  picked  at  the  usual  time.  If  they  are  to  be  kept  for  fall  or  winter  use 
th^  grapes  should  not  hang  on  the  vines  as  long  as  they  should  if  to  be  used  at  once. 
For  keeping  they  should  be  gathered  as  soon  as  ripe,  all  imperfect  berries  cut  off 
with  scissors,  and  the  bunches  packed  in  fine,  dry  saw-dust.  The  boxes  should  be 
kept  in  a  cool  place  where  they  will  not  be  exposed  to  frost,  and  should  not  be 
opened  until  the  fruit  is  wanted  for  use. 

Winter  Protection  should  be  given  in  the  North.  Wherever  the  mercury 
falls  in  the  coldest  weather  to  ten  degrees  below  zero,  the  vines  should  be  taken  from 
the  trellis,  before  severe  cold  comes  on,  laid  upon  the  ground,  fastened  with  wooden 
pegs,  and  covered  with  two  or  three  inches  of  soil.  Farther  South,  but  not  where  the 
winters  are  mild,  it  is  better  to  merely  cover  with  straw  (over  which  a  very  little 
earth  is  thrown  to  keep  out  the  mice),  as  the  ground  is  liable  to  be  loo  wet.  Merely 
laying  the  vines  upon  the  ground  is  much  better  than  to  allow  them  to  remain  upon 
the  trellis. 

Of  Varieties  there  are  already  an  immense  number,  and  they  are  rapidly 
increasing.  One  of  the  very  best  of  the  older  kinds  is  the  Concord.  The  vine  is 
hardy  and  fruitful.  It  succeeds  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  country,  and  is  undoubt- 
edly "the  most  hardy  and  popular  native  grape  that  exists."  It  is  said  to  be 
better  AVest  and  South  than  it  is  in  New  England.  If  this  is  correct  everv 
farmer  should  have  a  Concord  grape  vine.  The  Clinton  succeeds  best  on  a  light 
soil.  It  is  a  hardy  and  productive  vine,  bearing  quite  acid  but  very  long-keephirx 
fruit.  With  reasonable  care  it  can  be  kept  through  the  winter.  The  Delaware 
IS  a  small  but  exceedingly  rich  grape.  The  vine  is  not  as  productive  as  the  Con- 
cord, and  it  does  not  prove  as  hardy  at  the  North,  but  the  excellence  of  the  fruit 
entitles  it  to  general  cultivation.  The  Diana  is  a  good  keeper,  and  bv  many  is  con- 
sidered a  fine  grape.  We  do  not  like  its  peculiar  flavor.  The  vine  is  rather  tender, 
and  needs  protection  much  more  than  the  kinds  previously  named.  The  Elstng- 
BURG  IS  a  small  hut  rich  grape.  Mr.  Knox,  a  well-known  nurseryman,  used  to 
recommend  this  .as  the  best  table  grape.     The  Hartford  Prolific  is  a  good  and 


800  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

quite  early  grape.  Vines  are  hardy  and  quite  productive.  The  loNA  in  many 
localities  proves  early,  hardy,  productive,  and  the  Iruii  keeps  well.  Ihe  Martha 
is  one  of  the  leading  wluic  grapes.  The  SCLPPERNONG  js  an  excellent  grape  for 
the  South.  It  reaches  its  highest  degree  of  perfection  in  Georgia,  but  succeeds 
well  throughout  that  section.  Cunningham  and  Wilmington  are  also  good  grapes 
where  the  temperature  is  not  too  low. 

In  addition  to  the  varieties  named  there  are  a  multitude  of  others  which  are  good 
in  certain  localities  but  not  adapted  to  so  wide  a  range  of  country.  There  are  alsc 
many  hybrid  varieties  of  grapes,  produced  liy  crossing  a  native  and  a  foreign  sort, 
which  do  well  in  some  sections,  but  which  are  not  so  hardy  as  the  native  kinds. 
Some  of  these  are  very  valuable  in  sections  where  they  succeed.  Mr.  Rogers, 
Nos.  4  (Wilder),  9  (Lixdley),  15  (.\gawam),  19  (Merrimac),  and  53  (Salem) 
have  been  thoroughly  tested  and  proved  very  tine.  The  Brighton,  a  new  hybrid 
originated  by  Jacob  Moore,  Esq.,  of  Brighton,  New  York,  is  a  vigorous  vine 
and  produces  a  large  quantity  of  excellent  fruit  which  rifHrns  early.  Oiher  groweii 
have  introduced  new  hybrid  varieties  which  promise  well.  Many  seedling  variet;"<4; 
which  possess  great  merit  have  also  lieen  sent  out  by  their  originators.  The 
Rochester,  criminated  by  Ellwanger  and  Barry,  has  been  tested  twelve  years  and 
proved  early,  hardy,  and  productive.  Worden's  Seedling,  and  Moore's  Eari.'I, 
both  seedlings  of  the  Co.ncord,  the  former  ripening  ten  days  and  the  latter  two 
weeks  earlier  than  the  parent  fruit,  are  hardy  and  productive  vines  and  the  graphs 
are  of  fine  quality.  Of  the  seedling  class  of  new  grapes,  T.  B.  Miner,  ElSQ.,  of 
Linden,  New  Jersey,  who  supplied  about  one  hundred  thousand  families  with  the 
Concord  and  other  grape  vines  while  publishing  The  Rural  .A.merican,  has  sei't 
out  the  following  varieties :  Belinda,  a  white  grape  which  ripens  before  the  Con- 
CORD,  vines  hardy  and  productive,  and  the  fruit  very  fine;  ANTOINETTE,  white, 
similar  to  the  Belinda  with  the  exception  of  rii>ening  a  week  or  ten  days  later; 
and  the  Linden,  a  black  grape  ripening  a  week  earlier  than  the  Concord  and  of 
better  quality,  vine  extremely  productive  and  holding  the  fruit  until  frost  comes. 
These  were  selected  from  fifteen  hundred  new  varieties  originated  by  Mr.  Miner, 
from  the  seed  of  the  Concord,  and  we  are  confident  that  they  will  prove  valuable 
acquisitions.  They  are  more  hardy  than  hybrids,  and  will,  doubtless,  succeed 
throughout  the  country. 


S  a  general  rule  we  do  not  think  the  production  of  small  fruits  for  market 
can  be  made  profitable  by  the  average  farmer.  But  we  are  confident  that 
it  will  pay  him  to  grow  a  supply  for  home  use.  These  fruits  are  not 
merely  luxuries  but  are  valuable  preservers  of  health.  Physicians  assert 
that  the  free  use  of  ripe  fruits  tends  strongly  to  ward  oflT  various  forms  of 
disease,  and  is  especially  valuable  in  counteracting  the  influence  of 
malaria  upon  the  human  system.  Even  dysentery,  a  disease  which  many  people 
suppose  is  brought  on  by  the  use  of  fruit,  is  much  less  prevalent  among  families  w  ho 
use  ripe  fruit  in  abundance  than  it  is  in  those  which  are  deprived  of  fruit.  The 
fruit  contains  an  acid  which  the  sj-stem  needs,  and  it  is  a  great  deal  cheaper  and 
better  to  obtain  it  in  the  form  of  fruit  than  it  is  to  purchase  it  of  doctors  or  druggists. 
The  requisite  quantity  of  the  small  fruits  for  an  ordinary  family  can  be  very  easily 


SMALL   FRUITS.  803 

and  cheaply  grown,  and,  as  children,  as  well  as  grown  people,  almost  universally 
are  fond  of  them,  the  farmer  should  consider  it  both  a  duty  and  a  privilege  to  devote 
a  small  area  of  land  to  their  production. 

Of  the  various,  kinds  of  the  small  fruits  which  should  find  a  place  in  the  far- 
mer's garden,  the  Strawberry  is  usually  considered  of  the  greatest  importance. 
This  fruit  is  easily  grown  if  it  is  well  cared  for.  If  the  plants  are  neglected  the 
fruit  is  not  easily  secured.  There  are  several  different  methods  of  cultivation. 
That  which  is  best  adapted  to  the  farm  is  setting  the  plants  in  straight  rows,  two 
feet  and  a  half  apart  and  twelve  or  fourteen  inches  apart  in  the  rows.  When  it  is 
desired  to  increase  the  number  of  plants  of  a  particular  variety  they  may  be  set  far- 
ther apart  in  the  rows,  but,  when  fruit  is  wanted,  it  is  better  to  have  the  plants  but  a 
short  distance  from  each  other.  The  land  should  be  very  thoroughly  prepared,  and 
also  made  quite  rich.  Well-rotted  barnyard-manure  is  an  excellent  fertilizer  for  this 
crop.  The  holes  in  which  the  plants  are  to  be  placed  should  be  large  enough  to 
allow  the  roots  to  be  spread  out.  Before  setting,  the  roots  should  be  dipped  in  soft 
mud,  and  all  but  three  leaves  should  be  cut  off. 

The  time  for  setting  may  be  either  in  the  spring  or  early  autumn.  Some 
growers  prefer  the  former  season,  and  others  the  latter.  Good  plants  set  in  the 
autumn  and  well  cared  for  often  produce  part  of  a  crop  of  fruit  the  next  summer. 
Those  which  are  put  out  in  the  spring  will  not  bear  many  berries,  and  ought  not  to 
be  allowed  to  if  they  show  an  inclination  to  produce  fruit,  but  will  develop  into  strong 
and  vigorous  plants  which  will  be  less  likely  to  winter-kill  than  those  set  in  the  fall. 
When  there  is  no  special  haste  about  obtaining  the  fruit,  we  think  the  spring  is  the 
best  time  for  setting  plants. 

The  cultivation  which  strawberry  plants  require  consists  in  frequent  hoeings 
and  in  keeping  the  land  free  from  weeds.  By  using  a  hand-cultivator  between  the 
rows  the  work  can  be  made  much  easier  than  it  otherwise  would  be.  The  runners 
may  be  allowed  to  grow  between  the  hills,  but  not  between  the  rows.  Some  prefer 
to  keep  the  plants  in  hills,  and  do  not  allow  them  to  spread,  while  others  let  them 
run  as  they  choose  and  cover  the  whole  surface  of  the  bed.  When  the  latter  course 
is  pursued  the  bed  is  very  likely  to  become  overrun  with  weeds,  and  new  plants 
must  be  put  out  every  year  or  two.  If  kept  in  hills,  most  of  the  work  of  cultivation 
can  be  done  with  a  cultivator  or  hoe,  while  if  the  runners  are  allowed  to  grow 
between  the  rows,  there  will  be  more  hand-weeding  required.  But  there  will  also 
be  more  plants  and  a  larger  quantity  of  fruit. 

At  the  South,  strawberry  plants  soon  decrease  in  fruitfulness,  and  some  growers 
recommend  the  putting  out  of  a  new  bed  each  year  in  order  to  have  a  lot  of  fresh- 
bearing  plants  every  season.  At  the  North  it  pays  to  start  a  new  bed  every  three 
or  four  years.  Plants  which  are  well  manured,  thoroughly  cultivated,  and  from 
which  the  dead  leaves  and  runners  are  removed  after  the  fruit  has  been  gathered, 
will  remain  vigorous  much  longer  than  those  which  are  neglected. 

Winter  Protection  is  useful  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  country.  In  the  North- 
ern States  it  is  absolutely  necessary  if  the  full  productiveness  of  the  vines  is  to  be 
secured.  The  embryo  fruit  buds  are  formed  in  the  autumn,  and  severe  winters 
must  injure  them  if  they  are  unprotected.  Where  deep  snows  come  early  and  stay 
several  months  there  is  less  need  of  an  artificial  covering  than  there  is  farther  South 
where  the  ground  freezes  and  cold  rains  often  fall  during  the  winter.  The  plants 
should  be  covered,  an  inch  or  two  deep,  late  in  the  fall  with  cut  straw,  hay,  or  some 
similar  substance.  This  to  prevent  the  alternate  freezing  and  thawing  of  the  surface 
49 


304  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

of  the  ground,  and  also  to  protect  the  plants  from  the  light.  As  soon  as  the  weather 
is  warm  in  spring  the  material  should  be  loosened  from  the  ground  and  the  tops  of 
the  plants  uncovered,  but  it  need  not  be  removed,  as  it  will  tend  to  keep  down  weeds 
and  also  keep  the  fruit  clean. 

Of  Varieties  there  is  an  immense  number,  and  many  new  ones  are  put  upon  the 
market  every  year.  There  are  many  kinds  which  are  excellent  for  the  market,  and 
some  of  still  better  quality  which  can  be  grown  for  home  use,  but  will  not  well  bear 
transportation.  There  are  others  which  are  good  but  not  prolific,  while  other  sorts 
are  productive  but  not  very  good.  Some  kinds  which  are  excellent  in  some  localities 
do  not  prove  valuable  in  other  sections,  while  some  kinds  thrive  in  all  sections  and 
upon  almost  all  kinds  of  soil.  The  Wilson  is  a  very  hardy  and  productive  plant, 
and  is  probably  more  largely  grown  than  any  other  variety.  The  fruit  is  very  acid, 
and  is  not  of  first-rate  quality.  The  fact  that  it  can  be  very  easily  grown  makes  it  a 
general  favorite.  JucuNDA  succeeds  in  rich  heavy  soils.  The  fruit  is  of  good 
quality,  ripens  early,  and  holds  out  late.  Charles  Downing  is  an  excellent  and 
productive  sort.  President  Wilder  is  of  a  first-rate  quality  where  it  succeeds. 
Downer's  Prolific  succeeds  well  at  the  South.  Monarch  of  the  West  is 
very  popular.  KENTUCKY  is  a  good  variety,  and  produces  fruit  after  most  kinds 
have  finished  bearing.  Of  the  newer  kinds  the  Great  American,  Crescent 
Seedling,  Sharpless  Seedling,  and  Miner's  Great  Prolific,  are  destined  to 
prove  extremely  popular. 

There  are  a  multitude  of  other  varieties  new  and  old,  many  of  them  valuable, 
which  we  have  not  room  to  name.  In  the  farm-garden  only  a  few  sorts  should  be 
grown,  and  those  should  be  both  good  and  productive. 

Raspberry. — This  fruit  is  much  esteemed  by  the  majority  of  people,  and  as  the 
plants  grow  wild  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  world  the  inhabitants  of  all  lands  can  be 
well  supplied.  When  cultivated  the  plants  are  very  productive  and  the  fruit  is 
larger  than  that  which  grows  wild.  The  red  varieties  are  more  tender  than  the 
black  caps.  At  the  North  they  sometimes  winter-kill,  while  at  the  South  the 
leaves  are  burned  by  the  summer  sun.  The  black  varieties  are,  therefore,  better 
adapted  than  the  red  to  general  cultivation.  They  will  grow  in  almost  any  kind  of 
soil,  but  do  the  best  in  one  which  is  light  apd  dry.  The  red  kinds  thrive  the  best  in 
a  rich,  deep,  and  quite  moist  soil. 

The  plants  should  be  put  out  in  rows  and  hills.  The  red  varieties  may  stand  four 
feet  apart  each  way,  but  the  black  kinds  should  be  six  feet  apart  one  way  and  four 
or  five  feet  the  other.  The  plants  can  be  put  out  either  in  the  spring  or  fall.  The 
canes  should  be  cut  off  even  with  the  ground  after  the  setting  is  done,  and  the  plants 
must  not  bear  fruit  until  the  next  year.  In  order  to  prevent  this,  and  to  insure  a  vig- 
orous growth,  severe  pruning  must  he  given.  In  July  the  canes  should  be  cut  off 
within  a  foot  of  the  ground  and  the  side  shoots  shortened  in.  The  second  year  the 
top  of  the  new  growth  is  to  be  pinched  off  when  it  gets  two  feet  high,  and  the  side 
shoots  must  not  be  allowed  to  grow  more  than  two  feet  in  length.  This  makes 
strong  roots  and  stocky  stems.  Mr.  Purdy,  the  well-known  editor  of  the  Fruit 
Recorder,  advises  this  vigorous  cutting  of  the  new  growth,  and  says  that  it  will 
usually  make  the  stems  strong  enough  to  hold  up  large  crops  of  fruit  without  being 
staked.  Each  year  a  sufficient  number  ol  shoots  should  be  allowed  to  grow  to 
provide  bearing  canes  for  the  next  season  and  all  others  should  be  removed.  The 
stalk  grows  one  year,  bears  fruit  the  next,  and  then  dies.  After  the  fruit  has  been 
picked,  the  canes  which  produced  it  should  be  cut  off  at  the  surface  of  the  ground. 


SMALL   FRUITS.  gQ5 

During  the  whole  season  the  ground  should  be  kept  free  from  weeds.  The  use 
of  a  horse- cultivator  between  the  rows,  and  a  liberal  mulch  of  old  hay  close  to 
the  hills,  will  prove  a  great  help  in  this  respect,  and  also  promote  the  growth 
and  productiveness  of  the  plants.  If  well  cared  for,  the  roots  will  last  for  many 
years. 

Winter  Protection  is  needed  by  most  of  the  best  varieties.  This  is  best  given 
by  a  light  covering  of  earth.  The  canes  should  be  bent  down  upon  the  ground,  a 
shovelful  of  earth  thrown  upon  the  tops  to  keep  them  in  place,  and  then  a  furrow 
plowed  each  side  the  row  will  furnish  sufficient  covering.  In  the  spring  ihe  canes 
can  be  loosened  with  a  fork. 

Of  Varieties  the  Clarke,  Naomi,  and  Philadelphia  are  among  the  best  of 
the  fully  established  kinds  of  the  red  berries ;  Brinkle's  Orange  is  a  fine  yellow 
variety ;  and  the  Mammoth  Cluster,  Doolittle,  and  Davison's  Thornless,  are 
among  the  standard  black  caps.  Of  the  above  the  three  former  are  propagated  by 
suckers,  and  must  have  winter  protection  at  the  North.  Brinkle's  Orange 
is  also  tender,  and  is  propagated  in  the  same  manner.  The  three  latter  are  hardy, 
and  are  increased  from  the  tips  of  the  new  wood. 

Blackberry  is  a  common  fruit,  growing  wild  in  nearly  all  countries  and  also 
extensively  grown  for  home  use  and  for  market.  The  plants  are  very  strong 
growers  and  require  more  room  than  the  raspberry.  Otherwise  the  cultivation  is 
nearly  the  same  as  already  described  for  that  fruit.  The  surface  of  the  ground  must 
be  stirred  often,  but  not  too  deeply.  If  the  roots  are  broken,  a  large  number  of  new 
plants  will  grow,  and  the  whole  bed  will  soon  be  filled  with  them.  Mulching  is 
very  useful.  Severe  pruning  must  also  be  given.  If  the  canes  are  allowed  to  grow 
more  than  three  feet  high,  with  side  branches  two  feet  long,  a  stake  must  be  set  in 
each  hill  and  the  canes  tied  to  it.  But  if  severely  pruned,  slaking  will  not  be 
necessary.     Three  or  four  stalks  are  enough  for  a  hill. 

The  following  varieties  are  among  the  best  for  farm  purposes :  Wilson's 
Early  and  Kittating  are  reasonably  hardy,  though  needing  winter  protection  in 
some  localities,  and  produce  large  quantities  of  excellent  fruit;  Missouri  Mam^ 
moth,  and  Sable  Queen  are  newer  sorts  of  great  promise,  and  the  Wachusett 
Thornless,  which  is  now  being  introduced,  seems  destined  to  be  very  popular. 

Currants  are  among  the  most  common  of  the  small  fruits.  They  are  easily 
grown  and  very  productive.  Although  often  neglected  and  allowed  to  stand  in  the 
sod,  these  bushes  ought  to  be  cultivated  and  hoed.  If  properly  cared  for  they  will 
produce  much  larger  and  finer  fruit  than  can  be  obtained  from  neglected  bushes. 
At  the  South,  mulching  is  necessary,  and,  at  the  North,  it  is  highly  beneficial. 

Pruning  should  not  be  neglected.  The  old  wood  should  be  cut  out  each  spring 
and  the  fastest-growing  branches  should  be  pinched  in  during  the  summer.  The 
fruit  grows  on  wood  which  is  two,  or  more,  years  old,  but  very  old  stems  are  not  as 
fruitful  as  newer  ones.  Onlythree  or  four  stalks  should  grow  from  a  single  root, 
and  new  plants  should  be  put  out  every  few  years.  The  plants  should  be  four  feet 
apart,  and  fertilizers  should  be  freely  applied  to  the  soil.  Keep  off  the  currant- 
worm,  as  directed  in  a  previous  chapter,  and  plenty  of  fruit  can  be  obtained  at  a 
very  small  cost. 

Of  Varieties  the  Red  Dutch,  Cherry,  and  La  Versailles  are  the  standard 
red  sorts.  The  White  Grape  is  the  best  white,  and  the  Black  Naples  the  best 
black  variety.  Of  the  white  and  black  currants,  Mr.  A.  S.  Fuller,  in  his  valuable 
work  on  small  fruit  culture,  says  the  former  is  less  acid  and  is  richer  than  the  red. 


806  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

while  the  black  is  less  acid  than  either  but  has  a  musky  flavor.  The  black  currant 
is  a  stronger  grower  than  the  other  sort?  and  produces  considerable  fruit  on  the  new 
wood.  Consequently,  it  needs  more  room  and  less  pruning  than  the  other  kinds. 
The  fruit  of  the  black  variety  is  considered  valuable  for  jellies.  New  plants,  of  any 
variety,  can  be  obtained  from  cuttings  or  by  layers. 

Gooseberries  are  excellent  for  jellies,  are  used  for  making  pies,  and  for  various 
other  household  purposes.  The  plants  are  much  like  the  currant  but  require  more 
care.  They  should  be  set  in  a  rich  soil  and  be  heavily  mulched.  A  Southern 
exposure  should  be  avoided.  Pruning  should  be  done  in  the  fall  after  the  leaves 
have  dropped.  There  should  be  plenty  of  room  for  the  light  and  air  among  the  tops. 
Mildew  often  destroys  both  the  fruit  and  the  plants.  As  a  remedy  for  this  disease, 
Mr.  Fuller  recommends  the  use  of  flour  of  sulphur  dusted  over  the  bushes  while 
the  berries  are  growing.  He  also  recommends  the  putting  out  of  new  plants  each 
year  so  as  to  have  a  constant  supply  of  those  which  are  young  and  vigorous.  For- 
eign varieties  are  much  more  subject  to  this  disease  than  the  native  sorts.  Hough- 
ton's Seedling,  the  Downing,  American  Seedling,  and  Smith's  Improved  are 
among  the  best  kinds  for  the  farm. 

Cranberries  are  a  very  healthful  and  delicious  kind  of  fruit.  They  are  extremely 
useful  in  the  treatment  of  many  diseases,  and  are  a  valuable  article  of  diet  for  people 
who  are  well.  The  plants  are  semi-aquatic,  though  there  are  varieties  which  do 
passably  well  on  uplands.  In  order  to  secure  the  best  returns  from  them,  cranberries 
should  be  grown  where  water  can  be  freely  used.  The  water  is  needed  to  promote 
the  growth  of  the  plants,  to  protect  them  from  the  severe  cold  of  winter  and  the  late 
spring  frosts,  and  to  destroy  the  worms  which  sometimes  infest  them.  In  many 
places  cranberries  grow  wild.  One  of  our  friends  has  a  large  lot  of  plants  in  his 
mowing,  and,  though  he  does  nothing  in  the  way  of  cultivation,  he  obtains  several 
bushels  of  good  fruit  every  other  year.  In  favorable  locations  the  cranberrj'  can  be 
grown  in  this  manner  ver>'  easily.  Small  pieces  of  vines  may  be  set  in  the  turf,  or 
berries,  or  pieces  of  vines,  may  be  sown  upon  the  land.  If  the  land  is  fitted  for 
them,  and  good  plants  are  set  out,  the  result  will  be  much  better  than  can  be  secured 
from  any  such  superficial  methods,  and,  where  the  fruit  is  to  be  grown  for  the  mar- 
ket, this  ought  always  to  be  done.  The  cranberry,  like  all  other  fruits,  is  improved 
by  cultivation.  But,  if  the  farmer  is  to  grow  only  a  small  quantity  for  family  use,  he 
cannot  afford,  and  does  not  need,  to  incur  much  expense  in  fitting  the  land. 

If  the  plants  are  to  be  set  on  low  land  the  surface-water  should  be  got  oflf  by 
drains.  Large  plants  should  be  secured  from  some  productive  bed  (some  vines 
being  nearly  barren)  and  set  in  rows  two  feet  apart  each  way.  If  small  plants,  or 
pieces  of  vines,  are  used,  they  should  be  set  ne.irer  together.  If  the  weeds  and 
grass  are  kept  down  for  two  or  three  years  the  vines  will  occupy  all  the  land.  This 
can  be  faciHtated  by  spreading  sand  upon  the  surface,  to  the  depth  of  two  inches, 
before  the  plants  are  put  out. 

Farmers  who  have  no  low  land  which  is  convenient,  or  is  suitable  for  this  pur- 
pose, can  put  a  few  plants  of  the  upland  variety  in  their  gardens  with  a  reasonable 
certainty  of  obtaining  fruit.  If  a  liberal  application  of  muck  can  be  made  to  the 
soil  it  will  be  an  advantage,  and  the  plants  should  be  thoroughly  mulched.  For 
this  purpose  the  Mansfield  Creeper  is  one  of  the  best  kinds.  This  is  a  new 
variety  described  by  Mr.  J.  J.  H.  Gregory,  the  well-known  Massachusetts 
seedsman,  as  of  diff'erent  growth  and  habit  from  other  kinds.  The  cuttings  root 
.  fireely,  thrive  on  moderately  dry  soils,  and  are  quite  productive.     For  low  land  the 


THE  FARM-GARDEN.  gQy 

Eaton  Black  Bell  is  a  very  early  variety,  and  some  of  the  common  "  Bell "  and 
"Cherry"  lends  are  still  quite  popular.  Plants  should  be  put  out  in  the  sprin<. 
though  they  vviil  be  likely  to  grow  if  set  in  early  summer  or  in  the  fall 


m^  order  to  secure  the  best  returns  from  the  farm-garden,  some  changes  from 

•  Ji"      the   common  form  of  management  will  be   required.     A  larger  area  of 

land  must  be  devoted  to  the  garden,  a  larger  variety  of  vegetables  and 

fruits  must  be  grown,  and  the  growing  crops  must  be  more  thoroughly 

cultivated. 

Cold  Frames.— Several  varieties  of  the  plants  which  should  be  grown 
m  the  farm-garden  are  much  more  fruitful  when  transplanted  than  they  are  if 
allowed  to  grow  where  the  seed  is  sown.  There  are  others  which  the  grower  in 
the  Northern  and  Middle  States  desires  to  obtain  earlier  than  he  can  get  them 
by  planting  in  the  open  land.  For  these  reasons  many  farmers  start  their  tomato- 
seeds,  and  several  other  kinds,  in  boxes  or  pans  of  dirt  which  they  keep  in  the 
house.  This  method  is  quite  inconvenient,  and  the  results  are  not  altogether  satis- 
factory. It  is  much  better  to  make  what  is  known  as  a  "  cold  frame,"\nd  in  this 
start  the  plants  which  are  wanted  earlier  in  the  season  than  they  can  be  obtained  by 
sowing  seed  in  the  open  ground.  This  is  a  plank  box  covered  with  glass.  A  shel- 
tered location  with  a  southern  exposure  should  be  selected.  The  land  should  be 
dry  and  level.  Set  four  posts  in  the  ground  at  the  corners  of  the  frame  and  fasten 
the  planks  to  them.  The  back  side  of  the  frame  should  be  about  a  foot  hi^h  and 
the  front  about  eight  inches.  For  ordinary  farm"  use,  a  frame  seven  feet  long  and 
three  or  four  feet  wide  will  be  large  enough. ,  The  end  pieces  should  be  made  nar- 
row in  front  and  wider  at  the  back  side  in  order  that  when  the  top  is  on  there  shall 
be  no  cracks  through  which  the  wind  can  enter  or  the  warm  air  escape.  The  top 
should  be  principally  made  of  glass.     Old  windows  answer  every  purpose. 

The  soil  within  the  frame  should  be  deeply  spaded,  finely  pulverized,  and  a  liberal 
quantity  of  stable-manure  should  be  worked  in.  The  surface  soil  must  be  made 
very  fine,  and  the  front  slightly  raised.  The  soil  should  be  worked  just  before  the 
seeds  are  sown,  as  the  natural  moisture  of  the  land  will  facilitate  their  germination 
But  if  the  seeds  are  to  be  put  in  during  very  cold  weather,  or  while  the  ground  is 
still  quite  cold  and  damp,  the  sashes  should  be  kept  on  for  a  few  days  previous  to 
the  sowing  in  order  that  the  soil  may  become  partially  warmed.  The  bed  should  be 
watered  every  morning.  During  warm  days  the  sashes  should  be  raised  a  little  by 
means  of  wedges  or  sticks  placed  under  them.  Late  in  the  season  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  cover  every  other  pane  of  glass  with  whitewash,  or  else  cover  the  whole  with 
a  blanket  during  the  middle  of  the  day,  in  addition  to  the  raising  of  the  sashes.  A 
little  experience  will  enable  any  one  to  determine  when  the  heat  is  too  intense  If 
the  plants  grow  very  fast  and  « spindling,"  the  bed  is  too  warm,  and  more  air 
should  be  admitted.  As  the  days  grow  longer  and  the  season  becomes  warmer,  the 
sashes  may  be  taken  half-way  off  during  the  day.  When  a  "  cold  snap  "  comes,  the 
iashes  should  be  covered  during  the  night  with  an  old  blanket.  In  all  cases  the 
plants  should  be  somewhat  exposed  to  the  air,  by  opening  the  sashes  a  few  hours 
each  day,  bafore  they  are  removed  to  the  open  ground. 


808 


FARMING   FOR    PROFIT. 


Transplanting  is  an  operation  which  often  needs  to  be  performed.  While  it  is 
ini[X)rtant  that  this  work  should  be  done  in  the  best  possible  manner,  it  is  frequently 
rendered  wholly  useless,  and  the  plants  which  are  taken  are  spoiled,  because  those 
who  put  them  out  do  not  understand  the  best  methods,  or  are  careless  in  following 
thtm.  If  properly  performed,  at  a  suitable  lime,  but  very  few  plants  will  be  lost. 
Even  in  an  unfavorable  time  most  of  the  plants  can  be  made  to  grow  if  they  are 
skilfully  Jianaged.  But  as  far  as  possible  a  good  time  should  be  chosen.  Tbe 
ground  should  be  fitted  only  a  short  time  before  the  transplanting  is  done,  and  if  a 
rainy  day  can  be  used,  the  plants  will  start  sooner,  and  grow  faster  than  they  will  if 
the  sun  shines  brightly,  and  the  ground  is  dry.  Most  plants  should  be  set  rather 
deeply — down  as  far  as  the  first  leaves — and  the  earth  should  be  packed  firmly 
around  the  roots.  The  best  way  to  set  plants  which  have  a  single  straight  root  is  to 
make  a  hole  with  a  smooth  slick,  considerably  larger  than  the  root,  but  not  much 
deeper  than  will  be  needed,  put  the  root  into  the  hole  thus  formed,  and  then  make 

another  hole  close  to  the  root,  and  as 
deep  as  the  one  in  which  it  was  placed. 
This  will  pack  the  soil  closely  around  the 
root  throughout  its  entire  length,  and  will 
do  a  great  deal  towards  making  the  oper- 
ation a  success.  Plants  with  many  roots, 
like  the  strawberry  and  tomato,  need 
different  management.  A  hole  of  suffi- 
cient size  to  allow  the  roots  and  fibres 
of  the  plant  to  be  spread  in  their  natural 
position  should  be  made,  and  the  earth 
packed  closely  upon  and  around  them. 
It  is  also  well  to  dip  the  roots  into  thin 
mud  before  setting  the  pKants. 

For  use  when  the  plants  are  to  be  reset 
near  where  they  grew,  the  implement 
shown  in  Figure  127  will  be  very  useful. 
Quite  a  quantity  of  earth  can  be  taken, 
the  roots  will  not  be  seriously  injured, 
and  the  growth  of  the  plant  will  hardly 
be  checked. 
For  transplanting  in  dry  weather,  the  Germantown  Telegraph  recommends  the 
following  plan :  "  Make  a  lot  of  holes  with  a  dibble,  deep  down  in  the  earth  where 
the  plants  are  to  grow,  and  fill  these  holes  with  water.  It  will  soon  soak  away, 
leaving  the  ground  in  a  half-dry,  half-wet  condition.  The  plants  to  be  set  out  are 
taken  from  the  seed-bed  and  put  into  a  bucket  or  basin  of  water.  That  is,  the  roots 
are,  but  the  tops  are  kept  out  in  the  dry.  They  are  one  by  one  taken  out,  put  in  the 
holes,  pressed  firm,  and  the  job  is  done.  They  need  no  more  water  than  this,  do 
not  wilt  much,  and  grow  right  away  much  better  than  when  treated  to  a  shower-bath 
in  the  regular  old-fashioned  sort  of  way.  But  suppose  the  weather  continues  dry, 
are  they  never  watered  ?  They  are ;  but  even  here  progress  has  found  a  better  plan 
than  that  of  the  olden  time.  The  earth  is  removed  with  a  hoe,  just  a  little  about 
the  plant  so  as  to  form  a  sort  of  basin  about  the  stem  ;  the  water  is  poured  into  the 
basin,  and  in  an  hour  or  so  after  the  water  has  all  soaked  away,  the  earth  is  drawn 
in,  and  the  whole  surface  is  as  before.     This  is  a  once-forall  operation,^  and  let  the 


FIG.    127. — transplanter. 


FIG.    129. — HOME   ADORNMENT — SHRUBS,   EVERGREENS,  AND    FLOWERS. 


THE  FARM-GARDEN.  gl] 

weather  be  ever  so  dry  it  is  seldom  that  a  plant  requires  more  than  one  or  two  watei 
doses  of  this  character  during  the  dry  spell." 

Various  Garden  Crops. — Many  crops  are  grown  in  both  the  garden  and  the 
field.  To  several  of  these  we  have  already  alluded  in  treating  of  farm  crops, 
and  the  directions  there  given  for  cultivation  can  be  very  easily  modified  to  suit  the 
garden.  Nearly  all  the  g-irden  plants  need  a  rich  soil  and  thorough  culture.  Sev- 
eral of  the  common  plants  are  found  in  every  garden,  and  their  cultivation  is  already 
understood.     Therefore  we  shall  occupy  but  little  space  in  treating  of  them. 

Asparagus  is  not  as  generally  found  in  farm  gardens  as  most  other  standard 
plants  for  garden  cultivation.  If  the  land  is  made  rich  and  thorough  culture  is 
given  there  will  be  no  trouble  in  obtaining  a  good  crop.  The  land  should  be  deeply 
plowed  in  the  fall,  a  heavy  application  of  well-rotted  stable-manure  should  be  made, 
and  another  plowing  given.  The  soil  should  be  finely  pulverized,  and  furrows 
eight  inches  deep  should  be  plowed  for  the  rov/s.  These  furrows  should  be  five 
feet  apart,  and  the  roots  placed  in  them,  covering  the  crowns  about  an  inch.  When 
the  stalks  appear,  hoe  the  dirt  around  them,  thus  gradually  filling  the  furrow  and 
levelling  off  the  surface  of  the  ground.  In  the  fall  spread  on  manure,  and  plow  a 
shallow  furrow  toward  each  side  of  the  rows.  In  the  spring  harrow  the  surface 
level,  and  keep  the  ground  loosened,  and  the  weeds  down  during  the  whole  season. 
The  next  fall  plow  a  furrow  each  side  away  from  the  rows,  throw  in  manure,  and 
then  plow  the  earth  back  over  the  rows.  The  next  spring  harrow  the  earth  away. 
A  few  of  the  strongest  shoots  can  be  cut,  but  no  general  cutting  should  be  allowed 
until  the  next  year.  Cultivate  thoroughly  every  year,  and  continue  to  give  the  same 
treatment  in  the  .spring  and  fall  as  has  been  recommended.  After  the  third  year 
coarse  salt  may  be  freely  applied.  The  stalks  should  be  removed  before  the  seeds 
are  ripe.  If  land  enough  for  this  method  cannot  be  spared,  the  rows  can  be  placed 
two  feet  apart,  but  this  will  make  it  necessary  to  do  the  work  of  cultivation  by  hand. 
The  soil  must  be  kept  loose  with  a  fork,  and  liberal  quantities  of  manure  must  be 
worked  in.  The  cutting  for  table  use  should  be  done  before  the  heads  burst,  when 
the  plants  are  about  six  inches  above  the  surface,  and  they  may  be  cut  four  inches 
below  the  ground. 

Beans. — Both  the  bush  and  the  running  beans  should  be  grown  in  the  garden. 
Planting  must  be  deferred  until  the  weather  and  the  ground  are  warm.  They 
should  be  kept  free  from  weeds,  but  it  is  not  well  to  hoe  them  when  wet  with 
either  dew  or  rain.  The  running  beans  should  be  provided  with  sticks  upon  which 
to  climb.  There  are  many  varieties.  The  Lima  is  quite  different  from,  and  much 
superior  to,  the  ordinary  kinds.  The  seeds  are  very  large  and  white,  and  the  vine 
is  a  vigorous  grower  and  prolific  bearer.  The  seeds  must  be  planted  with  the  eyes 
downward,  and  long  poles  must  be  provided  for  the  vines.  Planting  must  not  be 
done  until  the  ground  is  warm.  As  the  frost  proves  destructive  this  variety  does 
not  ripen  at  the  extreme  North. 

Beets  are  easily  grown,  and  the  early  kinds  are  useful  for  the  leaves  as  well  as 
the  roots.  Sow  in  long  rows,  with  a  seed-sowei;,  eighteen  inches  apart.  Cover  the 
seeds  an  inch  deep.  If  sown  by  hand  soak  the  seeds  in  warm  water  for  a  day  or 
two.  For  early  use  sow  as  soon  as  the  ground  can  be  worked  in  spring;  for  autumn 
sow  in  May,  and  for  winter  use  in  June.  Thin  the  plants  to  from  six  to  ten  inches 
apart.  The  leaves  of  the  young  plants  are  good  for  "  greens."  During  the  season 
weeds  should  be  kept  down,  and  the  ground  ought  to  be  often  stirred. 

The  Cabbage  needs  a  deep,  rich  soil  and  thorough  culture.     The  seed  should  be 


812  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 

sown  in  beds,  and  when  they  are  of  a  suitable  size  the  plants  should  be  set  out  Vk 
hills.  At  the  South  the  plants  may  be  set  in  the  fall,  but  at  the  North  the  seed 
should  be  sown  in  a  cold  frame  in  March  for  the  early  varieties,  and  in  open  land  a 
month  later  for  the  late  kinds.  The  plants  must  not  crowd  each  other  in  the  seed- 
bed. The  hills  should  be  two  feet  and  a-half  apart  each  way,  and  only  one  f)lant 
should  stand  in  a  hill.  The  ground  should  be  hoed  often,  and  when  the  plants  are 
half-grown  it  should  be  worked  deeply  and  hilled  up  around  the  stalks.  The  dis- 
ease known  as  "  clump-root,"  or  "  club-foot,"  often  proves  quite  destructive.  When 
affected  with  thu;  disease,  the  plants  "  head  under  ground  "  instead  of  above  it  and 
are  rendered  worthless.  To  prevent  it,  plant  cabbages  on  a  different  piece  of  land 
each  year,  and  use  well-rotted  stable  manure,  bone-dust,  or  guano,  for  fertilizers. 
Planting  year  after  year  on  the  same  land,  or  the  use  of  hog-manure,  will  be  likely 
to  induce  an  attack  and  cause  the  destruction  of  the  crop. 

The  Carrot  is  a  palatable  and  useful  article  of  food,  and  should  be  more  gener- 
ally found  upon  the  tables  of  the  farmers.  We  have  already  recommended  its  cul- 
tivation for  stock  and  given  directions  therefor.  The  garden  culture  should  be 
nearly  the  same  as  that  recommended  for  the  field.  For  early  use,  sow  seeds  of  an 
early  variety  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  warm  in  spring.  For  winter  use,  sow  about 
the  first  of  June.  If  sown  by  hand,  the  seed  should  be  soaked  twenty-four  hours 
and  then  rolled  in  plaster.  Prepare  the  ground  just  before  sowing  the  seed.  The 
land  should  be  rich  from  previous  manuring,  but  no  fresh  stable-manure  should  be 
applied.  If  any  fertilizer  is  needed,  use  bone-dust,  guano,  or  ashes.  It  is  not  well 
to  cultivate  deeply,  but  all  weeds  should  be  kept  down,  and  the  plants  thinned  to 
eight  inches  apart. 

Celery  is  not  as  easily  grown  as  most  garden  plants,  but  it  furnishes  a  "  delicate 
and  most  delicious  salad,"  and  physicians  strongly  recommend  its  use.  The  seed 
should  be  started  in  a  cold  frame,  or  in  some  sheltered  place  in  the  open  land.  As 
soon  as  the  plants  are  six  or  eight  inches  high,  they  may  be  set  in  rows  fire  feet 
apart  and  six  inches  apart  in  the  row.  Some  set  them  upon  the  surface,  but  it  is 
better  to  dig  trenches  a  foot  and  a-half  deep  and  a  foot  wide,  throw  in  well-rotted 
manure  until  the  bottom  is  covered  six  inches  deep,  cover  this  with  two  or  three  inches 
of  soil  which  should  be  mixed  with  the  manure  and  trodden  down  a  little,  and  then 
throw  on  an  inch  or  two  of  fine  soil  in  which  to  set  the  plants.  Set  the  plants  care- 
fully after  removing  all  the  suckers.  During  the  summer  keep  the  soil  loose  around 
the  plants,  water  with  liquid  manure,  and  as  they  grow  pull  the  earth  up  around 
them  as  directed  for  asparagus.  The  earthing  should  be  done  when  the  plants  are 
dry,  and  care  must  be  used  not  to  gel  any  dirt  into  the  centre  of  the  top.  About  a 
month  before  they  are  wanted  for  use,  and  while  the  weather  is  quite  warm,  they 
should  be  wholly  covered  with  a  few  inches  of  earth,  and  the  top  of  the  ridge  thus 
made  should  be  slanted  oflT  so  as  to  protect  from  rain.  Good  cultivation  and  the 
occasional  application  of  a  small  quantity  of  salt  will  improve  the  quality.  For 
winter  protection  B.  K.  Bliss  &  Sons,  the  New  York  seedsmen,  recommend  the 
following :  Take  up  the  plants  "  before  severe  weather  sets  in,  and  lay  them  in 
as  closely  as  can  be  done  without  crowding  the  leaves,  on  a  ridge  of  soil,  with  their 
tops  sloping  downwards,  and  three  or  four  layers  deep  on  each  side  of  the  ridge. 
Cover  with  four  inches  of  soil,  over  which  place  straw  or  leaves  about  one  foot 
thick ;  on  this  a  roof  of  boards  to  throw  off  the  water.  When  wanted  for  use  open 
at  one  end." 

Corn  of  the  sweet  varieties  should  be  grown  for  boiling  and  roasting.     Make  the 


THE  FARM-GARDEN.  813 

fand  rich  and  cultivate  often.  The  planting  should  be  done  at  intervals  of  two 
weeks  in  order  to  furnish  a  succession  during  the  season.  For  early  use,  plant  the 
earliest  varieties  as  soon  as  safe  from  frost,  and  for  later  use,  the  kinds  which  ripen 
late  in  the  season. 

Cucumbers  are  not  remarkably  healthful,  but  they  find  a  place  in  almost  all  gar- 
dens. The  seed  should  not  be  planted  until  the  ground  has  become  dry  and  warm. 
Make  large  hills,  four  feet  apart,  put  into  each  a  shovelful  of  rotten  manure,  or  a  lib- 
eral quantity  of  ashes,  which  should  be  mixed  with  the  soil  and  slightly  covered. 
Plant  ten  or  a  dozen  seeds  in  each  hill  and  cover  half  an  inch  deep.  When  the 
striped  bug  comes,  as  he  will  be  likely  to  before  the  plants  are  very  large,  a  con- 
stant watch  must  be  kept  or  they  will  be  destroyed.  It  is  best  to  begin  defensive 
operations  before  he  makes  an  attack.  We  dust  our  plants  with  plaster.  This  must 
be  applied  when  the  leaves  are  wet  and  repeated  every  day  or  two  until  the  enemy 
has  disappeared.  Some  growers  recommend  watering  with  a  weak  solution  of 
tobacco  and  soft-soap,  and  then  putting  on  bone-flour.  A  still  better  way,  because 
it  CH.n  be  done  once  for  all,  is  to  tack  some  pieces  of  board  together  in  the  shape  of 
a  box,  cover  with  mosquito  netting,  and  set  over  the  hill.  When  the  plants  begin 
to  run  they  should  be  thinned  to  three  or  four  in  the  hill.  They  should  be  hoed 
often,  and  all  weeds  should  be  kept  out  of  the  hills.  For  pickles,  plant  the  later 
varieties  during  the  first  half  of  the  month  of  June.  • 

The  Dandelion  is  entitled  to  a  place  in  the  farm-garden.  The  tops  make  excel- 
lent "  greens,"  and  the  roots  furnish  a  good  substitute  for  coffee.  Sow  the  seed  in 
drill.-,  a  foot  apart,  and  thin  the  plants  to  three  inches  in  the  rows.  Cultivate  well, 
and,  the  next  spring,  both  tops  and  roots  will  be  large  enough  to  use. 

Herbs. — A  few  herbs  should  be  found  in  every  country  garden.  Of  those  which 
are  both  common  and  useful,  the  following  will  be  found  the  best. 

HoARHOUND  is  Valuable  for  medicinal  purposes,  and  bee-keepers  can  profitably 
grow  it  as  a  honey-producing  plant.  Sow  the  seed  in  a  warm,  light  soil,  in  rows  a 
foot  and  a  half  apart.  Thin  the  plants  to  nine  inches  apart  in  the  row.  Keep 
free  from  weeds.  Cut  just  before  Ihe  plants  come  into  full  blossom.  Like  all  other 
herbs,  these  plants  should  be  cut  in  dry  weather  and  stored  in  a  dry,  cool  room. 

Sage  is  entitled  to  the  first  rank  among  the  garden  herbs.  It  is  used  for  "  season- 
ing" various  articles  of  food,  and  also  as  a  medicine  in  some  diseases;  The  seed 
should  be  sown  in  rows  fifteen  inches  apart  and  covered  nearly  an  inch  deep.  The 
soil  should  be  made  very  fine,  and  the  seed  sown  when  the  ground  is  quite  warm. 
When  the  plants  are  a  {t\!  inches  high  they  should  be  set  in  hills  a  foot  and  a  half 
apart.  During  the  season  they  ought  to  be  hoed  several  times.  They  are  quite 
hardy,  and,  if  grown  on  dry  ground,  will  usually  live  through  the  winter.  Each 
spring  the  plants  should  be  taken  up,  the  roots,  several  of  which  will  be  found  in 
each  hill,  parted  and  reset.  We  often  give  away  half  or  two-thirds  of  our  sage  roots 
when  we  transplant  and  still  keep  the  stock  good.  The  stems  should  be  cut  just 
before  blossoming  and  spread  in  the  shade  to  dry.  If  seed  is  wanted,  some  of  the 
finest  stalks  should  be  left  for  the  purpose.  The  seed  will  be  black  when  ripe,  and, 
as  soon  as  it  is  well  colored,  the  stems  upon  which  it  is  produced  should  be  cut 
and  dried. 

Sweet  Marjoram. — The  seed  should  be  sown,  in  a  rich  and  finely  pulverized 
soil,  when  the  ground  is  warm,  in  rows  fifteen  inches  apart.  Cover  but  slightly, 
and  press  the  dirt  firmly  over  the  rows.  When  large  enough,  set  out  the  plants  in 
rows  a  foot  apart,  and  give  the  same  distance  between  them  in  the  row.     Cut  when 


814  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

in  blossom.  Seed  must  be  sown  every  year  as  the  plants  will  winter-kill.  Save 
the  finest  stems  for  seed,  and,  when  the  leaves  and  tops  begin  to  dry,  cut  and  store 
in  a  dry  place. 

Summer  Savory.  -The  seed  should  be  sown  early  in  the  season,  and  only 
slightly  covered.  Rows  should  be  fifteen  inches  apart,  and  the  plants  should  not 
be  taken  up.     If  too  thick,  remove  the  surplus  ones.     Cut  when  in  blossom. 

Thy-ME. — The  seed  should  be  got  in  early,  in  a  finely-prepared  soil,  and  only 
slightly  covered.  Transplant  into  hills  a  foot  apart  each  way.  The  plants  will 
live  through  the  winter.  The  roots  should  be  taken  up  in  the  spring,  parted,  and 
reset  as  directed  for  sage.  The  cutting  should  be  done  when  the  plants  are  in 
blossom. 

Horse-Radish  should  be  grown  in  a  rich  soil  which  has  been  deeply  plowed. 
It  is  propagated  from  pieces  of  the  root.  Plant  in  the  spring,  eighteen  inches  apart, 
in  holes  deep  enough  to  allow  the  top  of  the  root  to  be  covered  three  or  four  inches. 
Pack  the  soil  closely  around  the  roots.  Hoe  often  enough  to  keep  down  the  weeds. 
The  roots  will  be  large  enough  for  use  in  the  fall. 

Lettuce. — Sow  in  a  light,  warm,  and  rich  soil.  Cover  slightly.  If  the  head 
varieties  are  grown,  transplant  in  hills  a  foot  apart  each  way.  Or,  the  plants  can 
be  set  between  the  cucumber  and  melon  hills.  Most  of  them  will  get  out  of  the 
way  before  the  vines  need  the  land.  The  richer  the  soil  and  better  the  culture 
which  this  plant  receives  the  better  will  be  the  quality  of  its  leaves. 

Melons  should  have  a  warm,  light  soil  and  plenty  of  manure.  Some  of  the 
finest  melons  we  ever  saw  were  grown  in  a  sandy  and  almost  exhausted  soil.  Use 
rotten  manure  or  a  good  compost.  Work  the  fertilizer  into  the  soil  in  and  around 
the  hills.  Plant  when  the  ground  is  warm.  Use  ten  or  twelve  seeds  in  each  hill, 
and,  when  the  plants  begin  to  run,  thin  to  three  or  four.  Make  the  hills  for  musk- 
melons  six  feet  apart  each  way,  for  citrons  and  watermelons  nine  or  ten  feet  apart. 
Keep  free  from  weeds.  Citrons  and  watermelons  mix  very  badly,  and,  if  seed  is 
to  be  grown,  the  plants  must  be  a  long  distance  apart.  If  grown  in  the  same  gar- 
den the  fruit  will  be  good  but  the  seeds  will  be  worthless. 

Onion  culture  has  already  been  described  in  the  pages  devoted  to  farm  crops. 
For  garden  culture  much  the  same  course  should  be  pursued  as  is  there  recommended. 

Parsnip. — When  grown  for  the  table,  the  parsnip  should  have  a  rich  and  deep 
soil  which  was  heavily  manured  the  previous  season.  Sow  the  seed,  very  thick, 
early  in  the  season,  in  drills  fifteen  inches  apart  and  half  an  inch  deep.  Cultivate 
well.  In  the  fall  take  up  enough  roots  for  winter  use  and  store  in  the  cellar. 
Leave  the  remainder  in  the  ground  until  spring,  but  before  freezing  weather  cover 
the  tops  with  a  little  earth. 

Peas  are  among  the  essentials  in  every  garden.  For  early  use  sow  as  soon  as 
the  ground  can  be  worked  in  the  spring.  The  soil  should  be  moderately  rich. 
Weeds  should  l>e  kept  down,  a  small  quantity  of  dirt  should  be  drawn  around  the 
stems  of  the  plants  when  they  are  a  few  inches  high,  and  bushes  should  be  .set  for 
them  to  climb.  If  the  land  is  dry,  cover  quite  deeply.  Otherwise,  cover  two  or 
three  inches.  We  sometimes  sow  peas  in  the  bottoms  of  the  furrows  when  we 
plow.  In  dry  weather  they  do  better  in  this  way  than  when  more  lightly  cov- 
ered. For  a  succession  sow  at  intervals  of  two  or  three  weeks.  Also  sow  the  later 
varieties. 

Potatoes. — A  few  early,  and  some  sweet,  potatoes  should  be  grown  in  every 
farm-garden  in  those  sections  where  they  succeed.     Plant  in  rows  and  care  for  as 


THE  FARM-GARDEN.  815 

already  directed  for  field  culture.     These  and  the  different  kinds  of  vines  should  be 
grown  upon  one  side  of  the  garden  so  that  they  can  be  cultivated  by  horse  power. 

Radish  is  highly  esteemed  by  many  people  and  is  easily  grown.  Sow  the  seed 
in  drills  a  foot  apart  and  cover  lightly.  Thin  to  three  inches  apart  in  the  rows. 
Sow  in  the  spring  for  early  use  and  in  August  for  winter.  The  soil  should  be  rich, 
but  no  fresh  manure  should  be  used  if  ihe  best  quality  of  roots  is  desired. 

Rhubarb  can  be  grown  from  the  seed  or  from  pieces  of  the  roots.  The  latter  pro 
cess  saves  two  years'  time.  If  seed  is  used,  sow  in  the  spring,  in  drills  a  foot  apart, 
and  thin  the  plants  to  three  inches.  Transplant  the  next  spring,  into  rows  three  feet 
apart  each  way,  into  a  rich  soil,  and  give  good  cultivation.  If  roots  are  used,  set 
them  in  hills,  in  rich  land.  Cut  all  the  seed  stalks  as  soon  as  they  appear.  If  more 
plants  are  wanted,  divide  the  roots  in  the  spring. 

The  Squash  is  easily  grown  in  some  sections,  while  in  others  its  insect  enemies 
make  its  production  a  matter  of  great  difficulty.  The  land  should  be  very  rich  and 
the  hills  should  be  eight  or  ten  feet  apart.  Manure  and  room  are  great  essentials. 
Plant  when  the  ground  is  warm,  using  plenty  of  seed,  and  thin  to  two  or  three  plants 
in  a  hill  when  the  vines  commence  running.  Use  plaster  on  the  leaves  as  recom- 
mended for  cucumbers.  This  will  tend  to  keep  away  the 
bugs.  Where  the  maggot  proves  destructive,  the  vines  must 
be  closely  watched.  The  eggs  from  which  these  enemies 
are  hatched  are  laid  on  the  stem  near  the  root  and  at  the 
point  of  union  of  the  leaf  stalks  and  vine.  The  maggot 
bores  into  the  vine,  and  if  seen  soon  enough  ijiay  be  de- 
stroyed with  a  sharp  wire,  but  if  given  his  liberty  for  a  few 
days  he  will  destroy  a  large  vine. 

Tomato. — Sow  the  seeds  in  a  cold  frame,  or  in  a  box 
of  earth   in   the  house,  if  very   early   plants   are  desired.  ^■'*^'  ^^^' 

If  not,  sow  in  open  land  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  tomato  frame. 
warm.  Cover  lightly.  When  the  plants  are  three  inches  high  they  should  be  taken 
up  and  put  in  a  sheltered  place.  Transplant  again  when  they  have  become  well 
rooted.  This  will  give  stronger  plants  than  can  be  secured  if  they  are  set  out  only 
once.  For  early  fruit  set  the  plants  in  a  dry  and  gravelly  soil.  If  a  large  and  rather 
late  crop  is  wanted,  set  in  a  rich  and  moist  soil.  Hoe  often,  give  plenty  of  room, 
and  tie  each  plant  to  a  stake,  or  set  a  frame  around  it  like  that  shown  in  Figure  130. 
After  the  fruit  sets  pinch  off  the  ends  of  the  vines.  Tomatoes  are  said  to  contain 
considerable  oxalic  acid  and  are  considered  very  healthful. 

Turnips,  in  small  quantities,  may  be  grown  in  the  garden.  The  cultivation  both 
of  flat  turnips  and  ruta  Iiagas  will  be  much  the  same  as  directed  for  the  field.  To 
obtain  a  succession  sow  some  of  the  early  varieties  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  warm, 
and  the  later  sorts  when  the  season  is  further  advanced.  For  winter  use  the  seed 
of  flat  turnips  needs  sowing  about  the  first  of  August,  and  the  ruta  bagas  about  the 
middle  of  June.  The  former  should  be  sown  in  drills  and  cultivated,  the  latter 
should  be  transplanted,  and  hoed  quite  often. 

The  great  essentials  to  success  in  farm  gardening  are  heavy  manuring,  plenty  of 
room,  and  thorough  cultivation.  These  any  and  every  farmer  can  give,  and  by 
giving  them  he  can  make  his  garden  the  most  profitable  part  of  his  farm. 

On  the  following  page  we  present  illustrations  of  choice  varieties  of  Garden 
Vegetables.  For  several  of  these  cuts  we  are  indebted  to  the  well-known  seeds- 
«san,  H.  A.  Dreer,  of  Philadelphia,  Pa. 


no.    131. — EASnAN'S   HALF-LONG   BLOOD    BBKT. 
PIG.    132. — EARLV    HALF-LONG   SCARLET   CARROT. 
FIG.    133. — EARLY    JEKSEV   WAKETIELD   CAnBAGE. 
riG.    134. — GREEN   CITRON    NETTED   MlI<^K-MELON. 
riC    135. — EGYPTIAN    BLOOD    Tl'RNIP    BEET, 
no.    136. — IMPROVED  LARGE  PURPLE  EGG-PLANT. 


(SI6) 


FIG.    142. 

FIG.    137. — BASTIAN'S    EXTRA    EARLY    RED    BEET. 

FIG.    138. — SMALL   GHERKIN,  OR    BUKR-CICIMBBK. 

FIG.    139. — EARLY    WHITE   SCALLOP    BUSH-SQUASH. 

FIG.    140. — DWARF   CELERY. 

FIG.    141. — MARTYNIA. 

FIG.    142. — DREEK'S   selected    TROPHY   TOMATO. 


BUSINESS   PRINCIPLES. 


(817) 


CONTENTS    OF    FiLBT   lY. 


BOOK-KEEPING. 

FALSE   ECONOMY. 

A   GOOD   REPUTATION. 
INSURANCE. 

USEFUL   TABLES 


(818) 


BOOK-KEEPING.  gj^ 


HEN  properly  managed,  farming  is  safer  than  almost  any  other  kind  of 
business,  and  pays  a  larger  percentage  of  profit  in  proportion  to  the  time 
spent  in  learning  its  requirements  and  the  amount  of  money  invested  in 
its  prosecution.  Although  in  many  kinds  of  business  an  apprenticeship 
of  several  years  must  be  served,  farming  is  open  to  the  new  beginner  and 
he  is  perfectly  free  to  introduce  himself  and  go  to  work.  The  doctor  and  lawyer 
spend  several  years  in  study  before  they  attempt  to  enter  their  chosen  fields  of  labor, 
and  the  merchant  and  mechanic  spend  considerable  time  in  learning  the  methods 
of  managing  the  business  which  they  design  to  follow.  A  few  farmers  take  the 
same  initiatory  steps,  but  there  are  not  many  who  incur  any  expense  in  order  to 
master  the  details  of  the  business  before  they  start  for  themselves.  Yet,  in  spite  of 
this  great  disadvantage,  there  is  a  much  larger  proportion  of  farmers  who  succeed 
in  business  than  there  is  of  men  engaged  in  other  occupations.  This  does  not  fol- 
low because  study  and  training  are  of  no  benefit  in  preparing  a  man  to  farm  success- 
fully, but  because  the  business  of  farming  is  much  safer  and  will  bear  more  bad 
management  than  almost  any  other  kind  of  work  in  which  he  can  engage. 

But  in  order  to  secure  the  highest  degree  of  success  the  farmer  must  manage  his 
business  by  business  principles.  Although  he  may  get  a  living  for  himself  and  his 
family  if  he  allows  things  to  take  their  course,  he  cannot  make  as  large  a  profit  as 
he  could  easily  secure  if  he  managed  his  business  instead  of  allowing  his  business 
to  manage  him. 

One  of  the  first  things  which  the  farmer  needs  to  acquire  in  order  to  fit  him  for 
this  department  of  his  work  is  a  knowledge  of  book-keeping.  It  is  not  necessary 
that  he  should  master  the  whole  science,  but  he  ought  to  know  the  fundamental 
principles  and  be  able  to  apply  them.  These  principles  are  few  and  simple.  It  is 
strange  that  in  our  public  schools  this  branch  of  education  has  been  so  sadly  neg- 
lected. Many  a  young  man  has  been  to  school  many  terms,  and  obtained  a  great 
deal  of  knowledge  of  various  forms  and  information  concerning  a  multitude  of  sub- 
jects, and  yet  been  left  profoundly  ignorant  of  the  methods  of  keeping  books  in 
business  transactions.  He  has  not  been  obliged  to  do  business  many  years  before 
he  has  found  that  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  leading  principles  of  this  stience 
would  have  been  worth  a  great  deal  more  to  him  than  the  acquaintance  with  the 
dead  languages  which  he  studied  so  hard  to  obtain.  Many  a  man  would  have  been 
saved  from  financial  ruin  if  he  had  been  educated  in  book-keeping  instead  of  the 
Latin  and  Greek  languages.  These  languages  are  excellent  subjects  for  study  if 
a  boy  has  time  to  master  them,  but  when  he  comes  to  the  hard  work  of  life  he  will 
find  that  the  ability  to  read  them  will  not  enable  him  to  manage  a  farm  successfully 
or  aid  him  to  any  great  extent  in  getting  a  living  at  any  kind  of  manual  labor.  In 
every  public  school  which  children  fourteen  years  of  age  attend  the  elementary 
principles  of  book-keeping  should  be  taught.  No  young  man  is  fitted  for  the  busi- 
ness  of  life  and  no  young  woman  is  competent  to  manage  the  affairs  of  a  household 
until  some  knowledge  of  this  science  has  been  secured. 

There  are  various  reasons  why  a  farmer  should  keep  a  regular  account  of  his 
ousiness  transactions.  A  "good  and  suflficient"  one  may  be  found  in  the  fact  that 
it  is  the  only  way  in  which  he  can  have,  at  all  times,  an  exact  knowledge  of 
the  condition  of  his  business.     If  he  keeps  no  accounts  he  cannot  tell  whether 


g20  FARM/XG  FOR   PROFIT. 

he  is  making  or  losing  money,  and  will  never  be  able  to  know  how  much  he 
is  worth. 

Another  reason  why  he  should  keep  a  careful  record  of  his  business  is  to  be  found 
in  the  fact  that  if  he  neglects  to  do  this  he  will  sustain  many  losses  which  he  might 
have  prevented.  He  will  forget  dates  and  prices,  and  for  many  thiiigs  which  he 
sells  lie  will  receive  no  return.  In  every  community  there  are  men  who  take  advan- 
tage of  the  easy-going  farmer  who  neglects  to  charge  what  he  sells,  who  buy  of  him 
"  little  and  often,"  and  who  never  design  to  pay  for  what  they  obtain.  Such  losses 
in  the  aggregate  make  quite  a  drain  upon  the  farmer's  resources. 

Still  another  reason  for  keeping  accounts  is  to  be  found  in  the  habits  of  prompt- 
ness which  such  a  course  tends  to  form  and  confirm.  It  is  not  the  man  who  keeps 
his  books  carefully  who  is  always  behind  time  in  every  business  enterprise.  He  is 
likely  to  attend  to  things  promptly.  The  man  who  thinks  it  of  no  consequence 
whether  he  ever  makes  a  written  statement  of  his  business  or  not,  is  almost  sure  to 
fall  into  other  easy  habits  which  will  strongly  tend  to  his  own  disadvantage. 

But  one  of  the  strongest  reasons  for  the  course  advised  is  the  fact  that  it  tends  to 
keep  a  man  out  of  debt.  The  farmer  who  keeps  no  accounts  is  generally  ready  to 
pay  eight  or  ten  per  cent,  interest  for  money  when  he  wants  to  borrow,  but  the  one 
whose  books  are  properly  kept  knows  that  he  cannot  afford  to  pay  as  much,  and  will 
try  to  secure  what  capital  he  needs  at  a  lower  rate.  The  man  who  keeps  strict 
accounts  knows  what  money  is  worth,  and  how  much  labor  a  dollar  represents,  far 
better  than  his  neighbor  who  has  no  account  books.  The  one  will  be  very  cautious 
about  getting  into  debt,  and  very  anxious  to  get  out  if  a  debt  is  incurred,  while  the 
other  will  be  ready  to  borrow  money,  but  slow  to  repay  what  he  has  borrowed. 
There  are  exceptions  to  this  rule,  as  there  are  to  nearly  all  others,  but  the  tendency 
of  the  habit  of  keeping  accounts  with  care  and  precision  is  to  keep  a  man  from  debt 
and  from  careless  speculation,  and  to  greatly  advance  his  pecuniary  interests. 

The  cost  of  the  necessary  books  is  very  small,  and  but  little  time  will  be  needed 
in  which  to  make  the  records.  Business  transactions  should  be  noted  immediately. 
It  will  not  do  to  trust  to  memory,  as  that  often  proves  very  treacherous.  Every 
evening  the  books  should  be  brought  up  to  date.  A  record  should  be  made  of  the 
work  which  has  been  performed,  as  well  as  of  the  financial  transactions  of  the  day 
The  latter  items,  however,  should  not  be  left  until  evening  if  they  are  of  more  than 
ordinary  importance,  but  should  be  noted  as  soon  as  there  is  an  opportunity  to  record 
them. 

The  books  which  will  be  needed  are  a  Diary,  Day-Book,  and  Ledger.  If  an 
account  is  kept  with  each  crop,  and  with  separate  fields,  another  book  will  be  a  con- 
venience, though  not  an  absolute  necessity.  For  a  Diary  many  farmers  use  a  cheap 
pocket  form,  but  one  about  eight  by  six  inches,  with  three  days  for  each  page,  would 
be  better.  In  this  book  a  record  of  the  work  and  weather  should  be  made.  It 
should  be  a  history  of  the  work  of  the  farm,  and  the  life  of  the  farmer,  if  the 
farmer  or  any  of  his  family  go  away  from  home,  or  receive  visits  from  friends,  or 
any  special  business  is  transacted,  the  facts  should  be  briefly  but  clearly  noted.  Such 
a  record  often  proves  of  great  financial  value,  and  it  is  always  convenient  and  useful 
for  reference.  For  a  Day-Book  a  blank-book  about  ten  and  a  half  by  seven  and  a 
half  inches,  with  two  hundred  and  fifty  pages,  ruled  on  the  left  for  the  number  of  the 
page  of  the  Ledger  to  which  the  account  is  transferred,  and  with  two  double 
columns  on  the  right  for  dollars  and  cents,  will  do  very  well.  All  purchases  and 
sales  with  the  dates  and   prices,  whether  paid   for,  or  bought,  or  sold  on  credit, 


BOOK-KEEPING.  821 

should  be  noted  in  this  book.     The  debtor  account  can  be  kept  on  one  page  and 
the  creditor  account  on  the  opposite  one  if  desired. 

The  main  difficulty  which  most  people  have  in  book-keeping  is  to  determine 
just  what  to  charge,  and  for  what  to  give  credit.  But  the  necessary  forms  for 
keeping  farm-accounts  will  be  clear  to  any  one  who  will  give  the  suiiject  a  little 
careful  thought.  Mr.  Waring  has  given  the  following  rule  :  "  When  you  let  your 
neighbor,  or  he  with  whom  you  deal,  have  anything  from  you,  it  is  a  charge  against 
him,  and  you  must  charge  him  with  it  on  the  debit  side  of  the  account ;  but  when- 
ever you  receive  anything  from  him,  it  is  a  credit,  and  you  must  credit  him  with  it 
on  the  credit  side  of  the  account."  If  you  sell  your  neighbor  a  load  of  hriy  which 
he  does  not  pay  for  when  it  is  delivered,  he  becomes  your  Dr.  (debtor)  for  the  value 
of  the  hay.  If  you  buy  a  cow,  without  paying  cash,  of  another  neighbor,  that  neigh- 
bor becomes  your  Cr.  (creditor)  for  the  price  of  the  cow.  Accounts  can  be  kept 
with  crops,  or  fields,  or  animals,  in  the  same  manner.  A  crop  is  Dr.  to  the  use  of 
the  land  and  expense  of  preparing  it,  the  value  of  the  seed  and  cost  of  planting 
or  sowing,  to  the  expenses  of  cultivation,  harvesting,  preparing  for  market,  and  de- 
livering at  the  place  agreed  upon ;  and  Cr.  by  the  amount  of  money  received  for 
what  is  sold,  and  the  value  of  the  portion  used  at  home.  A  cow  is  Dr.  to  her  firsir 
cost,  interest  on  money  invested  and  the  expenses  of  keeping;  and  Cr.  by  the  value 
of  her  calves  and  milk.     The  same  principle  applies  to  all  business  transactions. 

The  work  can  be  done  in  less  time  and  with  less  labor  if  a  book  prepared  ex- 
pressly for  farm  book-keeping  is  obtained.  The  publishers  of  the  Ohio  FarmeV: 
have  strongly  recommended  their  readers  to  keep  accurate  business  accounts,  and,, 
in  order  to  aid  them  in  this  work,  have  prepared  a  two  hundred  page  "  Farmer's 
Account- Book,"  which  contains  a  system  of  keeping  accounts  which  is  specially 
adapted  to  the  wants  of  farmers  and  stock-owners.  This  book  has  printed  head- 
ings for  the  various  departments  of  the  farm  business,  including  Plan  of  Farm,  Pur- 
chasing Accounts,  Sales  Accounts,  Individual  Accounts,  Consignments  and  Ac- 
counts Sales,  Laborers'  Accounts,  Cash  Received  and  Cash  Paid  Out  Accounts,, 
together  with  many  useful  rules  and  calculations.  The  book  is  large  enough  to- 
last  an  average  farmer  three  years  and  costs  only  one  dollar.  With  the  pape/,  pub- 
lished at  Cleveland,  Ohio,  the  price  is  still  less.  We  piost  cordially  commend, 
this  book  for  the  use  of  farmers. 

Whatever  form  is  used  for  a  Day- Book,  a  Ledger  should  also  be  kept.  This  is- 
not  an  absolute  necessity,  but  it  is  a  very  great  convenience — so  great  as  to  be  almost 
indispensable.  Concerning  this  book,  HoN.  H.  M.  Spalding,  in  "  How  to  be 
your  own  Lawyer,"  says :  "  For  each  person  who  becomes  indebted  to  us,  or  to 
whom  we  become  indebted,  an  account  is  opened  in  this  book,  and  the  date  and^ 
amount  of  such  indebtedness  therein  recorded,  so  that  however  numerous  the  trans- 
actions that  we  have  with  an  individual  may  be,  or  however  widely  separated  as  to 
time,  they  are  all  brought  together  within  a  very  small  space  under  his  account  in 
the  Ledger,  where  the  amounts  can  be  readily  seen,  and  whether  we  owe  him,  or  he 
owes  us,  and  how  much,  easily  determined. 

"  By  thus  bringing  compactly  together  all  the  transactions  which  we  may  have  withi 
an  individual,  spread  over,  it  may  be,  many  months,  and  arranging  upon  one  side 
of  his  account  all  items  for  which  he  becomes  indebted  to  us  (that  is,  for  which  he- 
owes  us),  and  upon  the  other  side  all  items  for  which  we  become  indebted  to  him 
(that  is,  for  which  he  trusts  us),  we  make  it  an  easy  matter  to  quickly  determine  ati 
any  time  the  difference,  or  balance  as  it  is  termed,  and  whether,  it  he  in  our  favor  or. 
50 


g22  FARMING  FOR  PROFIT. 

against  us.  The  balance  is  in  our  favor  when  the  Dr.  side  exceeds  the  Cr.,  that  is, 
when  he  owes  us  more  than  he  trusts  us ;  and  against  us  when  the  Cr.  exceeds  the 
Dr.,  that  is,  when  he  trusts  us  more  than  he  owes  us." 

The  Ledger  should  be  ruled  so  that  the  Dr.  and  Cr.  accounts  with  an  individual 
can  be  kept  on  a  single  page.  The  Dr.  items  should  occupy  the  left-hand  side,  and 
the  Cr.  items  should   appear  on  the  right. 

Once  in  six  or  twelve  months  all  the  accounts  in  the  Ledger  should  be  balanced. 
This  is  donel)y  adding  both  the  Dr.  and  the  Cr.  columns,  subtracting  the  smaller 
from  the  greater,  and  using  the  remainder  as  the  bcginnitig  of  a  new  account. 

No  scratching  or  erasing  of  any  kind  is  allowable  in  the  account-books.  If  a 
mistake  is  made  a  statement  of  the  fact,  with  an  explanation  of  the  same,  should  be 
interlined.  Blotting  or  scratching  out  an  account,  or  a  single  entry  in  an  account, 
will  injure,  and  perhaps  utterly  destroy,  the  value  of  the  books  as  evidence  in  court. 
If  the  entries  in  the  Day-Book  are  made  promptly  and  the  Ledger  is  kept  well  up 
to  date  there  will  be  little  danger  of  making  mistakes. 

Professional  book-keepers,  and  merchants  doing  a  large  business,  keep  more  books 
than  we  have  named.  A  Journal  and  Cash  Book  are  usually  kept,  but  we  do  not 
think  them  necessary  for  the  farmer.  It  is  important  to  have  the  whole  system  as 
simple  as  possible.  If  the  farmer  wishes  a  more  minute  description  of  his  business 
he  can  add  the  desired  departments  in  the  books  already  mentioned.  But  these,  if 
properly  kept,  will  enable  him  to  determine  just  what  he  sells,  and  the  amount  of 
money  received  from  his  farm  each  year,  and  show  him  just  where  the  money 
which  he  has  paid  out  has  gone,  and  for  what  it  has  been  given.  Such  knowledge 
must  be  of  incalculable  advantage. 

In  order  to  obtain  the  full  benefit  of  the  course  advised  the  farmer  should  take  an 
inventory  of  his  property  once  each  year.  This  may  be  done  at  any  time,  but  the 
firat  of  January  or  the  first  of  April  will  be  the  best.  On  one  side  of  this  inventory 
account  should  be  placed  the  Resources  and  on  the  other  the  Liabilities  of  the  fanner. 
The  former  include  all  his  property — land,  buildings,  live-stock,  hay,  grain,  tools, 
all  dues  on  unsettled  accounts,  cash  on  hand,  and  any  and  every  sfvle  of  property 
which  he  may  own.  These  different  kinds  of  goods  should  be  specified,  and  their 
cash  value  given.  The^Liabilities  include  all  borrowed  capital,  such  proportion  of 
his  interest,  taxes,  and  insurance,  as  is  due  when  the  inventory  is  taken,  all  dues 
lo  others  on  accounts,  and  all  debts  of  any  and  every  kind.  If  the  Resources 
exceed  the  Liabilities  the  difference  will  be  the  sum  which  the  farmer  is  worth.  If 
'he  balance  is  on  the  other  side  of  the  account,  the  figures  will  show  how  much 
he  is  in  debt  in  excess  of  his  means  of  payment.  A  comparison  of  these  papers 
year  by  year  will  show  him  w.hetheK  he  is  making  or  losing  money,  and  how  fast. 
This  inventory  should  never  be  neglected,  as  it  is  the  only  means  by  which  the 
farmer  can  accurately  tell  whether  he  is  making  or  losing  money.  He  may  have  a 
great  deal  more  cash  on  hand  one  year  than  he  had  at  the  same  period  of  another 
•year,  and  yet  be  much  poorer  than  he  was  then.  At  one  time  he  has  money,  while 
at  the  other  he  had  a  greater  value  in  hay,  grain,  and  live-stock.  The  inventory 
alone  can  determine  this  very  important  point. 

Against  one  mistake  which  farmers  are  very  likely  to  make  we  wish  to  caution 
our  readers.  If  after  paying  their  bills  and  balancing  their  accounts  for  the  year 
they  have  nothing  left,  they  say  that  they  "  have  not  made  a  cent."  Evidently  they 
.have  a  very  imperfect  idea  of  what  profit  really  is.  They  have  placed  on  one  side 
of  the  account  all  the  receipts  from  the  farm,  and  on  the  other  all  the  expenses  not 


FALSE  ECONOMY.  823 

only  of  the  farm  but  also  of  the  family.  The  former  expenses  are  legitimate. 
They  should  be  compared  with  the  receipts,  and  from  this  comparison  a  balance 
should  be  struck.  But  the  expenses  of  the  family  are  no  more  to  be  charged  to  the 
farm  than  is  the  cost  of  the  improvements  which  the  Government  has  been  making 
in  the  mouth  of  the  MISSISSIPPI  river.  The  fact  that  the  expenses  of  the  farm 
have  been  paid,  and  the  family  supported,  is  proof  that  the  farm  has  paid  qu-'te  a 
profit.  The  family  has  been  supported  wholly  from  the  profits  of  the  farm.  The 
merchant  who  keeps  even  with  the  world  and  pays  all  his  bills  may  not  lay  up 
money,  but  he  would  not  think  of  saying  that  he  was  making  nothing.  If  he  were 
not  making  money  he  could  not  support  his  family  without  increasing  his  debts. 
The  same  principle  fully  applies  to  the  farm.  There  must  be  a  profit  over  and 
above  the  legitimate  expenses  or  else  the  farmer  cannot  meet  his  bills. 

We  hope  the  day  will  soon  come  when  the  simple  principles  of  book-keeping 
will  be  taught  in  the  public  schools,  and  when  every  farmer  will  keep  careful 
accounts  with  all  individuals  with  whom  he  does  a  credit  business,  with  his  crops, 
his  fields,  and  his  stock,  and  an  accurate  record  of  all  the  money  received  and  paid. 
The  amount  of  time  and  labor  required  is  much  smaller  than  those  who  have  never 
tried  the  plan  suppose,  while  the  resultant  benefits  are  abundant  and  permanent. 


CONOMY  is  a  virtue  which  brings  its  own  reward.  It  is  at  the  foundation 
of  all  permanent  success  in  the  various  productive  industries.  The  man 
who  depends  upon  his  labor  for  his  support  and  for  maintaining  his 
family  must  practice  it  or  fall  far  short  of  his  desires.  But  while  this  virtue 
is  one  of  the  indispensable  requisites  to  success,  it  is,  like  all  other  good 
things,  often  counterfeited,  and  by  reason  of  the  miserable  quality  of  the 
imitations  the  genuine  virtue  has  often  fallen  into  discredit.  The  farmer  should 
avoid  the  spurious  economy  as  carefully  as  he  should  practice  the  genuine.  True 
economy  consists  in  using  things  to  the  best  advantage,  and  avoiding  waste  of  every 
kind.  False  economy  takes  unto  itself  many  forms.  A  few  of  the  principal  ones 
will  be  briefly  noticed. 

The  farmer  who  "  cannot  afford  "  to  buy  books,  and  take  papers  which  are 
specially  designed  to  help  him  in  his  work,  is  practicing  a  faise  economy.  The 
captain  who  should  start  on  an  ocean  voyage  without  a  compa;:s  bccaure  he  did  not 
feel  able  to  purchase  one  would  be  considered  a  lunatic.  The  lawyer  who  should 
try  to  get  along  without  a  library  because  books  cost  money  which  he  did  not  want 
to  spare  would  never  succeed.  The  doctor  who  used  no  books  and  read  no  papers 
devoted  to  his  profession  would  ruin  himself  and  the  few  patients  who  might  employ 
him.  In  all  kinds  of  business  knowledge  is  one  of  the  great  essentials  to  success 
The  farmer  who  has  books  and  papers  devoted  to  his  work  has  an  immense 
advantage  over  his  neighbor  who  has  neither  of  these  aids.  One  man  plods  on 
alone  while  the  other  has  the  recorded  experience  of  manv  <:iicr<":<;fiil  fnrmfr^,  and 
the  results  of  an  immense  amount  of  hard  study  and  close  observation  to  help  him. 
Instead  of  saying  that  he  cannot  afford  to  purchase  these  aids  the  farmer  should  feel 
that  he  cannot  afford  to  do  without  them. 

The  farmer  who  does  not  feel  able  to  obtain  good  stock  is  making  a  great  mistake 
in  his  desire  to  be    economical.     By  this  we  do  not  mean  that  he  ought  to  buy 


g24  '       FARMING  FOR   /'kOFIT. 

thorough-bred  animals,  hut  that  he  should  keep  the  very  best  of  his  calves  and 
lambs,  and  try  to  steadily  iinpiovc  ihe  quality  of  his  slock.  The  man  who  sells  his 
best  slock  lo  ihe  butcher  ami  keeps  the  poorest  for  breeding  is  on  the  direct  road  to 
financial  ruin.  If  all  the  dep.iitint;nts  of  his  business  were  managed  on  the  same 
principles  he  would  soon  l>e  ol>ligcd  lo  give  up  his  farm. 

Letting  things  run  at  loose  ends  for  want  of  lime  in  which  to  attend  to  them  is 
another  way  in  which  many  fainicrs  falsely  economize  their  lime.  They  do  not 
keep  accounts  with  their  crops  because  it  is  "  loo  much  work,"  and  for  the  same 
reason  they  often  neglect  to  make  a  note  of  ihcir  business  transactions  with  their 
nei<'hburs.  In  each  case  they  are  losers  by  their  effort  to  save  lime  and  labor. 
Tney  do  not  hoe  their  corn  as  early  as  they  should,  and  the  ground  is  filled 
with  weeds.  In  the  fall  they  are  busy,  and  their  wheat  is  not  sown  until  late. 
When  they  find  time  lo  do  the  work  the  sCvison  is  so  far  advanced  ihat  ihe  seed  is 
hurried  into  land  which  is  poorly  prepared,  and  a  poor  crop  for  the  next  year  is 
fully  insured.  These  men  are  always  busy,  yet  they  do  not  truly  economize  their 
time  because  they  are  always  a  little  behind  in  iheir  work.  Promptness  is  always 
necessary  to  the  practice  of  economy,  and  to  the  attainment  of  success. 

Buying  the  necessaries  of  life  in  very  small  quantities  is  another  manner  in  which 
many  people  try  to  be  economical  but  are  really  extravagant.  Things  which  are  ill 
constant  use  in  a  family,  and  which  cannot  be  produced  at  home,  can  be  bought 
much  cheaper  in  large  than  they  can  in  small  quantities.  Better  pay  a  dollar  and 
twenty  cents  for  a  dozen  papers  of  starch  at  one  time  than  to  keep  running  to  iht 
store  every  little  while  for  a  single  paper,  and  paying  twelve  cents  for  it.  Unlets 
made  at  home,  soap  should  be  bought  by  the  box.  Buy  ten  gallons  of  oil  at  a  time, 
and  purchase  thread  by  the  dozen  spools.  Many  such  things  can  be  bought  much 
cheaper  in  this  way  than  they  can  in  the  usual  manner,  and  there  will  be  a  great 
saving  of  lime  now  spent  in  running  to  the  store,  as  well  as  the  avoiding  of  a  great 
deal  of  inconvenience  caused  by  being  out  of  things  which  are  needed  for  imme- 
diate use. 

Buying  goods  on  credit  is  another  way  in  which  many  farmers  lose  in  attempting 
to  save  their  money.  It  is  often  a  convenience  to  obtain  a  little  time  on  purchases, 
but  it  should  be  sought  only  as  an  accommodation,  and  not  made  a  common  practice. 
It  is  better  for  the  farmer  to  borrow  money  to  meet  his  running  expenses  during 
those  seasons  in  which  he  has  but  little  income,  than  it  is  to  run  up  a  long  bill  at  the 
store.  He  will  have  to  pay  interest  on  the  account  if  he  gets  trusted,  and  the  rate 
per  cent,  will  not  be  less  than  the  money-lenders  charge,  while  the  price  of  the 
giods  will  be  considerably  higher  than  he  would  have  to  pay  if  he  bought  for  cash. 

The  purchase  and  use  of  poor  tools  I)ecause  ihey  are  cheap,  is  one  of  the  falsely 
ei.o:iomical  methods  which  are  often  pursued.  Better  pay  a  hundred  dollars  for  a 
good  wagon  than  seventy-five  dollars  for  an  inferior  one.  The  good  one  will  last  as 
long  as  two  of  the  poor  ones,  and  not  involve  half  as  much  expense  for  repairs.  A 
good  cultivator,  or  harrow,  or  plow,  which  is  well  made  and  which  will  do  thorough 
work,  is  worth  more  than  three  times  as  much  as  an  inferior  one  which  is  pporly 
built,  and  with  which  it  is  impossible  to  do  good  work.  The  diflTerence  in  the 
yield  of  a  single  crop  on  two  or  three  acres  of  land  would  often  more  than  pay  the 
4ifference  in  price  between  a  good  and  a  poor  pulverizer.  The  man  who  chops  with 
a  poor  axe,  digs  with  a  poor  ^hivel,  pitches  hay  with  a  poor  fork,  or  uses  poor  tools 
for  any  other  purpose,  works  at  a  ^rcat  disadvantage,  aud  is  practicing  a  thoroughly 
false  economy. 


FALSE  ECONOMY. 


825 


Another  mistake  in  the  same  direction  is  made  hy  farmeis  who  grow  bulky  crops 
for  which  there  is  no  home  mnrket,  and  upon  which  heavy  transportation  charges 
must  be  paid.  The  farmer  who  sends  his  hay  a  long  distance  to  market  could 
almost  always  do  a  great  deal  better  to  feed  it  to  catile  and  sheep,  as  he  could  send 
the  animal  products  to  market  in  a  much  smaller  space  than  the  hay  would  occupy. 
The  larmer  should  not  be  satisfied  with  an  economy  u  liich  merely  allows  no  direct 
waste.  He  should  look  farther  ihan  this,  and  see  that  evcryiliing  is  used  to  the  best 
possible  advantage.  It  should  not  Ije  enough  that  cattle  ami  hogs  eat  ;J1  of  his  hay 
and  grain,  but  the  hay  and  grain  should  be  fed  to  that  class  of  animals  whi.h  wUl 
yield  the  highest  percentage  of  profit.  It  is  not  enough  that  he  keeps  all  of  his 
land  under  cultivation.  This  is  well  as  far  as  it  g<^s,  but  in  addition  to  this  he 
should  grow  those  crops  which  will  pay  him  the  be.i  fur  his  time  and  labor.  The 
same  principle  should  govern  in  all  departments  of  his  business. 

Buying  things  which  might  easily  and  profitably  be  grown  at  home  is  an  expen- 
sive error  mto  which  many  farmers  are  led  by  a  false  economy.  This  subject  ha. 
already  been  treated,  but  it  deserves  mention  in  this  connection.  Many  a  farmer 
has  thought  that  he  could  not  afford  to  grow  corn  at  the  prices  then  ruling  in  market, 
and  has  grown  something  else  and  bought  corn.  Finding  the  crop  which  he  selected 
was  not  paying  him  well  he  has  changed  to  another,  and  has  kept  changing,  with 
injury  to  his  business  every  time,  until  he  has  lost  f  ith  in  almost  all  special  crops  if 
not  in  the  whole  business  of  farming.  The  idea  that  the  farmer  must  grow  onlv 
two  or  three  articles,  sell  them,  and  with  the  money  thus  obtained  buy  everything 
which  his  family  consumes,  is  a  pernicious  one,  and  many  men  have  been  financially 
ruined  by  putting  it  into  practice.  As  the  National  Live-Stock  Journal  has 
well  said  :  "  The  tendency  gf  this  practice  is  to  make  eveiy  farmer  a  trader,  who 
sells  everything  he  produces,  and  .buys  everything  he  consumes,  by  which  he  be- 
comes dependent  upon  the  whims  and  fluctuations  of  the  markets  at  both  end?  of 
his  business."  What  he  sells  must  go  at  wholesale  rates,  but  for  all  that  he 
buys  he  must  pay  retail  prices.  If  he  would  produce  all  the  articles  possible 
instead  of  buying  them,  he  could  obtain  them  at  cost,  and  thus  make  a  great  saving 
of  expense. 

Doing  without  scales  and  measures  and  "guessing"  at  the  weight  of  articles 
bought  and  sold,  and  of  crops  produced,  is  one  of  the  ways  in  which  a  false  economy 
is  practiced.  Every  farmer  ought  to  have  some  accurate  scales  with  which  he  can 
weigh  his  farm  products  and  test  the  yield  of  his  cows.  Many  a  man  is  deceived 
in  regard  to  the  value  of  his  cows  because  he  has  notliing  with  which  to  weigh  their 
milk  and  the  butter  which  is  made  therefrom.  Fur  weighing  pigs,  calves,  and 
laml)s,  determining  the  actual  and  relative  gain  of  different  animals,  ascertaining 
the  quantity  of  wool  produced  by  each  sheep,  and  many  other  pnrposes,  scales  nre 
not  only  useful,  but  are  almost  invaluable  to  the  farmer.  A  good  set  of  measure- 
is  also  required.  These  measures  are  not  only  convenient,  but  they  are  often  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  anything  like  an  accurate  knowledge  of  the  yield  of  crops  and 
the  relative  production  of  diffeien*  fields. 

The  last  error  of  this  class  which  we  shall  name  is  the  habit  of  depending  upon 
others  for  doing  what  couid  just  as  well  be  done  at  home.  Many  a  job  goes  to  the 
harness-maker  which  the  farmer  could  do  if  he  would  try.  With  a  few  tools,  and 
»t  a  merely  nominal  expense  for  materials,  a  farmer  of  common  ingenuity  can  do 
many  little  jobs  in  the  way  of  repairing  tools  which  are  now  sent  away  to  be  per- 
formed, and  which,  in  the  aggregate,  cost  quite  a  sum  of  money.     In  this  way  there 


g26  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

would  be  a  direct  saving  of  expense  and  of  much  valuable  time.  It  will  pay  well 
to  keep  a  few  tools  and  a  small  stock  of  suitable  materials  for  repairs  constantly  on 
hand.  The  boys  should  be  encouraged  to  try  their  skill  at  the  work,  and  thus  lonn 
a  good  habit  and  obtain  experience  which  will  be  very  useful  to  them  in  after  life. 


&.  GOOD  REPUraTIOH. 

1 


(*^\  order  to  obtain  the  highest  degree  of  success  the  farmer  must  obtain  a 
good  reputation.  This  should  be  built  upon  the  solid  basis  of  a  thor- 
oughly good  character,  and  should  be  sought  because  it  is  a  duty  to  secure 
v/.  . .  and  retain  such  a  character.  The  financial  advantages  which  come  with 
S^^  a  good  name  are  to  be  considered  as  incidentals.  They  are  legitimate 
and  valuable,  and  ought  to  be  prized  and  used.  The  farmer  shi>uld  do 
right  because  it  is  right,  and  riot  for  the  hope  of  reward ;  but  when  he  has  done 
right  he  is  fairly  entitled  to  the  benefits  which  such  a  course  confers.  Yet  many 
farmers,  through  carelessness  or  neglect,  make  no  eflbrt  to  secure  a  good  reputation. 
Some  who  deserve  such  an  honor  do  not  receive  it  because  they  do  not  value  it  and 
take  no  pains  to  secure  its  advantages.  Many  others  strive  to  obtain  the  benefits 
without  complying  with  the  conditions.  But  in  the  long  run  all  shams  will  fail. 
Trickery  and  deceit  may  not  be  discovered  at  once,  but  the  time  will  come  when 
they  will  be  exposed.  The  only  right  course,  and  the  only  one  which  will  be  per- 
manently successful,  is  to  be  strictly  honest  in  all  business  transactions. 

Many  illustrations  of  the  value  of  a  good  reputation  might  be  given,  but  it  is 
probable  that  every  reader  can  find  one,  or  more,  in  the  circle  of  his  own  acquaint- 
ances. We  will  only  allude  to  two  cases,  both  of  which  are  widely  known.  Mr. 
W.A.RING,  of  Ogden  Farm,  h.as  long  been  engaged  in  manufacturing  JiiRSEY  butter 
and  breeding  Jersey  cattle.  The  butter  has  been  of  uniform  quality  and  of  the 
ver\'  highest  grade.  Customers  who  bought  it  were  confident  that  it  would  be  first- 
class.  The  fact  that  it  came  from  Ogden  Far.m  was  all  the  recommendation  they 
required  to  induce  them  to  pay  a  dollar  a  pound.  The  live-stock  always  proved  as 
represented,  and  customers  knew  that  they  should  be  fairly  dealt  with.  A  large 
business  has  been  established,  and,  at  a  recent  valuation  of  the  farm  and  other  pro{>- 
erty,  the  "  good-will  "  was  estimated  at  ten  thousand  dollars.  The  other  illustration 
is  furnished  by  Mr.  Robert  L.  Pell,  the  "  prince  of  apple-growers."  He  has  aa 
orchard  of  over  twenty  thousand  trees  of  the  Newtown  Pippi.n  variety.  This 
orchard  has  been  managed  with  a  great  deal  of  skill  and  produces  a  splendid 
quality  of  fruit.  The  apples  are  carefully  picked,  passed  through  the  sweating  pro- 
cess, assorted,  and  the  perfect  specimens  placed  in  boxes  containing  one  hundred 
apples  each.  These  are  shipped  to  Liverpool  and  sold  at  auction.  For  forty 
yean?  this  plan  has  been  pursued,  and  the  fruit  is  so  well  known,'  and  the  reputation 
of  Mr.  Pell  is  so  firmly  established,  that  sales*are  readily  eflfecled  at  extremely 
h:^h  prices.     Buyers  know  that  Mr.  Pell  never  sends  an  inferior  apple. 

It  is  not  expected  that  the  avenge  farmer  can  achieve  as  great  a  degree  of  success 
as.  the  above  examples  show,  but  it  is  certain  that  he  can  obtain  a  reputation  which 
will  prove  a  great  help  in  his  business.  Only  two  things  are  necessary  to  secure 
this.  These  are  strict  and  careful  honesty,  and  the  u<;e  of  his  name.  The  man  who 
never  mixes  small  potatoes  with  the  large  ones,  who  sends  just  as  good  apples  in  the 


INSURANCE.  gO-T 

middle  of  the  barrels  as  he  does  at  each  end,  who  never  puts  a  stick  of  inferior 
wood  into  a  load  which  he  sells  for  fi-st-class,  whose  loads  of  good  hay  are  good  in 
the  centre  as  well  as  at  the  top  and  bottom,  whose  measurements  of  arain  and 
vegetables  are  always  accurate,  and  whose  packages  of  butter  are  always  full  weight 
—in  short,  a  man  who  7iever  deviates  from  the  strict  letter  and  spirit  of  Christian 
honesty— such  a  man  can  easily  obtain  a  reputation  which  will  make  a  demand  for 
ad  the  farm  products  which  he  can  supply.  His  customers  will  be  fully  and  always 
satisfied,  and  will  be  willing  to  pay  an  extra  price  for  his  goods.  If  he  puts  his 
name  upon  every  package  of  goods,  customers  will  seek  him,  and  he  will  lose  no 
time  in  making  sales.  Every  man  ought  to  furnish  such  goods  (or  when  selling  the 
unver  grades  plainly  mark  them  as  inferior,  and  reduce  the  price)  because  it  is  ri<rht 
Those  who  are  not  particular  about  the  principle  of  the  transaction  will  find  i[ 
l^rofitable  to  adopt  this  method.  "  Honesty  is  the  best  policy  "  for  all  men,  though 
men  ought  to  be  honest  from  a  higher  motive  than  prudence.  There  are  in  all  a 
great  many  farmers  who  do  not  mean  to  be  actually  dishonest,  but  who  are  careless 
and  thoughtless,  and  whose  products  are  not  always  first-class.  They  would  find  it 
greatly  for  their  own  interest,  and  their  customers  would  be  highly  pleased  with  th^ 
new  arrangement,  to  make  a  radical  change  in  their  methods  and  grade  their 
products  with  a  greater  degree  of  care. 

The  farmer  should  have  a  stencil-plate,  and  a  butter-stamp,  with  which  he  can 
mark  his  name  upon  every  package  of  goods  which  he  sells.  He  should  also  have 
a  plate  and  stamp  with  which  the  grade  of  the  goods  can  be  plainly  indicated 
Every  barrel  of  his  best  apples  should  bear  his  name,  and  the  words  First-Grale 
should  be  printed  in  a  conspicuous  place.  The  barrels  containing  slightly  inferior 
specimens  should  have  his  name  and  be  marked  Second-Grade.  The  balls 
or  tubs,  of  butler  which  he  carries  to  market  should  also  be  plainly  marked  with  his 
name  and  their  appropriate  quality.  All  other  products  which  are  sold  in  packages 
should  bear  his  name  and  their  proper  grade. 

The  cost  of  building  up  a  good  reputation  is  small.  The  advantages  are  great 
Ihe  truly  honest  man  who  is  guided  by  Christian  principle  will  have  no  difficulty 
in  complying  with  the  conditions  upon  which  success  depends,  and  in  securing  the 
advantages  which  it  insures,  while  the  man  who  has  been  governed  by  no  higher 
motive  than  policy  can  find  in  this  principle  an  efficient  aid  in  overcoming  the 
obstacles  with  which  he  is  obliged  to  contend. 


ri  iff     "'''"  "  ^  "  '"'"^'"''^  "'^  circumstances,"  and  liable  to  many  ills  which 

6)  I  he  cannot  foresee  and  from  which  he  cannot  escape,  eveiy  one  who  has  had 

AU,      ^-^Penence  in  the  things  of  this  world  will  readily  acknowledge.     Revela- 


^  tion,  reason,  and  common-sense,  enforced  by  the  experience  of  mankind 

,(^  m  all  the  past  ages,  all  unite  to  teach  that  trouble  of  various  kinds  will 
surely  come  to  all  the  children  of  men.  And  the  evil  is  much  more  for- 
midable  than  it  would  be  if  we  knew  the  time  and  manner  in  which  the  ills  would 
come.  That  they  wi//  come  we  may  rest  assured,  but  the  time  of  their  approach 
no  one  can  determine. 

While  there   are  niany  evils  to  which  the  race  is  of  necessity  subjected  there  are 
others  which  cause  a  great  deal  of  suffering,   but  which  are  easily  preventable. 


g28  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

I'morance  and  carelessness  are  the  parents  of  a  multitude  of  ills  which  afflict  malt 
kind.  In  these  instances  the  suffering  is  merely  the  penally  of  a  violated  law.  Th« 
fact  that  llie  law  is  not  understood  makes  no  difference  with  the  results  of  trans- 
gression. The  man  who  throws  a  heap  of  greasy  woollen  rags  on  his  barn-floor  may 
never  have  heard  of  spontaneous  combustion,  but  his  buildings  will  be  just  as  likely 
to  be  burned  as  they  would  if  he  knew  that  he  was  practically  setting  them  on  rtre. 
The  man  who  thoughtlessly  steps  in  front  of  a  moving  train  of  cars  will  be  injured 
just  as  severely  as  he  would  if  the  deed  had  been  premeditated.  The  smoker  who 
throws  a  lighted  match  upon  a  barn  floor  may  not  design  to  do  the  slightest  harm, 
but  if  the  barn  is  burned  "by  his  carelessness  the  loss  of  the  owner  is  just  as  severe 
as  it  would  have  been  if  an  incendiary  had  deliberately  applied  the  torch.  And  in 
these  ways  of  ignorance  and  carelessness  a  vast  amount  of  property  and  many 
valuable  lives  are  annually  lost.  The  remedies  for  this  class  of  evils  is  plain. 
Education  and  thoughtful  care  would  do  them  almost  wholly  away. 

There  is  another  class  of  ills  which  come  upon  mankind  without  direct  reference 
to  the  deeds  of  the  sufferers.  Certain  kinds  of  accidents  from  which  men  suffer 
are  wholly  beyond  their  individual  control.  The  passenger  in  a  fated  railroad 
train  has  no  power  to  avert  disaster,  but  he  must  suffer  the  natural  consequences  of 
the  accident.  Houses  and  barns  may  be  burned  without  any  fault  of  the  owner. 
Death  is  sure  to  come  to  each  and  every  one.  When  and  how  no  one  knows,  but 
sooner  or  later  he  will  appear  to  each  individual  of  the  race  and  remove  him  from  his 
earthly  place  and  work.  Although  the  individual  cannot  prevent  the  coming  of 
death,  or  accident,  or  the  destruction  of  property  by  fire,  he  does  have,  to  some  extent, 
the  powerof  self-protection  against  many  of  the  evil  results  of  these  events.  Death 
will  take  him  from  his  family,  accidents  which  he  cannot  prevent  may  disable  hina, 
and  his  buildings  maybe  burned.  When  these  things  come  upon  him  he  must 
endure  them,  but  if  he  has  been  wise  in  season  he  can  avail  himself  of  certain  com- 
pensations which  will  make  these  troubles  much  easier  to  be  borne.  Jiy  using  the 
proper  means  a  partial  remedy  for  these  ills  may  be  secured,  and  the  severity  of  the 
trials  of  life  may  be  greatly  mitigated. 

Under  certain  forms  INSURANCE  has  existed,  as  a  remedy  for  the  ills  we  have 
mentioned,  for  a  long  period.  During  the  past  fifty  years  the  system  has  been 
greatly  improved  and  a  large  increase  in  the  amount  of  business  has  been  effected. 
Numerous  companies  have  been  formed.  A  few  of  these  have  proved  unworthy  of 
confidence  and  involved  their  patrons  in  loss  and  disappointment.  But  this  fact  is 
not  an  argument  against  insurance.  The  good  is  always  counterfeited.  Therefore, 
it  is  not  strange  that  miserable  insurance  companies  should  have  been  formed.  The 
stringent  times  which  have  prevailed  for  a  few  years  have  sifted  out  these  weak  and 
worthless  claimants  for  popular  favor,  and  the  Legisi.aturks  of  most  of  the  States 
in  which  insurance  companies  are  located  have  jwssed  such  stringent  laws,  and  put 
the  managers  under  such  close  and  careful  watch,  that  there  is  now  but  little  chance 
for  them  to  do  any  mischief  if  they  desire,  while  most  of  the  leading  companies  are 
managed  by  honest  and  honorable  men,  who  have  both  reputation  and  money  at 
stake,  and  who  are  constantly  seeking  the  best  gopd  of  their  policy-holders.  These 
companies  have  gone  steadily  on,  paying  all  losses  promiilly,  and  fulfilling  all  their 
contracts.  They  are  now  on  as  firm  a  basis  as  any  business  or  any  institution  in 
the  world. 

To  the  majority  of  men  who  have  fnmilies  depending  upon  thfm  for  suiijiort  I,1I-"R 
iNSURANcrc  is  a  safe  and  easy  way  in  which  to  provide  for  an  event  which  will  cer 


INSURANCE.  829 

tainly  occur  some  time,  and  which  may  take  place  any  hour.  This  form  of  insur- 
ance covers  a  great  risk.  The  managers  of  a  company  know  that  a  lew  of  their 
policy  holders  will  die  each  year,  but  they  do  not  know  which  ones.  Every  policy 
holder  knows  that  some  of  the  number  insured  will  soon  die,  but  he  cannot  tell 
whether  he  will  be  called  or  not.  If  he  lives  he  nn  make  the  requisite  i>ayment 
without  much  difficulty,  and  ii  will  help  pay  the  families  of  those  who  do  not  sur- 
vive. If  he  is  called  away  his  family  will  receive  the  benefits  which  life  insurance 
confers.  The  companies  carry  the  same  risk  for  each  and  every  man  whom  they 
insure.  If  he  lives  they  receive  the  premiums,  if  he  dies  they  pay  the  policy.  If  a 
man  dies  after  paying  only  one  premium  his  family  receive  a  large  sum  from  a  very 
small  investment.  If  he  lives  many  years,  and  pays  a  great  deal  for  his  insurance, 
the  money  is  safely  invested,  and,  when  he  dies,  the  family  will  find  that  it  has  been 
truly  saved  for  their  benefit. 

J'lRE  Insurance. — This  form  of  insurance  covers  the  risk  of  the  destruction  of 
buildings  by  fire.  It  has  been  quite  extensively  employed,  and  its  principles  com- 
mend it  strongly  to  every  owner  of  this  tind  of  property.  While  it  is  true  that  the 
fires  by  which  a  great  many  buildings  are  destroyed  are  caused  by  the  neglect  or 
carelessness  of  some  one  on  the  premises,  it  is  also  true  that  in  many  of  these 
instaiu-  s,  ill  which  the  owner  was  not  to  blame,  the  companies  pay  the  policies  in 
full.  It  is  expected  that  many  buildings  will  be  burned,  and  the  rate  of  insurance, 
is  fixed  with  this  fact  in  view.  Of  course,  the  companies  will  not  hold  out  an 
inducement  for  a  man  to  be  careless.  They  will  not  make  good  all  the  damage 
caused  by  fire  if  his  buildings  are  consumed.  But  they  will  insure  the  buildings  ati 
from  one-half  to  three-fourths  of  their  value  and  pay  all  honest  claims  under  such  a 
contract. 

While  the  greatest  care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  the  burning  of  buildings,  the 
risk  that  they  will  be  destroyed  by  fire,  even  under  the  most  careful  management,  is 
so  great  that  none  except  wealthy  farmers  should  carry  that  risk  themselves.  The 
sum  required  for  keeping  an  ordinaiy  set  of  farm  buildings  insured  for  one-half 
their  value  is  quite  small  and  ought  to  be  cheerfully  paid.  If  a  farmer  is  poor,  and 
has  to  work  hard  to  support  his  family,  he  ought  to  keep  his  buildings  constantly 
insured.  In  his  case  insurance  is  a  duty.  He  is  badly  enough  off  now.  But  if  he 
were  to  lose  his  buildings  without  insurance  he  would  be  financially  ruined.  If  a 
rich  man  prefers  to  run  the  risk  of  fire  rather  than  pay  for  keeping  his  buildings 
insured  he  has  a  right  to  do  so.  If  his  buildings  are  burned  he  can  erect  new  ones 
without  distressing  his  family,  his  neighbors,  or  himself.  But  with  a  poor  man  the 
case  is  different.  Only  by  the  help  of  neighbors  and  friends  will  it  be  possible  for 
him  to  rebuild,  and  he  may  even  lose  possession  of  his  mortgaged  farm.  He  will 
be  dependent  upon  charity  when  he  ought  to  have  a  valid  claim  upon  a  good  insui- 
ance  company.  In  many  cases  neighbors  have  given  money  enough  to  build  a  new 
house,  but  this  is  a  heavy  tax  upon  neiijhborly  kindness.  These  neighbors  have 
been  paying  out  money  year  after  year  to  keep  their  own  buildings  protected,  and 
they  think  it  hard  to  have  to  build  new  ones  for  a  man  who  refused  to  incur  the 
slight  expense  which  would  have  been  involved  in  keeping  his  old  ones  insured. 
The  poor  man  has  no  moral  right  to  allow  his  buildings  to  remain  without  insur- 
ince  and  then  call  on  his  neighbors  to  make  good  his  losses  when  they  are  burned. 
Every  farmer  is  able,  and  he  ought  to  be  willing,  to  keep  his  buildings  insured. 
As  farm  buildings  are  frequently  quite  a  distance  from  a  village  there  is  little  hope 
of  saving  them  if  a  fire  is  started.     There  is  no  fire  company  near,  but  little  water 


830  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

is  at  hand,  and  but  few  people  to  use  it.  Too  often  both  the  buildings  and  most 
of  their  contents  are  destroyed.  Consequently,  the  greatest  care  should  be  used  to 
prevent  an  outbreak,  and  an  insurance  policy  should  constantly  be  kept  in  force. 

Accident  Insurance. — The  principle  upon  which  this  business  is  conducted 
is  similar  to  that  of  life  insurance.  Carefully  selected  statistics  have  proved  that  for 
each  thousand  men  engaged  in  any  particular  calling  a  certain  number  of  accidents, 
averaging  a  certain  degree  of  severity,  will  occur.  The  expense  of  insurance  is  pro- 
portioned to  the  risk  to  which  each  class  is*  exposed.  It  costs  a  farmer  only  ten 
dollars  a  year  to  obtain  an  accident  policy  which  will  secure  to  him  a  weekly 
indemnity  of  five  dollars  during  the  j)eriod  of  total  disability  from  accident,  if  the 
time  does  not  exceed  six  months,  or  to  his  family  one  thousand  dollars  in  case  of 
fatal  injury.  Such  a  policy  covers  the  risk  of  injury  from  a  multitude  of  causes  to 
some  of  wiiich  the  farmer  is  almost  constantly  exposed.  The  risk  is  so  great,  the 
cost  of  insurance  so  small,  and  the  help  which  such  a  policy  gives  is  so  timely,  that 
it  seems  to  be  wise  for  every  farmer  to  keep  insured,  so  that  in  case  of  accident  the 
enforced  idleness  will  not  prove  a  total  loss. 

We  are  well  aware  that  to  keep  up  the  various  forms  of  insurance  which  have 
been  named  requires  frequent  payments  and  involves  considerable  expense.  Bat 
we  believe  that  the  man  who  desires  to  secure  a  competence,  and  leave  his  family 
beyond  the  reach  of  want,  will  be  unwise,  perhaps  criminally  so,  if  he  neglects  liy 
means  of  insurance  to  provide  I'or  contingencies  which  may  occur  at  any  time,  and 
which,  occurring  in  the  early  part  of  his  married  life  without  such  a  safeguard,  will 
involve  him  in  financial  ruin  or  his  family  in  life-long  distress.  Insurance  is  based 
upon  the  principle  that  about  a  certain  rate  of  mortality,  and  a  certain  number  of 
casualties  will  occur  under  certain  given  circumstances,  and  that  the  many  belong- 
ing to  the  classes  which  are  thus  exposed  should  combine  for  self- protect  ion.  By  a 
small  payment  on  the  part  of  each  of  the  insured,  the  few  who  are  the  losers  may 
be  indemnified,  or  their  families  may  receive  the  help  which  they  need.  Insurance 
finds  its  strongest  advocates  among  men  of  Christian  principle,  and  is  one  of  the 
most  effectual  means  which  GoD  has  given  to  intelligent  men  by  which  they  can 
guard  against  disasters  and  provide  for  families  which  otherwise  might  be  left  with- 
out adequate  means  of  support. 


VSEFtrt  TaBtES. 

?  ffiilil  ^  Ji^ve  carefully  collected  the  following  tables  from  various  sources,  includ- 
ing Waring's  Farmers'  and  Mechanics'  Manual,  Moore's  Univer- 
sal Assistant,  Maswell's  Civil  Engineers'  Pocket  Companion,  and 
the  leading  papers.  It  is  often  very  desirable  to  know  the  relative  value 
of  different  kinds  of  food  for  animals,  the  quantity  of  seed  required  to 
stock  a  given  area  of  land,  the  number  of  trees  on  an  acre  at  given  dis- 
tances apart,  the  capacity  of  boxes,  the  number  of  nails  in  a  |X)und,  the  weights  of 
different  kinds  of  soils,  the  method  of  finding  the  weight  of  hay  in  a  mow  or  stack, 
the-nuiv-ber  of  bushels  of  grain  in  a  bin,  and  many  other  things  which  are  clearly 
shown  in  the  following  tables.  The  advantages  of  the  information  therein  conveyed 
will  be  appreciated  by  all  who  are  dissatisfied  with  the  uncertain  results  of  the 
"guessing,"  which  is  too  often  the  only  guide  in  making  the  estimates  required  in 
the  practical  business  of  the  farm. 


USEFUL    TABLES. 


831 


Quantity  of  Hay,  or   its  Equivalent,  Required  Per  Day  by  Each   ioo 
Pounds  of  Live  Weight  of  Various  Animals. 


Working  Horses 3.8 

Working  Oxen 2.41 

Fattening  Oxen .5. 

Milch  Cows 2.25  to  2.40 

Dry  Cows 2.42 


lbs. 


Young. Cattle ■..  3.8     lbs. 

Steers  .  .  • 2.84    " 

Pigs 3. 

Sheep 3.        " 


Relative  Value  of  Foods  vor  Cattle. 


100  lbs.  of  Good  Hay  is  supposed  to 
be  equal  to 

400  lbs Green  Clover. 

275    " Green  Corn. 

374   " Wheat  Straw. 

442    " Rye  Straw. 

195    " On  Straw. 

400   " Dry  Corn  Stalks. 


276  lbs Carrots. 

54  " Rye. 

45  " Wheat. 

54  " Barley.. 

57  " Oats 

59  " , CorN 

69  " Linsteed  Cake. 

105  " Wl.^at  B«-an. 


The  age,  health,  and  condition  of  animals,  and  the  care  which  li><;y  receive,  will 
greatly  modify  the  effect  of  any  kind  of  food.  Cattle  also  need  4  variety  of  food, 
and  cannot  be  profitably  kept  upon  any  one  sort  for  a  long  period  of  time. 

Age  for  Reproduction,  and  Period  of  Gestation  o-  ^i/AIEstic  Animals. 

Mean  Period 

of  Gestation. 

347  '^ays. 


Duration  of  Powe* 
Stallion Age  5  years 12  to  15  years 


Mare 

r>~   3 

"       4 

Bull 

«        -. 

Cow 

•'        -J 

Ram 

"       2 

Ewe 

"       2 

Boar 

'<         T 

Sow "     I 

Dog 

«       2 

Bitch 

"      2 

He-Cnt 

"       I 

She-Cat 

"       I 

10 


10 


12 
10 
14 

....  7 
....  6 
....  6 
....6 

8  to  9 
8"    9 

9  "  10 
5"    6 


.283 
.154 

•  lis 
.  60 

•  50 


Growth  and  Life  of  Animals. 


Man Grows  for  20  years,  and  lives 70  to  loa 

Horse " 

Ox « 

Dog « 

Cat " 

Swine " 

Sheep " 


25 ' 

'  40 

15  ' 

•  20 

12    ' 

'  14 

9  ' 

10 

20 

Quantity  of  Seed  Per  Acre. 


Wheat x^i 

Barley \% 

Oats 2 

Rye I 

Buckwheat ^ 


Millet, 
Corn . . 
Beans. 
Peas.  . 
Hemp. 
Flax.. 


.1 

•  % 
■  % 
•2X2 
.  I 


I  2  bu' 
2^    ' 

4  ' 
2        " 

iK  ' 
^%  ' 
1        ' 

3K    ' 

iK  ' 
2 


hels 


Rice 2 

Broom  Corn -^g 

Potatoes 5 

Timoihy 12 

Mustard 8 

Herds  Grass 12 

Flat  Turnip 2 

Red  Clover 10 

White  Clover 3 

Blue  Grass 10 

Orchard  Grass 20 


to 


2}4h\x. 

X" 
10    " 

24  quarts 

ID        " 
16        « 

3    11«. 
16     « 

4      " 

15      " 
10      «« 

832 


FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 


Quantity  of  Seed  Per  Acre  in  Rows. 
Indian  C»m ]^  lo  i  bush.    Onions 4  to  5      'bs. 


Broom  Corn iV  '°     %  " 

Beans y^  to  i^  " 

Peas • I  ^  to  2     " 


Carrots 2  to  2^ 

Parsnips 4  *o  5 

Beets 4  to  6 


Standard  Weights  of  Grain  Per  Bushel. 
Wheat 60  lbs.    Oais 


Rye. 
Corn 


56 
•56 


Barley. 


.32  lbs 
.48  " 


Quantities  of  Garden  Seeds  Required  to  Plant  a  Given  Space. 

Asparagus i  oz.  produces  1000  plants  and  requires  a  bed 

12  feet  square. 
"         Roots  . .  .    1000  plant  a  bed  4  feet  wide  and  225  feet  long. 
Beans,  large  pole..  .    I  quart  plants  100  hills. 
"        small     "...    I      "       plants  300  hills. 

Beets I  oz.  plants  1 50  leet  of  row. 

Cabbage I  oz.  produces  2500  plants. 

Carrot I  oz.  plants  1 50  feet  of  row. 

Celery I  oz.  produces  700  plants. 

Cucumber I  oz.  for  150  hills. 

Lettuce I  oz.  produces  7000  plants. 

Melon,  Musk I  oz.  for  120  hills. 

Onion I  oz.  for  200  feet  of  row. 

Parsnip ....    I  oz.  for  250  feet  of  row. 

Peas I  quart  for  1 20  feet  of  row. 

Radish I  oz.  for  100  leet  of  row. 

Squash I  oz.  for  75  hills. 

Tomato I  oz.  produces  2500  plants. 

Turnip I  oz.  for  2000  feet  of  row. 

Watermelon I  oz.  for  50  hills. 

Legal  Weight  of  Grain,  Seeds,  and  Vegetables  ijj  Different  States. 


Wheat 

Rye 

Corn 

Oats , 

Barley 

Buckwheat 

Clover  Seed 

Timothy  Seed.  . 

Flax  Seed  

Hemp  Seed 

Blue  Grass  Seed. 
Diied  Apples. .  . . 
Dried  Peaches. . , 

Potatoes 

Peas 

Beans 

Castor  Beans.  . .  . 

Onions 

Corn  Meal 


><      o 


56 


6060' 

5656 
5656 

32  3^ 

47  48 

48  50' 
60 

45 
56 
44 
'4 


60 


60 '60 
5656 
5656 
32  35 
48  4S 
42  52 
60 1 60 

45 
56 
44 
14 
28  24 

2833 
60 


56'6o 
5656 
5656 
2832 
46 


45 


60 


46 


50 


60 


60  60 

5656 
56:56 

11  30 
4848 


60 


60  6o'6o 


5656 
5652 
32  m 
46  m 
46|m 


60 


56 
56 
34 
48 

48 
60 
48 
56 


The  letter  "m"  indicates  that  the  article  is  sold  by  measure  instead  of  weight. 
In  many  of  the  States  there  is  no  law  regulating  the  weight  of  farm  products. 


USEFUL    TABLES.  833. 

Number  of  Seeds  in  a  Bushel,  and  Number  Per  Square  Foot  if  Used  on 
AN  Acre  of  Land. 

No.  of  Seeds.  No.  Per  Foot. 

Timothy,  41,823,360 960. 

Clover.  ..16,400,960 376. 

Rye 888,390 20.4. 

Wheat. ..      556,290 12.8. 

Number  of  Loads  of  Manure  Per  Acre,  and  of  Heaps  Per  Load,  Required 
WITH  THE  Heaps  at  Given  Distances  Apart. 


Distance  Apart  of 
Heaps — in  Yards. 


No.  of  Heaps  Per  Load. 
3456 


179 
101 


75^ 


108 

60  >^ 


89^ 

soy. 


Distance  Apart  of 
Heaps — in  Yards. 


No.  of  Heaps  Per  Load. 
3        4        56 


64K 
144^/ 


48K 
33>^ 


38|^|32X 
27     '22;^ 


In  the  above  table  the  distances  apart  of  the  rows  and  the  heaps  in  the  rows  are 
given  in  the  left  hand  column.  The  number  of  heaps  to  be  made  of  each  load  ;s 
placed  at  the  top  of  the  columns,  and  the  number  in  the  square  where  the  two  meet 
will  give  the  number  of  loads  per  acre  which  will  be  required.  Thus,  if  the  hea^s 
are  placed  four  yards  apart,  and  five  heaps  are  made  of  each  load,  it  will  take  sij  \j 
and  a  half  loads  for  an  acre. 


Number  of  Trees,  Plants,  or  Hills  on  an  Acre. 


Ft.  Apart. 

No.  of 
Plants,  etc. 

Vt.  Apart. 
28x28 

No.  of   1 
P'ants,etc. 

Ft.  Apart. 

No.  of 
Plants,  etc. 

Ft.  Apart. 
4x4 

No.  of 
Plants,  et*. 

40x40 

27 

55 

16x16 

171 

2722 

39x39 

28 

27x27 

59 

15x15 

194 

3x3 

4840 

38x38 

30 

26x26 

64 

14x14 

223 

3X2>^ 

5808 

37x37 

31 

25x25 

70 

13x13 

258 

3x2 

7260 

36x36 

33 

24x24 

75 

12X12 

302 

3x1,5^ 

9680 

35x35 

35 

23x23 

82 

IIXII 

360 

3x1 

14530 

34x34 

37 

22X22 

90 

10x10 

436 

2X2 

I0S9O 

33x33 

40 

21X2! 

99 

9x9 

538 

2X1^ 

14496 

32x32 

42 

20x20 

109 

8x8 

680 

2X1 

21780 

31x31 

45 

19x19 

121 

7x7 

889 

2^Yz 

43560 

30x30 

48 

18x18 

135 

6x6 

I2IO 

IXI 

43560 

29x29 

51 

17x17 

151 

5x5 

1742 

ixK 

87120 

Area  of  Land  which  a  team,  movir^  two  miles  per  hour,  will  plow  in  a  day  ten 
hours  in  length. 


Width  of  Furrow. 

5 

6 

7 


Acres. 
.  .  .     I 

.  ..1.2 
...1.4 

...1.6 
...1.8 


Width  of  Furrow. 

10 

II 

12 

14 

16 


Acres. 
.  ..  2 
..  .2.2 
...2.4 
...2.8 
...3.2 


Rule  for  Finding  the  Number  of  Tons  of  Hay  in  a  Mow. 

Multiply  the  length  in  yards  by  the  height  in  yards,  and  that  by  the  width  la 
yards,  and  divide  the  product  by  fifteen. 
The  quotient  will  be  the  number  of  tons. 


834 


FARMING  FOR   FRO  FIT. 


Kui.F.  FOR  Finding  the  Number  of  Bushels  of  Grain  in  a  Bin. 
Multiply  the  length  in  inche«  by  the  breadth  in  inches,  and  that  by  the  depth  in 
inches,  and  divide  the  product  by  2150  (the  number  of  cubic  inches  in  a  bushel), 
and  for  heaped  bushels  by  2748,  and  the  quotient  will  give  the  number  of  bushels. 

Rules  for  Measuring  Corn  in  the  Ear  in  Cribs. 
Multiply  the  length  in  inches  by  the  breadth  in  inches,  and  that  by  the  height  in 
inches,  and  divide  the  product  by  2748  (the  number  of  cubic  inches  in  a  heaped 
bushel),  and  the  quotient  will  be  the  number  of  heaped  bushels  of  ears.  Take  two- 
thirds  of  the  quotient  for  the  number  of  bushels  of  shelled  corn.  Unless  the  corn 
is  very  good  only  one-half  should  be  taken. 

Another  Rule. 
Multiply  length  by  height,  and  then  by  width,  add  two  ciphers  to  the  result,  and 
divide  by  124.     This  gives  the  number  of  bushels  of  ears  (level  measure).     Divide 
by  two  to  find  the  number  of  bushels  of  shelled  corn. 

Another  Rule. 
Multiply  the  length,  breadth,  and  height  together  in  feet  to  obtain  the  cubic  feet. 
Multiply  this  product  by  4,  and  strike  off  the  right  hand  figure,  and  the  result  will 
give  very  nearly  the  number  of  bushels  of  shelled  corn. 

Capacity  of  Boxes. 

Length.                                        Width.                                    Depth.  Cap.icity. 

24  inches 16  inches 28  inches 5  l)ushels. 


24 
16 
16 
8 
8 
7 
4 


.16 
,16 

8.4 

8.4 

8 

4 

4 


.14 


5.4" 


.2% 
I 


4.2  "       I  gallon. 


4.8 


Vz 


4-2  "       I  quart. 


To  Reduce  Cubic  Feet  to  Bushels,  struck  measure,  divide  the  number  of  cubic 
feet  by  56  and  multiply  by  45. 


196  lbs. . 
200  "  .  . 


280 

60 

14 

46 
60 
56 


Miscellaneous  Weights  and  Measures. 
barrel  of  flour. 
"      "  beef,  pork,  or  fish. 
..       .,     fsalt    at    N.    Y. 
\  salt  works. 


bushel  of  beans. 

"        "  blue  grass  seed. 
"        "  castor  beans. 
"        "  clover  seed. 
"        "  flax  seed. 


44  lbs I  barrel  of  hemp  seed. 

12  units  or  things I  dozen. 

1 2  dozen i  gross. 

20  things I   score. 

56  pounds I   firkin  of  butter. 

24  sheets  of  paper I   quire. 

20  quires  of  p.iper I   ream. 

4  feet  wide,  4  feet  high,  "1  .  .  1  cord  of 
and  8  feet  long,  j       wood. 

Commercial  Weights. 

16  drams I  ounce.  I    4  quarters i  hundred  weight. 

16  ounces I  pound.    20  hundred  weight I  ton. 

25  pomnds i  quarter.] 

A  Convenient  Land  Measure. 
To   aid   farmers  in  arriving  at  accuracy  in   estimating  the  amount  of  land  ig 
different  fields  under  cultivation,  the  following  table  is  given. 


USEFUL    TABLES. 


835 


Five  yards  wide  by  968  long  contains  one  acre;  ten  yards  wide  by  484  long  con- 
tains one  acre;  twenty  yards  wide  by  242  long  contains  one  acre;  forty  yards  wide 
by  121  long  contains  one  acre;  seventy  yards  wide  by  69^^  lona  contains  one  acre- 
eighty  yards  wide  by  60^  long  contains  one  acre;  sixty  feet  wide  by  706  long 
contains  one  acre;  one  hundred  and  ten  feet  wide  by  397  long  contains  one  acre  • 
one  hundred  and  thirty  feet  wide  by  363  long  contains  one  acre;  two  hundred  and 
twenty  feet  wide  by  181;^  long  contains  one  acre;  four  hundred  and  forty  feet  wide 
by  99  long  contains  one  acre. 

Land  Measure. 

'^Q  Su'efeet" •/ ^^q^-e  foot.       40  square  rods ,  square  rood. 

9  square  leet. i   square  yard.         4  square  roods i   square  acre 

30X  square  yards i   square  rod.     640  square  acres i  square  ^.\^. 

Long  Measure. 

12  inches i   fnr.f    1  -  ^-i      /  •  v 

,  f^„f       *  '°°  •  3  miles  (measuring  at  sea) . .  i  league. 

\u         \ ;;;V ^   ^^y^.\  6  feet  (depih  of  water) i   fathom 

3i'foI:t',"6o?JS,'r "  "--I  '  -"-- C— su4, ,  hand! 

or  5,280  feet  / ' 


.1  mile. 


Liquid   Measure. 


4  giUs  . 
2  pints. 


I   pint. 

I   qu.nrt. 

4  quarts I   gallon. 


3i>^  gallons j  barrel. 

63  gallons I  hogshead. 


5  penny. 

4  " 

5  " 

6  " 


Length  of  Cut  Nails  and  Number  in  a  Pound, 

Length.  Number. 

.  \%  inches 420 

270 

220 


,2 


100 


10 
12 
20 

30 
40 


Length.                Number. 
3  inches 65 


■3X" 

•4 

•4X 


52 
28 

24 
20 


Nails  from  different  factories  vary  a  little  in  length  and  weight. 

Weight  Per  Cubic  Foot  of  Different  Kinds  of  Earth. 


I  lose  earth  or  sand gr  ]bs. 

Common  soil 124  " 

Strong  soil 127   " 

Chalk '    [- .   « 

Clay \2,S   " 


make  one  Ion. 


23  cubic  feet  of  snnd, 
18      "        "    "    earth, 

17  "        "    "    clay,   J 

18  cubic  feet  of  gravel  or  earth  before 

^,  ,    ^  uj  digging  m"'ke  27  cubic  feet  when  dug. 

Clay  and  stones 160  <«  ^ 

The  weight  of  an  acre  of  ordinary  soil  is  estimated  to  be  100  tons  for  every  inch 
in  depth. 

Weights  of  Different  Kinds  of  Wood. 

Kind  of  Wood.  Lbs.  Per  Cord 

Shellbark  Hickory 4469 

Redheart  Hickory '.701; 

White  Oak ■..■■;382i 

Virginia  Pine 2689 

Southern  Pine '?17'; 

Hard  Maple 2878 

New  Jersey  Pine 2137 

Yellow  Pine [[  I904 


Kind  of  Wood.  Lbs.  Per  Cord. 

White  Pine 1868 

White  Beech 3236 

Apple  Tree 3' '5 

Black  Birch 3115 

White  Elm 2592 

Spanish  Oak 2449 

Buttonwood 2391 


The  above  figures  indicate  the  weight  of  seasoned  wood.     When   green,  from 


836 


FARMING   J' OR  PRO  J- IT. 


thirty-five  lo  fifty  [wr  cent,  must  be  added.  A  cord  of  green  hickory  weighs  alK>at 
six  thousand  pounds,  and  a  cord  of  green  oak  contains  more  than  lourleen  hundred 
pounds  of  water. 

Table  showing  the  Amount  of  one  dollar  for  any  number  of  years  from  five  to 
twenty  years  at  Compound  Interest. 

Years.       Kate,  5  Per  Cent.        Rate,  6  Per  Cent.     Years.      Rate,  5  Per  Cent.       Rate,  6  Per  Ceat 


5 ;?i.2762S $1.33822 

6 1. 3.1.009 1. 4 1 85 1 

7 1. 40710 1-50363 

8 1-47745 '-59384 

9 '•55'32 1.6S947 

10 1.62889 1.79084 

II i-7«o33 1.89829 

12 1-79585 2.01219 


13 $1.88564 $2.13292 

14 1-97993 2.26090 

15 2.07892 ■.  .  2.39655 

16 2.18287 2.5403s 

17 2.29201 2.69277 

18 2.40661 2.85433 

19 2.52695 3-02559 

20 2.65329 320713 


Amount  of  different  sums  of  money  at  7  per  cent.  Compound  Interest. 

2  cents   per  day  in  10  years  will  amount  to  $     100.85 

"       "     "  "       "  "         "         '•          252.14 

«       «     i.  M       «  ««         <<         «        1,260.71 

"       "     "  "       "  "         "         "       2.521.42 

«       «     ..  .<       <i  «         ..         «       5,042.84 


5 

25 

50 

1. 00 

2.00 


10,085.68 


Time  in  which  a  sum  of  money  will  double  at  Interest. 
Rate  Per  Cent.  Simple  Interest.  Compound  Interest. 

4 25  years.  17  years  and  246  days. 


9- 
10. 


.20 
.16 
-14 

.  II 
.10 


IS 


75 
327 

89 
2 

16 
100 


and  8  months I4     " 

"    104  days 10     " 

9     " 

"     40     "   8     " 

7     " 

The  above  table  should  be  carefully  studied  by  all  who  contemplate  borrowing 
money. 

Many  people  think  that  the  interest  of  money  at  six  per  cent,  is  just  twice  what  it 
is  at  three  per  cent.,  l)ut  figures  show  that  the  increase  at  6  per  cent,  for  one  hun- 
dred years  is  about  eighteen  times  as  rapid  as  it  is  at  three  per  cent.  As  the  growth 
of  National  Wealth  is  only  about  3^  per  cent,  per  annum,  the  farmer  positive^ 
cannot  ajjford  to  pay  very  high  rates  of  interest. 


HOME    LIFE. 


51 


(837) 


CGNTEHTS   OF   Fil.BT   IT. 


PLEASANT    SURROUNDINGS. 

LABOR,   RECREATION   AND   REST, 
HEALTH   AND    DISEASE. 
BOYS   ON   THE   FARM. 

ITEMS   FOR  THE    HOUSE  AND   FARM. 
RED  LETTER   DAYS. 

(838) 


PLEASANT  SURROUNDINGS.  839 


S  far  as  possible  every  man  should  make  his  surroundings  pleasant.  This 
partly  for  his  own  happiness,  and  for  that  of  bis  family,  and  partly  because 
these  surroundings  will  enable  them  to  do  better  work  than  they  could 
otherwise  perform.  Men  often  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  they  ought  to  be 
happy  as  well  as  useful  in  this  world.  GoD  has  made  the  earth  beautiful 
in  order  that  man  may  enjoy  his  brief  stay  upon  it.  And  He  has  given 
man  the  power  to  still  further  beautify  and  adorn  that  portion  of  the  world  on  which 
he  finds  his  home.  It  is  true  that  nothing  external  can  fully  supply  a  lack  of  affec- 
tion among  the  members  of  a  household,  and  that  no  degree  of  beauty  in  the  land- 
scape can  alone  make  people  happy.  But  if  other  things  are  right,  pleasant  sur- 
roundings prove  a  never-failing  source  of  joy,  while  in  those  cases  in  which  the 
home  life  is  unsatisfactory  they  are  still  more  imperatively  required. 

The  condition  of  their  surroundings  will  have  a  powerful  influence  upon  the 
farmer  and  his  family.  This  influence  will"  be  felt  at  various  points.  Character, 
reputation,  and  appearance  will  be  modified  thereby.  Unless  he  has  fallen  into  bad 
habits  it  is  safe  to  say  that  a  young  man  who  is  slouchy  about  his  dress,  and  careless 
about  his  appearance  and  language,  has  grown  up  under  unfavorable  conditions,  and 
among  unpleasant  surroundings.  He  has  not  seen  things  kept  neat  and  beautiful  at 
home,  and  those  who  have  had  charge  of  his  home-life  are  to  be  blamed  for  what- 
ever damage  his  reputation  may  sustain  thereby.  The  extent  of  the  injury  thus 
inflicted  is  very  great,  and  a  parent  has  no  moral  right,  to  send  a  child  from  his 
home  with  the  stamp  of  such  surroundings  not  only  upon  his  appearance  but  also 
upon  his  mental  and  moral  nature.  If  he  cares  nothing  for  beautiful  things  himself, 
the  farmer  has  no  right  to  destroy  the  sense  of  beauty  which  his  child  possesses  as  a 
direct  gift  from  his  Maker.  An  elegant  mansion  and  costly  paintings  ace  njt 
needed,  but  neat  yards,  a  house  in  good  repair,  a  tasty  garden,  and  plenty  of  trees 
and  flowers  are  things,  not  merely  of  taste,  but  also  of  utility.  They  involve  but 
little  expense,  but  they  have  a  powerful  educating  and  refining  effect.  No  one  can 
do  the  best  work  of  which  he  is  capable  in  unpleasant  surroundings,  and  the  con- 
stant unhappiness  which  they  involve  make  them  destructive  to  both  health  and 
usefulness.  It  is  therefore  the  duty  of  every  man  who  has  a  home  to  make  the 
surroundings  of  that  home  as  pleasant  as  the  means  at  his  command  will  allow. 

In  order  to  make  the  surroundings  pleasant,  perfect  neatness  is  one  of  the  essen- 
tial requisites.  A  plain  yard  which  is  neatly  kept  looks  much  better  than  one  which 
has  been  elaborately  laid  out  and  then  neglected.  There  should  be  a  gravel  walk, 
or  a  walk  made  ot  slats,  from  the  road  to  each  of  the  outside  doors  of  the  house. 
If  there  is  a  front  fence  it  should  be  kept  in  repair,  and  often  whitewashed  or 
painted.  Rose  bushes  and  flowers  should  find  a  place  in  the  yard,  and  be  kept  free 
from  weeds.  A  few  rustic  ornaments  will  cost  but  little,  and  yet  will  add  much  to 
the  appearance  of  the  place.  Three  or  four  evergreen  trees  are  also  desirable  in  the 
yards.  Climbing  vines  and  flowering  plants  are  cheap  and  pretty.  Many  other 
things,  trifles  in  themselves  but  aduing  greatly  to  the  general  effect,  can  be 
obtained.  A  nice  yard  costs  but  little,  except  the  work  of  keeping  it  clean,  but  it 
does  much  to  make  the  home  pleasant,  and  will  add  considerably  to  the  cash  value 
of  the  farm. 


340  FARMING   FOR    PROFIT. 

The  cfTorl  to  make  things  pleasant  should  not  be  wholly  spent  out-of-doors.  The 
interior  of  the  house  should  also  be  neat  and  pleasant.  Boys,  and  girls  too,  dislike 
to  spend  all  their  spare  hours  in  a  dingy  kitchen,  and  the  wife  and  mother  must  find 
such  a  living-room  unpleasant.  There  is  no  necessity  for  any  one  to  be  shut  up  in 
such  a  room  during  all  ihe  working  hours  of  life.  Yet  many  larmers'  wives  not  only 
have  to  work,  but  also  rest,  when  they  are  fortunate  enough  to  obtain  an  oppor- 
tunity to  leave  their  work,  in  a  kitchen  which  is  colored  with  smoke,  and  furnished 
with  only  the  plainest  chairs.  Every  kitchen  should  be  often  whitewashed,  and 
should  contain  an  easy-chair  in  which  the  housewife  can  rest  when  she  can  spare  a 
few  moments  from  her  work.  In  the  afternoon  and  evening  the  sitting-room  should 
be  open  and  the  children  should  be  allowed  to  spend  their  time  therein  when  not  at 
work.  Here  plenty  of  books  and  papers,  some  expressly  for  the  children,  should  be 
found,  and  musical  instruments,  if  the  tastes  of  the  family  lead  in  that  direction,  and 
their  financial  condition  will  warrant  the  expense.  It  is  better  to  buy  an  Organ  or 
Piano  for  the  children,  and  thus  give  them  a  taste  for  quiet  home  pleasures  than 
it  is  to  lay  up  money  for  them  in  the  bank,  and  allow  them  to  run  in  the  streets,  or 
to  the  neighbors  for  pleasure  which  they  cannot  find  at  home.  The  idea  which 
many  people  have  that  the  best  room  should  only  be  opened  for  the  use  of  company, 
is  one  of  the  theories  which  have  worked  an  immense  amount  of  mischief.  A  father 
and  mother  ought  to  care  as  mucli  for  their  children  as  they  do  for  any  one  in  the 
world,  but  parents  often  refuse  their  children  the  use  of  the  best  rooms,  which  are 
freely  opened  for  company  even  though  that  company  may  be  distant,  and  not  very 
highly  prized,  relatives.  This  is  a  wrong  to  the  children.  They  are  entitled  to  the 
first  place  in  the  affections  and  to  the  kindest  treatment  from  their  parents. 

Let  no  one  shrink  from  the  duty  of  making  the  suiToundings  of  his  children  as 
pleasant  as  possible.  The  cost  is  not  very  great,  and  not  very  much  time  will  be 
required  to  keep  the  house  and  yards  in  order  and  make  them  present  a  neat  and 
attractive  appearance.  Thus,  the  duty  is  made  very  light,  and,  as  part  of  his  reward, 
the  parent  is  allowed  to  share  the  pleasure  which  is  secured  by  its  performance. 
But  it  is  a  duty  which  cannot  be  safely  neglected.  God  has  ordained  that  the  home 
shall  be  the  training-school  of  children,  and  that  the  children  shall  soon  go  out  into 
the  world  as  men  and  women  bearing  in  unmistakable  character  the  impress  of 
the  home  surroundings.  They  go  into  life  on  their  own  responsibility,  and  become 
accountable  for  their  own  actions,  but  there  is  a  bias  for  good  or  evil  which  was 
given  them  at  home,  and  which  will  go  far  toward  determining  their  destiny. 


^iLBOB,  HECHEiiTiaKr,  iLKTB  BEST. 

S  a  rule,  to  which  there  are  comparatively  few  exceptions,  farmers  work  too 
hard.  They  make  too  long  days  and  take  too  few  and  too  short  vaca- 
tions. It  is  very  true  that  many  of  them  do  not  find  their  labor  rewarded 
as  well  as  they  hoped  it  would  be,  and  are  inclined  to  work  still  harder 
to  secure  the  money  for  which  they  toil.  Such  a  course  is  a  great  mistake. 
A  higher  degree  of  success  is  to  be  secured  not  hy  working -more  hours, 
but  by  a  more  skilful  direction  of  the  labor  which  is  performed.  More  study  is 
needed  and  belter  plans  are  required.  A  liigher  degree  of  skill  is  wanted.  The 
horse-power  and  steam-power  must  be  more  freely  used.     The  corn  field  which  pro- 


LABOR,   RECREATION,   AND    REST. 

duces  only  thirly  bushels  of  corn  per  acre  must  be  made  to  yield  sixty  bushels  with- 
out materially  increasing  the  expense  of  cultivating  the  field.  Grass  and  grain  crops 
must  be  made  to  largely  increase  their  present  yield.  This  can  be  done  by  skilful 
management,  but  not  by  simply  increasing  the  amount  of  labor  performed. 

That  labor  is  a  duty  as  well  as  a  necessity,  and  a  blessing  as  well  as  a  positive 
requirement,  there  can  be  no  possible  doubt.  The  father  who  allows  his  children 
to  grow  up  in  idleness  thereby  inflicts  upon  them  a  great  wrong,  and  the  youth  who 
wishes  that  he  could  live  without  work  could  have  few  wishes  granted  which  would 
be  more  destructive  to  his  happiness.  Industry  is  not  only  the  fountain  of  all 
wealth,  but  also  the  source  of  happiness  and  the  preserver  of  health  and  virtue. 
The  idle  man  is  a  useless  member  of  society,  is  unhappy,  and  often  miserable.  He 
is  exposed  to  many  temptations  which  his  industrious  neighbor  escapes,  and  is  often 
led  into  ruinous  evils  of  which  he  would  have  been  wholly  ignorant  if  his  time  had 
been  filled  with  some  useful  labor.  It  is  the  duty,  and  is  generally  understood  to 
be  for  the  interest,  of  the  farmer  to  work  himself  and  teach  his  boys  to  work.  But 
he  should  never  make  a  slave  of  himself  or  of  any  of  his  children.  The  work  of  the 
boys  should  be  proportioned  to  their  strength,  and  they  should  not  be  discouraged 
by  being  crowded  too  hard.  The  farmer  should  lay  out  no  more  work  than  he 
has  help  to  perform.  The  plan  which  is  too  often  followed  is  to  attempt  to  cul- 
tivate a  great  deal  larger  area  of  land  than  there  is  help  to  manage.  Then  all 
through  the  season  there  is  a  constant  hurry  and  drive,  every  man  and  boy  is 
crowded  to  his  utmost,  and,  after  all  their  exertions,  the  crops  are  not  well  cared  for 
and  are  not  remunerative.  Better  cultivate  ten  acres  of  corn  well  than  to  run  over 
twenty  acres. 

The  financial  evils  which  result  from  an  attempt  to  do  too  much  are  not  the  only 
ones  which  will  come.  The  boys  will  become  discontented  and  long  for  a  life  in 
the  city  or  village  where  they  imagine  that  the  pay  is  large  and  the  work  is  light. 
The  effect  upon  their  bodily  health  will  also  be  pernicious.  Many  a  boy  never 
grows  into  a  strong  and  healthy  man  because  he  was  overworked  while  young.  By 
spending  too  much  time  at  work  and  performing  labor  beyond  his  strength  to  safely 
endure,  he  becomes  weakened  for  life  and  falls  an  easy  prey  to  disease.  The  mid- 
dle-aged man  sometimes  so  overworks  as  to  weaken  his  vital  powers  and  bring  on 
premature  old  age.  When  a  man  works  so  hard  that  he  can  take  no  comfort  in 
reading  or  social  conversation,  he  is  going  beyond  his  strength  and  fast  becoming  a 
mere  animal.  There  are  men  who  have  so  slaved  themselves,  and  injured  their 
bodies  and  minds  by  toil,  that  they  fall  asleep  as  soon  as  they  attempt  to  read  or  to 
converse  on  any  subject  which  does  not  pertain  to  the  labor  in  which  they  are 
engaged.  Their  joints  are  grown  out  of  shape  and  they  suffer  greatly  in  body  while 
broken  down  in  mind.  What  benefit  such  a  man  can  receive  from  the  money  which 
his  labor  brings  we  do  not  know.  He  may  amass  wealth,  but  he  cannot  enjoy  it. 
He  may  escape  being  a  pauper,  but  by  going  to  the  other  extreme  he  becomes  a 
slave.  Every  man  should  work  regularly  but  not  excessively.  While  labor  is  a 
duty,  overwork  is  a  sin.  Idleness  destroys  a  man  one  way,  but  excessive  overwork 
will  just  as  surely  ruin  him  in  another.  No  man  has  a  right  to  live  upon  society 
while  doing  nothing  for  its  welfare,  and  no  one  is  justified  in  working  so  hard  as  to 
destroy  his  mental  and  physical  powers. 

While  the  farmer  should  require  his  children  to  work,  he  should  not  make  this 
work  the  only  education  which  they  receive.  On  the  contrary  he  should  send  them 
to  the  best  schools  which  he  can  afford,  and  to  college  if  possible.     An  education 


842  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

is  a  great  possession,  and  is  as  valuable  for  a  farmer's  boy  as  it  is  for  the  merchant's 
son.  The  girls  should  also  receive  the  best  education  which  their  parents  can 
supply.  This  should  include  a  thorough  acquaintance  with  all  household  duties. 
Not  only  should  the  farmer  educate  his  children,  but  he  should  give  them  time  foi 
reading  and  study  when  out  of  school.  The  custom,  once  prevalent  but  now  going, 
we  hope,  out  of  date,  of  requiring  boys  to  work  morning  and  evening  while 
attendint^  school,  is  to  be  severely  condemned.  Under  this  method  the  scholar  was 
unable  to  do  justice  to  himself  at  school,  and  the  double  strain  proved  a  severe  and 
unjustifiable  draft  upon  his  strength.  Many  a  boy  has  ruined  his  health  by  trying  to 
perform  the  double  duties  thus  imposed. 

The  farmer  should  keep  himself  and  his  family  supplied  with  reading  of  the  best 
quality,  and  plenty  of  time  in  which  to  use  it  should  be  taken.  Like  the  men  in  all 
other  callings  the  farmer  needs  books  and  papers  which  are  devoted  to  his  special 
pursuit.  The  attempt  to  get  along  without  them  is  ruinous.  In  these  days  of  close 
competition  the  man  who  is  to  succeed  must  be  well  informed.  Ignorance  cannot 
successfully  compete  with  knowledge.  The  boys,  too,  need  these  books  and  papers 
in  order  to  give  them  an  intelligeirt  comprehension  of  the  methods  which  should  be 
pursued,  and  to  lead  them  to  take  an  active  interest  in  the  farm  work.  But  they 
should  not  be  restricted  to  this  class  of  reading.  The  best  papers  for  the  young 
should  be  furnished,  and  the  newspapers  should  also  be  supplied  so  that  they  and 
their  sisters  may  know  what  is  going  on  in  the  world.  The  wife  and  mother  should 
not  be  forgotten,  but  some  good  home  magazine  should  be  taken  for  her  especial 
benefit.  She  needs  something  of  this  kind  still  more  th.in  the  other  members  of  the 
family.  She  is  tied  more  closely  to  the  home,  her  duties  are  very  exacting,  and  her 
health  is  often  poor.  The  monotonous  drudgery  of  isolated  farm  life  has  a  terribly 
destructive  effect  if  it  is  not  counteracted  by  the  rest  and  recreation  which  is  always 
needed  but  seldom  taken.  When  the  ceaseless  round  has  been  too  long  followed  the 
health  of  body  or  mind,  or  both,  will  give  way.  The  Asylums  for  the  Insane 
contain  a  very  large  proportion  of  farmers'  wives  brought  there  by  the  combined 
effects  of  overwork  and  a  monotonous  life.  The  magazine  and  newsp.nper  lead  the 
thoughts  into  new  channels,  occupy  the  mind  with  subjects  outside  of  its  ordinary 
routine,  and  thus  refresh  the  body  while  preserving  the  health  of  the  mind. 

The  farmer  and  his  family  all  need  periods  of  rest  and  recreation.  An  occasional 
day  spent  in  visiting  friends  will  be  positively  beneficial  to  the  health,  and  will  give 
an  increased  efficiency  to  the  labor  which  is  performed  as  well  as  properly  develop 
the  social  feelings.  The  Grange  has  proved  an  immense  aid  to  farmers  and  their 
families  in  these  as  well  as  in  other  directions.  There  was  a  great  need  of  something 
which  should  lead  them  out  of  themselves,  and  break  up  the  isolation  and  routine 
in  which  their  lives  were  involved.  Lectures  and  occasional  concerts  should  also 
be  attended,  but  all  low  shows,  and  even  the  ordinary  grade  of  the  circus,  should 
be  carefully  avoided.  A  good  managerie  is  an  excellent  thing  for  children  and 
grown  people  to  see,  but  many  of  the  shows  which  travel  around  the  country  are  of 
little  value,  and  in  some  respects  are  extremely  harmful.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  give 
the  last  half  of  each  Saturday  afternoon  to  the  boys  and  girls  for  their  own  enjoy- 
ment. Instead  of  trying,  as  too  many  do,  to  crowd  about  a  third  more  work  into 
Saturday  than  they  perform  any  other  day  of  the  week,  the  farmers  should  make  its 
labor  lighter,  and  finish  it  early. 

The  evenings  should  never  be  devoted  to  work,  but  used  for  rest  and  mental 
enjoyment.     We  have  known  farmei"s  who  have  done  a  large  part  of  their  husking 


HEAL  TH  AND   DISEASE.  843 

eyenings,  and  who  often  performed  other  kinds  of  work  nfter,  dark,  but  ve 
never  knew  one  who  seemed  to  be  a  gainer  thereby.  The  man  wlio  keeps  his 
children  at  work  from  the  time  they  get  up  until  bed-time,  inflicts  upon  them  a  great 
wrong,  while  the  one  who  follows  this  course  himself  will,  sooner  or  later,  be  obliged 
to  bear  the  penalty  of  the  violation  of  the  laws  of  health.  The  man  who  is  indus- 
trious during  the  day,  and  who  works  regularly,  will  accomplish  a  great  deal  during 
a  year,  and  will  perform  all  the  labor  which  should  be  required  of  him.  The 
evenings  should  be  spent  in  a  cheerful  and  well-lighted  sitting-room,  and  th? 
.children  should  be  encouraged  to  stay  there  instead  of  roaming  the  streets,  or  going 
to  saloons  or  stores.  If  home  is  made  pleasant  and  cheerful,  most  boys  will  think 
it  the  nicest  place  in  the  world,  and  will  choose  to  spend  their  evenings  in  it  rather 
than  abroad.  Books,  papers,  music,  and  harmless  games  (not  including  cards), 
togeth»r  with  kind  treatment  and  cheerful  conversation,  will  be  powerful  induce- 
ments for  the  average  boy  to  keep  out  of  bad  company,  and  avoid  all  low  and  evil 
associates. 

The  Sabbath  furnishes  a  stated  time  for  rest,  and  should  be  carefully  observed. 
Some  things  must  receive  attention  on  this  day,  and  the  fact  is  often  made  an  excuse 
for  the  performance  of  a  great  deal  of  work  for  which  there  is  no  justification.  We 
have  no  sympathy  with  the  strict  literalism  of  the  few  who  make  the  Sabbath  a 
day  of  gloom,  or  with  the  extreme  liberality  of  the  many  who  make  this  a  weekly 
holiday. 

The  Sabbath  should  be  a  happy  day,  but  the  pleasure  secured  should  be  of  a 
different  nature  from  that  which  is  sought  on  other  days.  Works  of  strict  necessity 
?nd  mercy  may  be  performed,  but  no  labor  should  be  done  for  the  profit  which  may 
accrue  or  in  order  to  save  something  which  might  otherwise  run  to  waste.  Attend- 
ance upon  church  and  Sunday-school  should  be  regular,  and  the  Bible  should  be 
studied  and  its  truths  ^impressed  upon  the  minds  of  the  little  ones.  The  best  relig- 
ious books  and  papers  should  be  read,  plenty  of  interesting  religious  and  moral 
reading  for  the  children  ought  to  be  supplied,  and  the  day  should  be  kept  in  a 
manner  which  will  bring  rest  and  refreshment  to  the  body  and  peace  to  the  mind 
and  soul. 


'EALTH  is  one  of  the  greatest  temporal  blessings  which  man  receives.  It 
is  seldom  prized  until  it  is  lost,  and,  consequently,  but  little  effort  is  put 
forth  for  its  preservation.  The  birthright  is  often  sold  for  a  mess  of  pot- 
tage. But  when  it  is  lost  the  poor  unfortunate  finds  that  he  has  parted 
with  a  great  possession.  Good  health  is  better  than  money.  It  is  a  large 
part  of  the  capital  of  the  laboring  classes,  and  the  source  of  much  of  the 
enjoyment  of  the  rich.  When  it  is  lost  the  poor  cannot  work  and  the  rich  cannot 
be  happy.  When  it  is  possessed  it  can  usually  be  retained,  even  in  spite  of  heredi- 
tary taints,  but,  when  lost,  its  restoration  is  difficult  and  often  impossible. 

We  shall  not  give  a  long  list  of  prescriptions  for  the  various  diseases  which  afflict 
mankind.  We  think  that  every  family  should  have  a  standard  medical  work  and 
be  familiar  with  its  contents.  The  wife  and  mother  should  understand  the  best 
methods  of  nursing.  In  a  multitude  of  cases  of  sickness  more  depends  upon  skilful 
care  than  upon  the  use  of  drugs,  though  there  are  many  diseases  in  which  medicines 


814  FARMING   /OK   i-ROFlT. 

must  be  used  promptly  and  efficiently  or  the  patient  will  not  recover.  All  cases  of 
sickness  need  good  care.  By  this  means,  and  the  use  of  the  common  remedies  with 
which  the  housewife  should  be  familiar,  niiUi  attacks  may  be  cured.  Viulent  attacks, 
or  the  ordinary  forms  of  certain  severe  ami  contagious  diseases,  call  for  prompt  and 
sldJful  medical  treatment.  Never  let  a  patient  go  on  day  after  day  without  improve- 
ment before  consulting  a  doctor.  The  system  may  get  so  enfeebled  during  the  in- 
terval that  it  cannot  rally  when  medical  treatment  is  given.  In  a  multitude  of  cases, 
doctors  have  been  called  too  late.  This  is  especially  true  of  infants  and  aged  people. 
These  classes  have  but  little  vitality  and  but  little  power  of  endurance.  Disease 
makes  rapid  progress,  and,  before  danger  is  suspected,  recovery. becomes  impossible. 
In  many  cases  of  disease  if  the  doctor  is  called  early  he  can  check  its  progress, 
while,  if  he  is  not  sent  for  until  it  has  obtained  a  firm  hold  upon  the  system,  it  must 
run  its  course,  and  a  long  and  expensive  sickness  is  inevitable.  Delay  is  u.  flgerous, 
and  much  of  the  "  home  doctoring,"  and  use  of  patent  medicines,  is  almost  equally 
hazardous.  A  standard  medical  work  will  give  many  useful  hints,  and  a  few  of  the 
best  remedies  for  simple  diseases  should  be  kept  constantly  in  the  house,  but  the 
fai-mer  should  not  attempt  to  doctor  himself  or  his  family  in  any  serious  f<  rn\  of 
sickness.  He  would  not  think  of  trying  to  repair  his  watch.  He  knows  that  he 
has  not  sufficient  skill  and  knowledge  to  enable  him  to  adjust  such  a  fine  and  com- 
plicated piece  of  mechanifm.  Much  more  should  he  hesitate  to  ignorantly  tamper 
with  the  wonderful  human  machine  into  which  GoD  himself  has  breathed  the 
breath  of  life. 

We  believe  that  a  large  part  of  the  sickness  which  afflicts  mankind  might  be  easily 
prevented  by  attention  to  the  laws  of  health.  Therefore,  instead  of  giving  a  descrip 
tion  of  many  "cure-alls,"  we  shall  simply  call  attention  to  a  few  of  these  laws  and 
urge  oliedience  thereto.  God  has  made  the  human  frame  subject  to  these  laws. 
Obedience  will  secure  health  and  strength.  Disease  will  be  the  penalty  of  trans- 
gression. To  some  of  the  great  necessities  of  the  human  system  we  will  briefly 
allude. 

Pure  Air. — This  is  one  of  the  gieat  essentials  to  health,  and  one  which,  with  a 
little  care,  can  be  secured  in  abundance.  It  has  been  generally  supi^osed  that  the 
farmer  and  his  family  had  plenty  of  air  in  almost  absolute  purity,  but  we  doubt  if 
the  air  in  the  average  farm-house  is  as  pure  as  that  in  the  average  city  mansion. 
The  air  in  the  farm-house  ought  to  be  verj'  pure,  but  there  is  such  a  lack  of  attention 
to  ventilation,  and  so  many  <lecaying  vegetables  are  allowed  to  remain  in  the  cellar, 
while  the  drainage  of  the  yards  is  so  bad,  and  the  stench  from  neglected  closets 
and  vaults  is  so  strong,  that  the  whole  atmosphere  in  the  vicinit/is  polluted,  and  the 
dweller  in  the  country  obliges  himself  and  his  family  to  breathe  air  that  is  wholly 
unfit  for  the  purposes  of  respiration.  The  remedy  is  apparent.  Remove  all  decay- 
ing substances,  drain  the  land,  use  disinfectants  freely,  and  ventilate  thoroughly. 

Good  Food. — Without  an  abundance  of  good  food  no  man  can  be  well.  The 
food  supplies  the  waste  of  muscular  tissue  and  of  the  brain.  There  is  a  constant 
process  of  waste  and  repair  going  on  in  the  body.  If  the  food  is  insufficient  in 
quantity,  or  imperfect  in  quality,  the  waste  is  not  fully  supplied,  the  action  of  the 
organs  is  enfeebled,  disease  sets  in,  and  in  time  death  ensues.  Farmers  have  food 
enough,  but  (he  quality  is  not  always  as  good  as  it  should  be.  To  this  fact  much  of 
the  disease  of  farmers'  wives  and  children  may  be  traced.  Nervous  oflections  are 
often  caused  directly  in  this  manner.  This  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  a  speedy  and 
radical  cure  can  often   be  efi'ecled  by  a  change  in  this  one  particular.     Dr.  V.  W. 


HEALTH  AND  DISEASE.  845 

Blanchard,  of  New  York  city,  has  originated  a  Food  Cure  system  of  restoring- 
health.  This  system  has  now  been  in  operation  many  years,  and  all  kinds  of  disease 
have  been  treated  with  a  very  high  degree  of  success.  The  only  remedy  employed 
is  pure  food,  concentrated,  and,  for  some  diseases,  subjected  to  a  process  of  artificial 
digestion. 

The  art  of  cooking  is  not  as  well  understood  by  farmers'  wives  as  it  should  be, 
and  in  many  cases  they  are  overworked  doing  what  is  now  required  of  them.  If  a 
change  could  be  made  which  would  insure  the  use  of  more  beef  and  less  pork,  a 
largely  increased  consumption  of  vegetables  and  fruits,  the  substitution  of  simple 
dishes  for  some  of  those  which  require  much  time  and  labor  in  their  preparation, 
and  which  would  give  a  much  greater  variety  of  food  with  less  work  in  fitting  it  for 
the  table,  there  would  be  a  great  gain  to  each  and  every  member  of  the  household. 
The  best  food  cooked  in  the  best  manner  should  find  its  way  to  the  farmer's  table. 
The  best  food  can  be  obtained  by  the  farmer  as  easily  as  by  any  one.  The  compli- 
cated  and  mysterious  compounds  which  cause  the  tables,  and  also  the  stomachs,  of 
the  rich  to  groan  do  not  come  under  this  head.  Good  food  is  simple,  nutritious,  and 
simply  prepared.  It  costs  less  than  the  dyspepsia-producing  dishes  which  are  often 
furnished,  and  not  half  the  work  is  required  to  prepare  it.  Wheat,  milk,  beef,  eggs, 
vegetables,  and  fruits,  will  gratify  the  taste,  and  furnish  nutriment  for  the  system. 
Oatmeal  is  a  valuable  article  of  food,  especially  for  children.  Properly  cooked  it 
can  be  made  palatable,  and  with  the  addition  of  milk  and  sugar  it  becomes  a  popular 
dish.  The  farmer  cannot  afford  the  luxuries  of  the  rich,  l)ut  he  can  have  food 
which  will  gratify  the  taste,  and  which  will  impart  health  and  strength. 

Pure  Water. — This  is  another  of  the  great  necessities  of  the  system.  A  large 
proportion  of  the  body  is  formed  of  water,  and  quite  a  quantity  is  required  each  day 
to  supply  the  waste.  If  the  water  taken  into  the  system  is  pure  it  refreshes  and 
invigorates,  but  if  it  is  not  pure,  and  a  great  deal  of  the  water  in  use  on  the  farm  is 
not,  it  becomes  a  source  of  danger,  and  soon  brings  on  disease  which  often  termi- 
nates fatally.  Probably  the  use  of  impure  water  has  led  to  more  cases  of  typhoid 
fever  than  all  other  causes  combined.  Multitudes  of  cases  of  "  fever  and  ague  "  are 
caused  in  this  way,  while  many  slow  diseases  which  present  a  low  type  of  fever, 
which  undermine  the  constitution,  and  for  which  no  definite  cause  can  be  assigned 
by  the  patient,  are  brought  on  in  the  same  manner.  The  true  cause  of  many  attacks 
of  disease  is  not  suspected  by  the  patients,  their  friends,  or,  until  too  late,  by  the 
physician.  We  have  already  dwelt  upon  this  subject  at  some  length,  and  need  only 
say  here  that  the  greatest  care  should  be  exercised  to  keep  the  water  which  is 
used  for  cooking  and  drinking  perfectly  pure. 

Proper  Clothing  is  required  in  order  to  maintain  perfect  heahh.  Unfortu- 
nately its  value  is  not  duly  appreciated,  and  multitudes  of  people  on  the  farms  in 
this  country  are  not  suitably  clad.  The  majority  have  a  sufficient  quantity  of  clothings 
but  it  either  is  not  of  the  right  kind,  or  else  is  not  worn  as  it  should  be.  The 
climate  is  very  changeable  and  quite  trying,  not  only  to  invalids  but  also  to  well 
people.  In  winter  the  farm  house  is  very  imperfectly  warmed,  and  the  members  of 
the  household  are  subjected  to  considerable  exposure  in  passing  from  the  warm  to 
the  cold  rooms,  and  in  sleeping  in  cold,  close,  and  poorly  ventilated  apartments. 
J'armers'  wives  are  often  exposed  to  severe  cold  in  hanging  out  clothes  after  working 
over  the  hot  water  used  in  washing,  and  all  the  members  of  the  family  frequently 
get  the  feet  wet,  and  take  cold  as  a  natural  consequence.  Farmers  are  often 
severely  exposed  to  attacks  of  disease  by  getting  chilled   after   working  hard  and 


846  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT. 

getting  unduly  heated.  Rheumatism  and  neuralgia,  both  fearful  diseases,  &s  we 
can  certify  from  our  own  abundant  experience,  are  often  brought  on  in  this  way.  The 
neglect  to  put  on  a  coat  when  a  bard  day's  work  was  done  has  cost  many  a  man 
an  immense  amount  of  pain. 

It  is  bad  enough  to  sit  down  in  a  cool  room  when  merely  warm  without  putting 
on  extra  clothing,  but  when  to  the  heated  condition  of  the  systen*  exhaustion  is 
added,  the  danger  of  a  sudden  chill,  and  the  degree  of  danger  from  a  chill,  is  greatly 
increased.  A^erer  sit  in  a  draft  of  air  to  "  cool  off"  after  working,  or  at  any  other 
time.  Always  when  tired  and  sweaty  put  on  a  coat  as  soon  as  the  work  in  hand 
is  fmished.  It  is  not  safe  to  wait  even  for  a  few  minutes.  A  coat  should  be  carried 
to  the  field  in  warm  weather,  and  worn  to  the  house  when  the  work  is  done. 
Waiting  until  he  could  get  to  the  house  has  caused  many  a  man  to  take  a  cold 
which  resulted  in  serious  sickness.  Always  wear  woollen  next  to  the  skin.  Thin 
woollen  clothes  in  the  summer,  and  thick  ones  in  the  winter  should  be  worn.  Not 
only  the  grown  people  but  the  children  should  also  be  dressed  in  this  manner.  The 
best  medical  authorities  in  this  country  and  in  EUROI'E  have  strongly  advised  the 
use  of  woollen  clothing  at  all  seasons  of  the  year. 

As  already  suggested,  more  clothing  is  needed  at  night,  when  the  system  is 
exhausted  by  the  labors  of  the  day,  than  is  lequired  when  at  work.  At  all  times 
sufficient  clothing  should  be  worn  to  keep  the  person  comfortable,  and  in  winter  it 
should  be  of  the  best  quality  (ns  far  as  warmth  is  concerned),  in  order  that  it  may 
afford  sufficient  protection  without  being  Inirdensome.  The  same  rule  applies  to 
;lhe  bed-clothes  which  are  used.  Newspapers  folded  between  the  quilts  will  give 
imuch  warmth  with  little  weight.  Never  sleep  coM,  but  use  clothes  enough  to  keep 
■warm.  Keep  the  feet  dry,  if  possible,  during  the  day,  and  before  retiring  at  night 
dry  and  warm  them  thoroughly.  See  that  the  children  do  not  neglect  this.  Attacks 
-of  croup,  and  severe  lung  diseases,  are  often  induced  by  going  to  bed  with  cold, 
damp  feet. 

Avoid  exposure  to  storms.  If  caught  out  in  one,  change  the  clothing  as  soon  as 
possible,  and  rub  the  skin  vigorously  until  it  is  all  aglow.  Keep  the  children  in- 
doors during  rain  and  snow  storms.  No  possible  good  can  come  of  their  being  out 
and  it  may  lead  to  severe  illness. 

Cleanliness. — Much  of  the  work  on  a  farm  seems  directly  opposed  to  clean- 
liness, yet  there  is  no  impossibility,  even  for  the  farmer,  to  obey  this  plain  and  impor- 
tant law  of  health.  The  two  millions  of  little  pores  in  the  skin  are  the  outlets  by  which 
an  immense  amount  of  waste  matter  is  removed  from  the  body.  If  these  outlets 
become  closed,  by  reason  of  a  cold,  or  of  an  accumulation  of  dirt  upon  the  surface, 
this  matter  is  thrown  upon  the  internal  organs,  thus  greatly  increasing  their  labor, 
and  also  poisoning  the  whole  system.  Frequent  bathing  is  absolutely  necessary  to 
secure  cleanliness,  and,  sooner  or  later,  every  one  will  find  that  cleanliness  is 
indispensable  to  health.  The  feet  need  frequent  washings.  Many  people  are 
troubled  with  cold  feet  who  would  not  be  if  they  washed  them  more  frequently. 
Putting  the  feet  into  hot  water  and  keeping  them  in  it  ten  minutes,  adding  more 
warm  water  as  that  in  the  pail  grows  cool,  will  often  quiet  a  severe  headache  so 
that  the  patient  can  sleep.  Sleeplessness,  unattended  by  pain,  can  sometimes  be 
cured  by  dipping  the  feet  in  cold  water  and  rubbing  smartly  with  a  coarse  towel  just 
before  going  to  bed.  When  there  is  a  disagreeable  odor,  wash  the  feet  with  water 
in  which  permanganate  of  potash — ten  grains  to  a  pint  of  water — has  been  dissolved. 
Or  they  may  be  occasionally  washed  with  vinegar.  , 


HEALTH  AND   DISEASE.  847 

Wash  the  head,  frequently  and  thoroughly,  with  water  and  the  best  toilet  soap. 
Never  use  "  bears'  grease,"  or  any  other  grease,  and  avoid  all  dyes  for  the  hair  and 
beard. 

The  teeth  should  be  brushed  after  every  meal,  and  particles  of  food  lodged 
between  them  should  be  removed  with  a  sharpened  quill.  Prepared  chalk  is  a  good 
tooth  powder.  So  is  a  nice  grade  of  soap.  A  little  salt  will  make  the  teeth  very 
white.  This  should  not  be  used  often,  and  the  mouth  should  be  thoroughly  rinsed 
with  water  after  it  has  been  applied.  If  the  stomach  is  disordered,  the  teeth  will 
often  be  injured  by  an  acid  reaction.  To  prevent  this,  rinse  the  mouth  quite  often 
with  a  solution  of  common  baking  soda,  using  a  teaspoonful  to  a  glass  of  water. 
Also  take  proper  remedies  to  correct  the  action  of  the  slcmach. 

Have  the  teeth  examined  once  in  three  months  by  a  competent  dentist,  and 
when  there  are  indications  of  decay  have  ihe  cavities  promptly  filled.  The  loss  of 
the  teeth  will  cause  a  great  deal  of  pain,  and  lie  very  likely  to  lead  to  indigestion 
and  serious  illness.  Children  should  be  taught  to  take  care  of  their  teeth,  and  a 
dentist  should  be  employed  to  fill  any  cavities  which  may  appear.  If  attended  to 
soon  enough,  all  the  teeth  can  be  preserved  until  old  age.  But  the  majority  of 
young  people  do  not  commence  the  work  of  preservation  early  enough.  They 
wait  until  the  teeth  are  loo  badiy  decayed  to  be  filled  and  then  have  to  lose  them. 
It  pays  to  have  a  dentist  examine  the  teeth  often.  He  can  detect  the  beginnings  of 
evil,  and  save  teeth  which  would  be  lost  if  the  owner  relied  upon  his  own  powers 
of  observation. 

We  have  elsewhere  alluded  to  the  great  importance  of  keeping  the  cellars  and  all 
the  surroundings  clean,  and  need  not  dwell  upon  it  hear.  Dr.  Bowditch  has  said, 
and  the  experience  of  the  past  has  proved  him  correct,  that  "  all  filth  is  absolute 
poison"  to  the  human  system.  Either  in  the  air  we  breathe,  the  food  we  eat,  the 
water  we  drink,  or  through  the  pores  of  the  skin,  this  poison  may  enter  the  body 
and  carry  on  its  ruinous  work. 

Sufficient  Sleep  is  one  of  the  most  important  requisites  to  secure  health  and 
vigor  of  body  and  mind.  During  sleep  the  repairing  of  the  waste  of  the  body  and 
the  brain  is  going  on  and  rest  is  secured.  If  the  period  allotted  to  sleep  is  too  short, 
the  work  is  imperfectly  performed,  and  weariness  during  the  day  is  the  result.  The 
candle  of  life  is  being  burned  at  both  ends.  If  the  habit  of  taking  too  little  sleep 
becomes  fixed,  sickness,  perhaps  ins.inity,  will  result.  Many  a  man  has  died  in 
youth  or  middle  age  who  would  have  lived  many  years  longer  if  he  had  taken  more 
time  for  sleep,  and  many  a  farmer's  wife  has  gone  to  the  Insane  Asylum,  or  aa 
early  grave,  because  the  ceaseless  round  of  duties  which  she  tried  to  perform  left  too 
little  time  for  sleep.  Multitudes  of  children  are  being  injured  in  body  and  mind  by 
a  lack  of  sufficient  sleep.  Their  parents  teach  them  that  it  is  a  sign  of  laziness  to 
lie  long  in  bed.  No  greater  delusion  was  ever  accepted  by  mankind.  Shorten  the 
hours  of  sleep  and  you  thereby  sap  the  very  fountains  of  vital  power.  Unless  pre- 
ceded by  early  retiring,  early  rising  is  a  slow,  but  sure,  form  of  suicide.  Better  do 
without  food  than  without  sleep,  if  both  cannot  be  secured.  The  greatest  workers 
in  the  world  are  often  great  sleepers.  We  know  of  a  brilliant  clergyman,  who  per- 
forms an  immense  amount  of  labor,  who  sleeps  twelve  hours  out  of  the  twenty-four. 
The  most  vigorous  men  take  an  abundance  of  sleep.  Some  people  need  more  sleep 
than  others.  Probably  the  majority  require  eight  hours.  Many  need  ten  hours,  and 
some  even  twelve  hours,  sleep  out  of  each  twenty-four.  E.ach  individual  must  be  a 
law  to  himself.     If  he  needs  but  eight  hours  sleep  he  should  take  only  that  amount. 


g48  FARMING   FOR    PROFIT. 

but  if  he  needs  more  let  him  take  it.  No  matter  if  neighbors  borrow  trouble  about 
it.  It  is  not  their  business.  But  it  is  the  business  of  every  person  to  get  sleep 
enough.  If  a  small  supply  of  sleep  is  taken  there  will  be  a  dull,  heavy  feeling  all 
day  long,  and  not  as  much  work  can  be  done  as  can  be  performed  in  a  much  shorter 
day  if  the  hours  devoted  to  sleep  are  increased.  The  man  who  sleeps  wtll  can  do 
more  work  in  eight  hours  than  one  who  sleeps  too  little  can  do  in  a  longer  time,  and 
can  do  it  with  far  greater  ease.  Many  nervous  diseases  are  brought  on  by  shorten- 
ing the  hours  of  sleep,  and  other  evil  results  will  surely  follow  in  due  time.  Parents 
should  see  that  their  children  have  plenty  of  lime  for  sleep,  and  should  allow  their 
servants  the  privilege  of  securing  abundant  rest. 

Obedience  to  Moral  Laws. — This  is  the  last  of  the  essentials  to  the  preserva- 
tion of  health  to  which  we  shall  call  attention.  The  Author  of  these  laws  is  also 
the  AuTnf>R  »)f  the  laws  of  health.  "He  knoweth  our  frame,''  and  II is  laws  have 
been  made  with  reference  to  our  necessities  and  our  powers.  A  pure  and  moral 
life  tends  to  promote  the  health  of  the  body  and  the  mind.  A  vicious  life  tends  to 
the  direct  ruin  of  both.  Indulgence  of  the  appetites  and  passions  deranges  the  ner- 
vous system  and  lowers  the  vital  power.  Many  diseases  are  induced  thereby,  and 
the  body  is  so  weakened  by  indulgence  that  it  falls  an  easy  prey  to  attacks  of  sick- 
ness which  otherwise  might  have  been  easily  resisted.  The  use  of  tobacco,  or  of 
intoxicants,  lets  down  the  tone  of  the  system  and  often  leads  to  ruined  health.  Any 
and  every  bad  habit,  whether  it  be  of  a  physical  or  a  moral  nature,  tends  to  impair 
the  health  and  break  down  the  constitution,  while  a  thoroughly  CHRISTIAN  course 
of  conduct  not  only  makes  a  man  happy,  respected,  and  useful,  but  also  has  a 
powerful  influence  to  ward  off  disease  and  strengthen  the  mental  and  physical 
powers. 


BG'TS  GH  THE  Fil^HM, 

'OW  to  keep  the  boys  on  the  farm  and  induce  them  cheerfully  to  choose 
farming  as  their  occupation  for  life  is  a  question  of  deep  interest  to  many 
parents.     The  stampede  of  young  men   from  the  country  to  cities  and 
'/  CT^f     large  towns  is  not  an  evil  which   finds  its   limit  in  the   domestic  circles 
e)  ^S^     which  they  leave,  but  is  one  which  extends  through  society  and  makes  its 
depressing  influence  felt  everywhere.     How  to  check  this  evil  is  a  ques- 
tion of  great  importance  and  is  well  worthy  of  consideration. 

In  order  to  induce  the  boys  to  stay  on  the  farm  they  must  be  informed  of  the  true 
relation  which  exisis  between  the  city  and  the  country.  They  must  be  shown  that 
the  expenses  of  living  are  so  high  that  the  city  clerk,  whom  they  envy  because  of  his 
large  salary,  can  hardly  keep  out  of  debt.  And  the  fact  that  the  man  in  the  city  is 
tied  to  his  business  a  great  deal  more  closely  than  the  farmer  is  to  his  work  should 
be  set  before  them.  Many  of  the  boys  who  have  left  the  farm  have  done  so  because 
they  were  allowed  so  few  pleasures  and  so  little  time  at  home.  Their  fathers  were 
not  wise  in  their  choice  of  methods  of  government  and  labor.  Still,  there  will  be 
many  boys  who,  under  any  system  of  treatment,  will  choose  other  professions  rather 
than  work  on  the  farm.  It  is  best  that  this  should  be  so.  Boys  who  have  a  strong 
inclination  to  follow  any  honest  calling  will  usually  do  better  in  that  department  of 
labor  than  they  can  in  any  other.  But  this  inclination  can  often  be  guided,  or  even 
formed,  by  wise  counsel  and  suitable  influences.     The  father  who  greatly  desires  to 


BOYS   ON    THE   FARM.  849 

see  his  boys  become  farmers  can,  by  means  of  wise  and  careful  training,  usually 
carry  his  wish  into  effect. 

Boys  should  be  taught  that  farming  is  an  honorable  occupaiioti.  It  is  very  true 
that  the  calling  does  not  make  the  man,  and  that  a  man  should  not  be  respected 
because  he  follows  one  honest  occupation  or  despised  because  he  follows  another. 
Character  is  what  a  man  is,  and  cannot  always  be  determined  by  reference  to  the 
kind  of  work  which  he  performs.  The  farmer  may  be  a  gentleman  or  he  can  be  a 
boor,  he  may  build  up  a  noble  character  or  he  may  be  a  villain.  He  makes  his 
own  choice  in  these  respects.  Merely  being  a  farmer  will  make  him  neither  a  good 
man  nor  a  bad  one.  Still,  farming  is  a  business  which  does  not  open  to  its  fol- 
lowers so  many  evil  influences,  and  expose  them  to  as  many  temptations,  as  some 
lines  of  business.  It  is  the  kind  of  labor  which  God  directly  marked  out  for  man, 
and  upon  the  cultivation  of  the  soil  the  civilization  and  happiness  of  mankind 
must,  in  a  great  measure,  depend.  As  far  as  occupation  is  concerned,  the  farmer 
has  no  occasion  to  "look  up  to"  the  merchant,  manufacturer,  or  professional  man. 
Clergymen  and  teachers  are  doing  a  work  the  value  of  which  is  beyond  all  price, 
and  many  boys  wrill  be  called  from  the  farm  to  fill  the  ranks  of  these  professions. 
The  ones  whom  God  calls  into  these  fields  should  not  hesitate  for  a  moment  to 
obey.  But  before  a  boy  leaves  the  farm  to  become  a  merchant,  or  to  go  to  a  city 
as  a  laborer,  or  to  engage  in  business  of  any  kind,  he  should  very  carefully  consider 
the  question  whether  there  is  any  good  prospect  that  he  can  do  better  than  the  thou- 
sands of  those  who  have  preceded  him,  and  who  have  soon  been  led  to  repent 
that  they  ever  left  the  farm. 

The  boys  who  are  designed  by  their  parents  for  farmers  should  be  led  to  take  an 
interest  in  their  work.  The  skilful  teacher  leads  his  scholars  along  both  rapidly  and 
pleasantly  when  he  gets  them  fully  interested  in  their  studies,  but  until  he  can  do 
this  their  progress  will  be  very  slow.  The  boy  who  "  don't  care  "  about  farming 
may  be  led  to  take  an  interest  in  it  and  choose  it  for  his  life-work.  If  the  farmer 
would  explain  to  him  the  way  in  which  plants  grow,  and  tell  him  why  certain 
operations  are  performed  at  the  particular  times  which  he  observes,  and  also  furnish 
him  with  books  and  papers  treating  of  these  and  of  kindred  subjects,  he  would  soon 
find  that  the  indifference  had  given  way  to  earnest  inquiry  and  deep  interest. 

Life  on  the  farm  must  be  made  pleasant  to  the  boys  who  are  designed  to  follow 
the  calling  of  their  fathers.  The  young  have  a  firm  belief  that  life  ought  to  yield  a 
great  deal  of  pleasure,  and  if  things  are  unpleasant  at  home  they  will  go  elsewhere 
in  hope  of  bettering  their  condition.  This  hope  is  often  disappointed,  yet  the  boys 
press  on  as  though  it  were  sure  to  be  realized.  The  parent  ought  to  strive  to  make 
his  children  so  happy  at  home  that  they  will  prefer  it  to  all  other  places.  We  do  not 
mean  that  the  child  should  always  have  his  own  way.  Far  from  it.  Parental 
authority  ought  to  be  firmly  maintained.  But  the  rule  should  be  very  gentle  and 
the  natural  waywardness  of  youth  should  not  cause  the  father  to  lose  all  patience  with 
his  boys.  The  average  boy  who  is  well  treated  is  not  as  exacting  as  many  people 
seem  to  imagine.  He  can  be  made  contented  with  reasonable  care  and  attention. 
We  have  already  alluded  to  the  necessity  of  furnishing  him  books  and  papers,  and 
a  pleasant  room  in  which  to  spend  his  evenings.  He  should  also  be  well  clothed 
and  furnished  with  what  spending  money  he  really  needs.  Coarse  clothes  can,  and 
should,  be  worn  while  at  work,  but  every  farmer's  boy  should  have  good  clothes  in 
which  he  can  go  into  company  without  being  ridiculed  or  feeling  that  he  is 
unsuitably  dressed.     He  should   be  taught  to  respect  himself  and  his  occupation. 


850  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

He  ought  never  to  be  obliged  to  overwork,  and  his  home-life  and  surroundings 
should  be  made  as  pleasant  as  possible. 

The  girls  must  be  taught  To  respect  farming  as  an  occupation,  and  be  required  to 
help  their  mothers  in  the  work  of  the  house  and  the  dairy.  When  farmers  educate 
their  girls  in  a  manner  which  will  fit  them  to  become  farmers'  wives,  and  teach  them 
that  farming  is  one  of  the  most  honorable  of  all  occupations,  and  that  the  girl  who 
marries  a  farmer  does  fully  as  well  as  one  who  marries  a  merchant  or  a  i.iwyer,  they 
will  thereby  do  a  great  deal  towards  keeping  their  boys  on  the  farm.  The  idea  that 
because  a  young  lady  has  married  a  farmer  she  has  "  thrown  herA-lf  away  "  is  one  of 
the  most  preposterous  ones  which  ever  found  expression  in  civilized  society.  The 
girl  who  will  reject  a  man  simply  because  he  is  a  farmer  shows  that  she  has  a  very 
shallow  or  else  a  sadly  uncultivated  mind  and  a  heart  which  is  incapable  of  deep 
affection.  And  the  farmer  who  will  advise  his  daughters  to  reject  honest  and 
intelligent  farmers  in  the  hope  of  securing  clerks,  business  or  professional  men, 
thereby  shows  his  own  lack  of  good  judgment  as  well  as  proves  that  he  has  no 
genuine  respect  for  the  calling  by  means  of  which  he  obtains  his  bread.  The 
mother  who  advises  her  daughters  to  "  louk  higher"  than  the  yo'ung  men  who  are 
farmers  is  thereby  doing  a  great  wrong.  There  may  be  reasons  why  certain  farmers' 
bo^s  are  not  suitable  companions  for  certain  farmers'  girls,  but  the  mere  fact  that  the 
men  are  farmers  should  weigh  in  their  favor  rather  than  against  them. 

We  are  well  aware  that  many  farmers'  wives  have  been  terribly  overworked,  and 
we  can  sympathize  wiih  the  mother  who  desires  an  easier  lot  for  her  child.  But  we 
know  that  this  excessive  labor  is  not  an  absolute  necessity,  and  that  wilh  ihe  aid  of  the 
labor-saving  implements  of  the  present  day  a  farmer's  wife  can  live  as  easily  as  the 
wives  of  men  engaged  in  many  other  pursuits.  There  is  a  very  general  misconception 
upon  this  point,  but  those  who  seek  the  truth  soon  find  that  the  w  ife  of  the  farmer 
does  not  need  to  overwork,  and  that  she  can  have  many  comforts  which  other  men's 
wives  must  purchase  at  high  piices  or  else  do  without.  The  wife  of  the  farmer  ought 
to  be  willing  to  work  in  order  to  help  him,  and  if  the  man  is  what  he  should  be  he 
will  see  to  it  that  she  does  not  go  beyond  her  strength.  And  any  and  every  girl  may 
rest  fully  assured  of  the  fact  that  a  man  who  would  make  her  his  slave  if  he  were 
a  farmer  would  also  require  her  to  work  extremely  hard  if  he  engaged  in  another 
occupation. 

One  of  the  ways  in  which  the  boys  can  be  strongly  influenced  to  choose  farming 
as  an  occupation  is  by  giving  them  the  use  of  a  small  piece  of  land  each  season. 
Let  each  boy  who  is  old  enough  take  a  i)lot  of  land  each  spring,  and  plant  it  wiih 
such  seeds  as  he  chooses.  Give  him  time  to  cultivate  the  crop,  and  allow  him  to 
use  the  team  when  he  needs  it.  The  money  obtained  from  the  sale  of  the  products 
of  this  piece  of  ground  should  be  his  own  to  use  as  he  desires.  Such  a  course  will 
prove  beneficial  in  several  ways.  It  will  lead  the  boy  to  take  a  deep  interest  in 
thorough  farming,  and  induce  him  to  study  the  best  methods  of  cultivation  in  order 
that  he  may  obtain  as  large  a  sum  of  money  as  possible.  It  will  show  him  the 
real  worth  of  a  dollar,  and  lead  him  to  spend  his  money  wisely. 

Many  a  boy  has  soon  "  run  out  "  a  fine  property  left  him  by  his  father,  because  he 
had  no  clear  comprehension  of  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  money.  The  father  who 
gives  his  boy  spending  money  does  a  great  deal  better  than  the  one  who  never 
allows  him  to  have  any,  bnt  it  is  by  far  the  best  plan  to  have  the  boy  earn  the 
money  which  he  spends.  The  boy  who  earns  a  dollar  by  growing  fruit  or  grain, 
understands  that  the  dollar  represents  a  certain  amount  of  labor.     He  appreciates 


ITEMS  FOR    THE  HOUSE  AND   FARM.  g5J 

the  money,  and  knows  its  actual  worth  far  better  than  the  boywhose  father  gives  him 
some  outright.  Such  a  plan  will  enable  the  boy  to  buy  books,  or  take  papers,  with 
his  own  money.  It  will  lend  to  make  him  industrious  and  frugal,  and  may  be  made 
the  means  of  great  good  to  the  boy,  and,  indirectly,  prove  an  almost  equal  benefit 
to  the  father.  If  it  is  not  convenient  to  allow  the  use  of  land,  the  farmer  may  give 
his  boys  the  entire  care  of  the  poultry,  requiring  them  to  pay  for  the  food  which  is 
consumed,  and  allowing  them  to  retain  the  money  received  from  the  sale  of  chickens 
and  eggs.  Or  two  or  three  sheep  may  be  given  to  a  boy  to  care  for,  he  paying  the 
cost  of  keeping,  and  having  the  money  obtained  from  lambs  and  wool  for  his  own. 
In  some  such  way  the  boy  may  be  inspired  with  a  love  for  the  farm,  and  induced  to 
lay  a  good  foundation  for  a  successful  business  career  thereon. 

The  farmer  who  desires  his  boys  to  become  farmers  should  take  them  into  his 
confidence,  and  consult  with  them  in  regard  to  the  work.  Upon  this  point  Prof. 
Beal,  of  the  Michigan  Agricultural  College,  has  well  said  :  "  If  you  want  to 
make  your  son  like  his  business,  place  him  in  responsible  places,  trust  him,  consult 
him  about  the  work  he  is  to  do.  Let  him  do  part  of  the  thinking.  Give  him  nearly 
the  sole  care  or  responsibility  of  something  on  the  farm,  the  fowls,  the  pigs,  some  of 
the  stock,  some  of  the  crops,  or  the  garden,  or  a  part  of  it.  Suppose  he  does  not  do 
everything  just  as  you  would  ;  advise  him.  It  is  much  better  that  he  should  fail  while 
he  is  yet  young  and  has  time  to  learn  under  your  training,  than  not  to  try  or  fail  until 
he  gets  into  business  for  himself.  By  treating  childjen  in  this  way  they  will  take 
more  interest  in  their  work,  and  be  much  more  likely  to  succeed  when  they  start  for 
themselves."  It  would  be  much  better,  both  for  children  and  their  parents,  if  the 
boys  were  consulted  oftener,  and  trusted  more  than  they  usually  are  on  the  farm.  As 
some  writer  has  said  :  "  The  sooner  a  boy  can  be  made  to  wait  on  himself,  to  think 
for  himself,  and  to  act  for  himself,  the  sooner  will  the  germs  of  true  manhood  begin  to 
develop  within  him."'  The  farmer's  boys  should  be  made  to  bear  some  business  re- 
sponsibility, and  the  girls  should,  in  their  own  department,  be  trained  in  like  manner. 

If  the  suggestions  made  in  this  chapter  are  heeded,  the  great  majority  of  the  boys 
will  have  no  difficulty  in  making  up  their  minds  to  stay  on  the  farm.  If  their 
parents  understand  them,  and  treat  them  well  during  their  minority,  and  give  them, 
if  possible,  a  moderate  degree  of  help  when  they  become  of  age,  the  boys  of  the 
present  and  of  future  generations  will  not  flock  to  the  cities  and  towns,  but  will 
become  intelligent  and  successful  farmers. 


ITEMS  F@B  TME  M0US1S  ^m'B  WMMM. 

i^y  HE  following  items,  collected  from  various  sources,  may  often  prove  useful 
to  the  housekeeper  and  the  farmer. 

Newspapers  and  wrapping  papers  can  be  put  into  many  valuable  uses  in 
the  household.  Few  housekeepers  can  find  time  to  black  their  cooking 
stoves,  every  day,  and  even  if  they  wash  them  every  day  in  clean  water  they 
will  soon  become  quite  shabby  ;  but  if  they  are  rubbed  over  with  a.  newspaper 
every  morning,  after  the  dishes  are  washed,  they  will  keep  black  a  long  time.  If  a 
spot  of  grease  or  stain  of  some  kind  adhere,  moisten  the  paper  a  little  and  rub  it  off. 
Newspapers  or  wrapping  paper  will  keep  the  outside  of  the  tea  and  coffee  pot,  and 
tU  tin  utensils  about  the  stove,  brighter  than  the  old  way  of  washing  them  in  soap-suds. 


852  FARMING   FOR   PROFIT. 

Flour  and  meal  of  all  kinds  should  be  kept  in  a  dry,  cool  place.  Orangei 
and  lemuns  keep  best  when  wrapped  close  in  soft  paper,  and  laid  in  a  drawer. 
Keep  coffee  by  itself  in  tin  canisters,  if  possible;  its  odor  affects  other  articles. 
Keep  tea  in  a  close  canister,  to  preserve  ils  aroma. 

Clear,  boiling  water  will  remove  lea  stains.  Pour  the  water  through  the  stain, 
and  thus  prevent  it  spreading  over  the  fabric. 

Linen  may  be  glazed  by  adding  a  teaspoonful  of  salt,  and  one  of  finely  scraped 
soap  to  a  pint  of  starch. 

Kerosene  will  make  tin  tea-kettles  as  bright  as  new.  Saturate  a  woollen  rag 
and  rub  wiili  i(.     It  will  also  remove  stains  from  clean,  varnished  furniture. 

A  SIMPLE  and  excellent  furniture-polish  may  be  made  as  follows :  Take  one 
pennyworth  of  beeswax,  and  shave  it  wilh  a  knife  into  a  gallipot.  Pour  on  it  three 
pennyworth  of  turpentine.  Place  it  in  the  oven,  and  when  the  beeswax  is  melted 
take  it  out,  and  let  it  stand  till  cool.  Apply  it  briskly  to  the  furniture  with  a  piece 
of  flannel,  rub  with  a  soft  duster,  and  finally  polish  wilh  an  old  silk  handkerchief. 
Oil-cloth  may  with  advantage  be  similarly  cleaned. 

To  Remove  Paint  from  Windows. — A  simple  method  is  to  dissolve  soda  in 
very  hot  water,  and  apply  to  the  windows  wilh  a  piece  of  soft  flannel.  It  will 
entirely  remove  the  paint. 

To  remove  old  putty,  rub  it  with  a  hot  iron.  This  will  soften  it  so  that  it  can  be 
easily  taken  off  with  a  knife.  ^ 

Before  Whitew ashing  the  walls  of  a  room  wash  them  with  a  solution  of  cop- 
peras.    This  will  disinfect  mouldy  places,  and  destroy  the  eggs  of  vermin. 

Disinfectant  Fluid. — Ten  pounds  sulphate  of  iron  (copperas)  dissolved  in  six 
gallons  of  water.     Add  one  half  pint  crude  carbolic  acid. 

-  Whitewash  for  Outside  Exposure. — Lime,  ^  bushel  slacked  in  a  barrel 
Add  I  pound  common  salt,  ^2  pound  sulphate  of  zinc,  I  gallon  sweet  milk. 

To  Make  Paper  Stick  to  Whitewashed  Wali^. — Make  a  sizing,  of  common 
glue  and  water,  ©f  the  consistency  of  .linseed  oil,  and  apply  it  with  the  whitewash  or 
other  brush  to  the  wall,  taking  care  to  go  over  every  part,  and  especially  the  top  and 
bottom.     Apply  the  paper  in  the  ordinary  way. 

Always  remove  the  old  jiaper  from  walls  before  applying  new. 

To  Mend  Ruhulr-Shoes. — Get  a  piece  of  rubber — an  old  shoe — vulcanized 
rubber  will  not  do;  cut  it  into  small  bits.  Put  it  into  a  bottle,  and  cover  to  twice 
ils  depth  with  spirits  of  turpentine  or  refined  coal-tar  naphtha — not  petroleum  naph- 
tha. Stiip  the  bottle  and  set  to  one  side,  shaking  it  frequently.  The  rubber  will 
soon  dissolve.  Then  take  the  shoe  and  press  the  rip  or  cut  close  together,  and  put 
on  the  rubber  solution  with  a  camel's-hair  brush.  Continue  to  apply  as  fast  as  it 
dries,  until  a  thorough  coating  is  formed.  Spirits  of  turpentine  dissolves  the  rubber 
slowest,  i)ut  forms  the  most  elastic  cement. 

Leather  Cement. — Dissolve  gutta-percha  in  a  sufficient  quantity  of  chloroform  to 
make  it  of  honey-like  consistency — it  will  lake  a  few  days— cork  tight — shake  occa- 
sionally. Patches  can  be  put  on  with  it,  so  they  defy  detection.  Directions  for 
use  :  Have  both  parts  cle.an  and  rough.  Apply  the  cement  twice  to  both  parts  and 
dry  ten  minutes.  After  it  becomes  dry,  warm  both  parts  gently,  until  the  cement 
is  thoroughly  melted.  Apply  immediately — hammer  lightly — ready  for  use  in  ten 
minutes.     Shake  well  before  using. 

Kerosene  will  soften  hools  and  shoes  that  have  been  hardened  by  water,  and  will 
render  them  pliable  as  new. 


ITEMS  FOR    THE  ItOUSE   AND  FARM.  853 

Wet   Boots. Fill   wet   boots   wiJi  dry  oats  and  let  them  stand  overnight;  the 

oats  will  absorb  the  moisture  and  leave  the  boots  soft  and  dry. 

To  Prevent  Metals  from  Rusting. — Apply  a  thin  coating  of  a  mixture  made 
of  three  parts  of  lard   and  one  of  rosin.       This  vi'ill   prevent    Ru?sia-iron  stoves, 
grates,  brass,  copper,  and  steel  from  rusting  in  summer,  even  in  damp  weather. 
.  To  Clean  the  Hands  thoroughly,  prevent  cracking,  and  make  them  white  and 
soft,  rub  them  well  with  soft-soap  and  sand,  and  then  wash  in  warm  water. 

Oil  may  be  removed  from  the  hands  by  rubbing  them  well  with  dry  mustard, 
and  then  washing  them  with  cold  water. 

Remedy  for  Felons. — The  London  Lancet  recommends  the  following  as  the 
best  remedy  yet  discovered  :  As  soon  as  the  disease  is  felt,  put  directly  over  the 
spot  a  fly-blister  about  the  size  of  your  thumb  nail,  and  let  it  remain  for  six  hours,  at 
the  expiration  of  which  time,  directly  under  the  surface  of  the  blister,  may  be  seen 
the  felon,  which  can  instantly  be  taken  out  with  the  point  of  a  needle  or  a  lancet. 

Remedies  for  Bee-Stings.— Extract  the  sting,  if  possible,*  and  press  upon  the 
spot  with  a  hollow  instrument  (a  watch-key  will  do),  in  order  to  remove  the  poison. 
Thet)  wet  the  affected  part  and  cover  with  common  baking  soda. 
If  this  is  not  convenient,  cover  with  mud. 

An  onion  cut  open  and  one-half  laid  upon  the  spot  is  said  to  be  a  good  remedy. 
Whatever  is  \KtA,  fi-omplness  is  indispensable  to  its  successful  application. 
Mustard  Plaster. — In  making  a  mustard  plaster,  use  no  water  whatever,  but 
mix  the  mustard  with  the  white  of  rn  egg,  and  the  result  will  be  a  plaster  that  will 
draw  perfectly,  but  will  not  produce  a  blister,  even  upon  the  skin  of  an  infant,  no 
matter  how  long  it  is  allowed  to  remain  on  the  part. 

Antidotes  for  Poisoning. 

Arsenic. If  any  one  be  poisoned  with  arsenic,  administer  mustard-water  until 

vomiting  is  produced.'  The  mixture  is  made  by  stirring  two  tablespoonfuls  of  ground 
mustard  in  a  quart  of  lukewarm  water.  After  vomiting  has  taken  place,  give  a 
teaspoonful  of  sulphur  or  a  wine-glass  of  soap  and  water.  If  with  sugar  of  lead  or 
white  lead,  use  the  mustard-water  made  as  above,  to  produce  vomiting,  and  after,  a 
teaspoonful  of  Epsom  salts  dissolved' in  water,  every  forty-five  minutes. 

Corrosive  Sublimate.— GWq  to  a  person  poisoned  by  corrosive  sublimate,  white 
and  red  precipitate  or  calomel,  white  of  eggs,  milk,  or  oil  in  as  great  quantities  as 
the  person  can  take,  during  ten  minutes,  then  give  mustard-water  as  stated  above. 

Nitrate  of  Silver. — Give  to  a  person  poisoned  by  nitrate  of  silver  or  lunar  caustic, 
table  salt,  two  teaspoonfuls  in  a  pint  of  water,  then  castor  oil. 

Strychnine.— G'we  to  a  person  poisoned  by  either  strychnine,  nux  vomica,  opium, 
laudanum,  paregoric,  morphine,  belladonna,  or  croton  oil.  an  emetic  of  mustard  and 
warm  water,  followed  by  a  drink  n-:ade  of  vinegar  and  sweet  oil.  In  all  cases  of 
poisoning  send  for  a  physician  as  soon  as  possible. 

A  Tablespoonful  of  turpentine,  boiled  with  white  clothes,  will  greatly  aid  the 
whitening  process. 

Beeswax  and  salt  will  make  rusty  flat-irons  as  clean  and  smooth  as  glass.  Tie  a 
lump  of  wax  in  a  rag  and  keep  it  for  that  purpose.  When  the  irons  are  hot,  rub 
them  first  with  the  wax  rag,  then  scour  with  a  paper  or  cloth  sprinkled  with  salt. 

A  Transparent  Mucilage  of  great  tenacity  may  be  made  by  mixing  rice  flour 
with  cold  water  and  letting  it  gently  simmer  over  the  fire. 

To  Clean  Kid  Gloves.— Take  benzine  and  dip  the  gloves  into  h,  wring  them 
52 


854  FARMING  FOR   PROFIT, 

out,  one  at  a  time,  and  spread  upon  a  board  which  has  been  covered  with  flannel, 
rub  every  part  gently  with  a  clean  piece  of  flannel  till  dry;  smooth  out  and  hang  in 
the  open  air  till  the  odor  has  vanished. 

To  KKEP  the  hands  from  chapping,  dry  them  thoroughly  immediately  aAer  wash- 
ing them  and  before  going  into  the  cold. 

Cleaning  the  Tekth. — Before  cleaning  the  teeth  dip  the  brush  in  water,  rub 
it  over  genuine  white  Castile  soap,  then  dip  it  in  prepared  chalk. 

To  keep  ants  away  from  food,  set  it  on  a  table,  and  place  each  leg  of  the  table  in  a 
dish  containing  water. 

To  RID  a  house  of  insects :  If  two  or  three  bottles  of  ammonia  are  left  unstop- 
pered,  in  prominent  places  in  a  room,  they  will  soon  leave.    No  insects  can  tolerate  it. 

Every  pantry  should  be  furnished  with  a  good  step-ladder,  so  that  the  house- 
keeper can  easily  get  to  the  upper  shelves. 

To  REMOVE  a  glass  stopper  that  has  become  firmly  fastened  in  the  neck  of  the 
bottle,  put  a  drop  or  two  of  glycerine  or  sweet  oil  in  the  crevice  about  the  stopper, 
and  in  an  hour  or  two  it  will  be  loose. 

To  CLEANSE  a  drain  pipe,  pour  down  a  strong  solution  of  copperas.  The  same 
material  may  be  used  for  disinfecting  cellars. 

To  GET  rid  of  mould  in  the  cellar,  put  some  roll-brimstone  into  a  pan,  and  set  fire 
to  it ;  close  the  doors,  making  the  cellar  as  nearly  air-tight  as  possible  for  two  or 
three  hours,  when  the  fungi  will  be  destroyed,  and  the  mould  will  be  dried  up. 
Repeat  this  simple  and  inexpensive  operation  every  two  or  three  months,  and  you 
will  have  your  cellar  free  from  all  parasitical  growth. 

Rats  and  Mice  can  be  driven  away  by  placing  caustic  potash  or  unslacked  lime, 
powdered,  in  their  holes  or  runways. 

Warnings  to  be  Learned  by  Heart  about  Kerosene. — Always  fill  lamps 
by  daylight,  and  never  while  lighted.  If  obliged  to  fill  them  at  night,  have  the  light 
a  few  feet  distant. 

Lamps  should  be  filled  daily,  and  never  lighted  when  partly  empty. 

Select  lamps  which  have  the  burner  considerably  elevated  above  the  body  of  th« 
lamp. 

Trim  the  wick  square  across  to  get  the  best  light. 

A  lamp  with  the  wick  turned  far  down  is  more  likely  to  explode. 

If  burning  oil  gets  upon  the  floor,  smother  it  with  a  rug  or  blanket. 

If  your  clothes  take  fire,  do  the  same,  and  lie  down. 

Never  pour  oil  on  a  fire  from  a  can — never.  The  observance  of  these  rules  may 
save  many  a  life. 

Enamel  for  Shirt  Bosoms. — Melt  together  with  a  gentle  heat,  one  ounce  of 
white  wax,  and  two  ounces  of  spermaceti;  prepare  in  the  usual  way  a  suflicient 
quantity  of  starch  for  a  dozen  bosoms,  put  into  it  a  piece  of  this  enamel  the  size  of 
a  hazel  nut,  and  in  proportion  for  a  larger  number.  This  will  give  clothes  a  beau- 
tiful polish. 

A  Strong  Cement. — A  colorless,  transparent  cement,  with  which  to  mend  glass, 
can  easily  be  made  by  dissolving  isinglass  in  spirits  of  wine ;  add  a  small  quantity  of 
water,  and  mix  gently  over  a  moderate  fire. 

An  Adhesive  Paste. — The  American  Cultivator  gives  this  recipe  for  such 
paste  as  is  used  on  the  backs  of  postage  stamps :  Dextrine,  two  ounces ;  acetic  acid, 
four  drachms ;  water,  two  and  a  half  ounces.  Mix  the  dextrine,  acetic  acid,  and 
water,  stirring  until  thoroughly  mixed ;  And  add  alcohol.     For  attaching  labels  to 


RED-LETTER  DAYS. 


855 


tin,  rub  the  surface  with  a  mixture  of  muriatic  acid  and  alcohol ;  apply  the  label  with 
a  very  thin  coating  of  the  paste,  and  it  will  adhere  almost  as  well  as  on  glass. 

Painting,  or  charring,  green  timber  will  hasten  its  decay. 
•  A  GALVANIZED  wire  clothes-line  will  outlast  a  dozen  cotton  or  hemp  lines,  and 
as  it  can  be  left  out-of-doors  without  injury,  will  save  a  great  deal  of  time  and 
trouble  now  expended  in  putting  out  and  taking  in  the  common  ones.  The  wire 
lines  are  much  cheaper  in  the  end  than  the  others,  and  it  will  pay  the  farmer  to  set 
some  strong  posts  and  buy  a  suitable  line.  As  the  clothes  will  not  freeze  to  the  wire, 
and  there  is  no  danger  of  its  breaking  and  letting  the  clothes  upon  the  ground,  his 
wife  will  be  greatly  pleased  with  the  change. 

A  LARGE  block  cut  so  as  to  form  two  steps,  and  located  at  the  front  gate,  will 
prove  a  great  convenience  to  the  ladies  in  getting  into  or  out  of  a  wagon. 

Watering  Trees. — A  correspondent  of  the  New  York  Tribune  recommends 
the  following  method.  When  trees  dry  up  in  summer,  never  water  the  top  of  the 
ground  and  thus  hasten  death,  but  make  a  hole  with  a  crowbar,  near  the  trunk,  and 
reaching  to  the  bottom  of  the  tree,  pour  in  water  until  the  whole  space  under  the 
surface  is  thoroughly  soaked.  Then  fill  the  hole  with  dry  earth,  and  cover  the  top 
of  the  ground  with  manure  or  boards  to  keep  it  from  drying.  One  such  watering 
will  last  for  a  long  time. 

Ammonia  for  Housewives'  use.— In  a  farm-house  the  pantry-shelves  will  get 
grimy,  and  there  are  very  apt  to  be  finger-marks  around  the  door-latches  and  knobs. 
It  is  hard  work  to  scour  all  the  time,  and  it  wears  off  the  paint  too.  Now  if  the 
housewife  has  a  bottle  of  spirits  of  ammonia  to  use,  she  can  take  a  basin  of  water  ana 
a  clean  cloth,  put  on  a  few  drops  of  the  fluid,  and  easily  wipe  off  all  the  dirt.  This 
is  worth  more  than  half  a  day's  labor,  and  does  not  injure  the  paint.  By  putting  a 
few  drops  in  the  dish-water,  the  dfshes  can  be  easily  cleaned.  By  rubbing  the  win- 
dows with  a  sponge  moistened  with  ammonia,  they  can  be  made  to  shine  like 
crystal.  Ammonia  will  take  the  stains  off  the  teaspoons,  and  a  teaspoonful  in  the 
mop-pail  will  do  more  in  washing  the  kitchen-floor  than  a  large  amount  of  hard 
labor  performed  in  the  ordinary  manner. 


f  N  the  old  calendars  the  saints'  days  were  marked  with  red  letters.  These 
days  were  considered  peculiarly  fortunate  and  auspicious,  and  were  often 
kept  as  holidays  by  the  people.  Had  they  not  been  marred  by  an  undue 
veneration  of  men  the  principle  and  practice  would  both  have  been  worthy 
of  commendation.  The  custom  is  worthy  of  re-establishment  upon  a 
better  basis. 

In  the  bustle  and  haste  of  modern  life  there  are  too  few  holidays,  and  these  are 
too  often  allowed  to  pass  by  unobserved.  If  other  generations  have  paid  too  much 
attention  to  times  and  seasons,  and  unduly  magnified  the  days  which  they  have 
observed,  the  present  generation  has  certainly  gone  to  the  other  extreme.  We 
need  more  holidays — not  for  popular  observance,  but  for  the  family  circle.  We  need 
them  to  prevent  the  excessive  wear  of  constant  toil,  and  also  to  strengthen  domestic 
ties.  Each  family  should  have  iu  own  days,  and  a  few  of  the  public  festivals  should 
be  observed. 

Birthdays  are  entitled  to  a  prominent  place  in  the  list  of  the  red-letter  days. 


306  FARMING  FOR   PROFrf. 

For  the  children  these  days  should  be  made  happy  by  gifts  and  by  a  pleasant  party, 
or  by  a  pleasure-ride  to  some  place  which  they  specially  desire  to  vi&it.  Old^r 
people  should  take  these  days  for  thought,  rest,  and  recreation.  It  is  fitting  that 
these  points  of  time  should  be  observed,  and  that,  as  the  years  pass  by,  and  ^e 
gradually  but  surely  mcreases,  the  individual  should  recognize  the  fact  that  life  is 
passing,  and  the  time  which  he  is  to  spend  upon  the  earth  is  rapidly  diminishing. 
They  need  not  be  sad  days,  but  they  should  be  remembered  and  suitably  oljserved. 

Parents  should  leach  their  children  to  remember  these  days.  The  custom  which 
some  writers  advocated  long  ago,  of  planting  a  tree  to  commemorate  the  birth  of 
each  child,  is  to  be  strongly  commended.  As  soon  after  a  child  is  l>om  as  the  proper 
season  for  transplanting  arrives  let  a  fine  tree,  oak,  elm,  m;iple,  evergreen,  or  ope 
of  similar  nature,  be  planted  in  one  of  the  yards  near  the  house.  This  tree  shoifld 
be  the  special  care  of  the  child  in  whose  honor  it  was  put  out,  and  as  they  grow  in 
size  and  age  the  child  will  take  a  deep  interest  in  the  tree,  and  will  soon  come  to 
regard  it  with  feelings  of  affection. 

Marri.\ge  Anniversaries  should  also  be  observed  by  the  married  members  of 
the  family.  They  may  well  be  celebrated  by  social  unions  of  the  family  circles  to 
which  the  married  pair  originally  belonged.  When  tliis  is  impracticable,  a  visit  to 
some  near  relatives,  a  tea-party,  or  a  pleasure-trip,  will  furnish  the  means  for  the 
appropriate  observance  of  the  day. 

The  Religious  and  National  Festivals  which  have  received  the  sanction  of 
the  Church  and  State  should  also  be  observed.  The  patriot  should  teach  hk. 
children  the  reasons  why  the  Fourth  of  July  is  kept  as  a  holiday  by  the  citizens 
of  the  country,  and  should  lead  them  to  observe  it  aright.  The  use  of  powder  is 
not  the  only  way,  and  is  very  far  from  being  the  best  way,  in  which  to  have  a 
"celebration."  The  storj*  of  the  Revolution  should  be  familiar  to  every  child, 
and  a  true  patriotism  should  be  made  one  of  the  prominent  points  of  a  go«d 
character. 

Thanksgiving  Day  should  be  observed  by  every  family  in  the  land.  When 
possible  the  parents  and  children  should  all  "  go  up  to  the  house  of  the  L0RI>" 
to  express  in  a  public  manner  their  recot^niiion  of  the  numberless  blessings  which 
they  have  received.  The  Giver  of  all  good  ought  to  be  offered  the  tribute  of 
grateful  hearts. 

Christmas  should  be  kept  as  a  religious  and  a  joyful  festival.  Gifts  should  be 
presented  to  the  children,  and  they  should  be  told  the  wonderful  stor}'  of  the  coming 
of  Christ  into  the  world.  The  fact  should  also  be  clearly  presented  that  all  our 
civilization  and  liberty  come  to  us  as  the  direct  result  of  the  life  and  work  of  Christ 
on  earth,  while  all  our  hopes  for  the  future  must  depend  upon  Him  as  the  only 
Redeemer  of  the  world. 

New  Year's  Day  is  fast  becoming  a  festival,  and  if  properly  observed  may  be 
made  instrumental  of  good.  During  the  week  preceding  this  day  the  poor  should 
be  remembered,  and  many  kindly,  but  unobtrusive,  acts  of  charily  performed. 

There  are  other  festivals,  like  Eastep..  which  are  worthy  of  general  remembrance, 
and  each  family  will  have  special  d.iys  which  should  be  kept  by  its  members  as 
annivers.iries.  Let  these  red-letter  days  not  be  overiooked  or  disregarded. 
Properiy  kept  they  will  confer  great  blessings  upon  all  who  come  under  their  influ- 
ence and  share  their  joys. 


INDEX. 


A. 

Accident  Insurance 830 

Adhesive  Paste 854 

Agriculture  and  National  Prosperity     21 

Alsike  Clover 389 

Ammonia ." 152 

Animal  Excrement 164 

Animals  for  Labor 483,  528 

Animals  for  Food 529 

Apples  for  the  North 792 

Apples  for  the  South 793 

Apricot 797 

Artichoke 396 

Ashes 180 

Asparagus 81 1 

Atmosphere 1 53 

B. 

Barley 235 

Barn loi-i  10 

Cellar 109 

Fastening  Cattle  in 108 

Barns  for  West  and  South loi 

Beans 267,  81 1 

Bee-Stings 853 

Beet 398,  811 

Bermuda  Grass 369 

Blue  Grass 368 

Blackberry 805 

Bones 1S2 

Bones  Treated  with  Acid 183 

Book-Keeping 819-S23 

Books  and  Papers 823,  840,  842 

Boys  on  the  Farm 84S-85 1 

Bromus 384 

Broom-Corn 27 1 

Breeding  from  Grades 555 

Buckwheat 236 

Budding * 790 

Buildings — Adaptation  of 62-64 

Color  of 74 

Cost  of 64-70 

For  Farm   44-121 

Height  of 60-62 

Location ATS- 

Relative  Position 52-57 

Repairing  of 70 

Size  of 57-6o 

BUTTER-Making 658-672 

Churning 666 

Packing 672 

Sailing 671 

Temperature  of  Cream 669 

Working 670 


Cabbage 811 

Capital 4.2 

Unproductive 69 

Care  of  Sick 843 

Carrot 400,  812 

Castor  Bean 27 1 

Castration •  •  ■•SS3>  6o7i  704>  743 

Catalpa 493 

Cattle 579-628 

Ayrshire 585 

Breeding 597-603 

Breeds  of. 580 

Choking 620 

Devon 587 

Diseases  of 619-628 

Dutch 591 

Feeding 6x4 

Hereford 588 

Holstein 591 

Improvement  of 597-603 

Jersey 586 

Native 595 

Short-Horn 581 

Water  for 429,  645 

Celery 812 

Cheese- Making 654-658 

Chemical  Changes 157 

Chemistry 129 

Cherry ^ 797 

Chufa 400 

Cisterns 423 

Cleanliness 846 

Closets  and  Vaults 116 

Clothing 846 

Clover 177,  3S6 

Coffee 276 

Cooking  Food  for  Stock 643,  748 

Cold  Frame 807 

Colorado  Beetle 329 

Colts 548 

Age  for  working 561 

Training  of. 54I,  557-560 

Compensations — Law  of 26 

Complete  Manures 180,   195 

Composting 172-175 

Cooley  System 663 

Co  operation 42,  289 

Corn 291-310 

Tarring  Seed 308 

Corn-Harvester 512 

Cotton 276-291 

Seed. 279,  291 

(857) 


858 


INDEX. 


Cows — Abortion  in 619 

Drying  off 604 

Inferior 634 

Feeding 640 

Improvement  of 639,  640 

Large  or  Small 637 

Sor'e  Teats 647 

Testing 636 

Cranberries 806 

Credit  System 437,  824 

Crops — Change  of 140,  447 

Cost  of. 223 

Experiments  with 124 

Rotation  of. 225-232 

Selection  of. 215,224,  234 

Cucumbers 813 

Currants 805 

Cuttings 788 

Cut-Worm 306,  358 

D. 

Dairy — Cleanliness  in 661 

Deodorizer 1 1 8 

Disinfectant  Fluid 852 

Diversified  Farming 446 

Draining 408-419 

Driven  Well 430 

Ducks 763 

E. 

Education 841 

Ensilage 679-6S2 

Ergol 255 

Evaporation 413 

Evenings 842 

F. 

False  Economy 823-826 

Farm — Capacity  of 121- 127 

Implements 501-524 

Farming — Profit  of 823 

Farms,  Small  or  Large. . .    38-42 

Felons 853 

Fences 484-489 

Live 486 

Wire 487 

Fertilizers 151-202 

Application  of 195,  297 

Formulas  for 194 

Special 188,  222,  259 

Flax 23S 

Fire  Insurance 829 

Floors 87,    no 

Forests  and  Climate 494 

Forests  and  Health 495 

P'RUIT-Growing 771-807 

Assorting  of. 779 

Diseases 781-783 

Drying 7S0 

Enemies  of. 783-787 


FRUIT-Gathering 778 

Storing 779 

Thinning 776 


Garden S07-816 

(target 621,  718 

Geese 764 

Gooseberries 806 

Grafting 791 

Grain — Drilled  or  Broadcast 260 

Winter-Killing  of 416 

Granaiy no 

Grape-Growing 798-Soo 

Grass 365-384 

Fertilizers  for 375 

Top-Dressing 196 

Green  Manuring 175 

Guano 186 

H. 

Hardin  Method 663 

Harrow 507 

Hay-Press 103 

Hen-House 112 

Hens 756 

Hemp 241 

Herbs 813 

Hog-House Ill 

Holidays 855 

Home  Production 431-446 

Honey-Bees 767 

Hops 310 

"  Horn  Ail  " 625 

Horse 531-575 

Breeding 541-548 

Diseases 569-574 

Feeding 561-565 

Qualities  for  Farm 533-54' 

Shoeing 568 

Teams 482 

Thorough-bred 556 

House 76-101 

Cellar 99 

Household  Machines 522 

Hoven 623 

Hybridization 146,  467 

I. 

Ice-  House.   673 

Obtaining 674 

Impure  Water 1 17,  420,  431 

Inorganic   Matter  in  Crops 158 

Insect  Enemies 139,  262,  284,  285 

Insurance 827-830 

Items  for  House  and  Farm 851-S55 


Jute. 


243 


Labor  a  Standard  of  Value 475 


INDEX. 


859 


r,ABOR — Waste  of 476,  479 

Lambs — Best  should  be  Kept 697 

Care  of b9^> 

Castration 704 

Disowned 701 

Docking 703 

Feeding 705 

Raising  by  Hand 702 

Weaning 7°5 

Layers 7^9 

Lead  Pipe 421.  427 

Leaves I37.  '87 

Lettuce 814 

Lice 617 

Life  Insurance 828 

Lightning- Rods 93 

Lime 1 84 

Location — Change  of 29-34 

Lucerne 390 

M. 

Mangold-Wurtzel 399 

Manure — Quantity  of. 198 

Saving 1 06,  1 66,  1 68,    169 

Vnlue 171,   172 

Waste 165 

Maple  Sugar 350 

Markets — Demands  of 217 

Marking  Farm  Products 827 

Marl 180 

Melons 814 

Milk — Cause  of  Decay 650 

Cooling 651 

Deep  Setting! 661 

In  Closed  Cans 662 

Milk  Fever 626 

Milking 648 

Millet 392 

Mixed  Paints 72 

Mole  Plow 412 

Money  Crops 232-235 

Moral  Laws 848 

Mucilage 853 

Mule 575-579 

Mule  Teams 482 

Mutton 685 

N. 
Nitrogen 187 


Oats , 244 

Winter 247 

Onion-Growing 3^3-323 

Orchard  Grass 368 

Overwork 841 

Ox  Teams 481 


Painting 7^-73 

Paris  Green 285,  330 


Parsnip 404,  814 

Peanut  Culture 3:^3-^2 1. 

Pears 793 

Peas 249,  814 

Pigs — Care  of 742 

Castration 743 

Fattening 745 

Thorough-bred 734 

Weaning   745 

Plants — Dwarfing 142 

Elements  of 152 

Enemies 306 

Flowers  of. 1 46 

For  Seed 46- 

Food  of 141,151,  155,   16 

Growth  of 1 48 

Growth  of  Roots 136 

Increasing    Size    of. 142 

Modification  of I42,  464,  468 

Productiveness  of. 144 

Reproduction  of 144,  465 

Plaster 168,    181 

Plow 501 

Plums 797 

Poisoning,  Antidotes  to 853 

Pork— Curing  of 752 

Salting  in  Summer 755 

Portable  Creamery 664 

Potato-Growing 324-338 

Power  on  the  Farm 496-500 

Prickly  Comfrey 393 

Propagation  of  Trees  and  Plants,.  ..  788 

Q. 

Quince-Growing 798 

R. 

Radish 815 

Rain-Fall 413 

Raspberry 804 

Recreation 842 

Repair  Shop 119 

Rhubarb 815 

Ribbon  Cane 338 

Rice 251 

Ridge  Cultivation 409 

Roads  on  Farm 490-492 

Roller 506 

Roofing  Material 90 

Rooms — Arrangement  of. .  ..80,  81,     98 

Pleasant 84,  840 

Warm 82 

Root  Pruning 136 

Root  Crops 395-407 

Root  Cuttings 7S9 

Runners 790 

Ruta  Baga 406 

Rye 252 

S. 

Salt.  181,  616,  715,  747 


880 


INDEX. 


Seed — Buying  of 461 

Changing 471 

Covering 134 

Fertilization  of. 463 

Germination  of 133,  452 

Good  Quality  Required..  ..450  462 

Influence  of 45 1-460 

Mixed 468 

New  and  Old I36 

Ripening I43 

Selection  of  Plants  for 462 

Storing 473 

Sheep 683-724 

Breeding 694-697 

Breeds 691-694 

Cotswold 692 

Diseases 7'^-722 

Dogs 722 

Ewes  for  Breeding 695 

Lambing 697 

Leicester 6^2 

Merino 6qi 

Native 6^3 

Old 696 

On  Prairies 723 

Oxford   Down 692 

Poisoned 720 

Profit  from 684-691,  724 

Ram,  Care  of. 694 

Shearing 709 

South  Down 692 

Summer  Management 706 

Washing 707 

Winter  Management 712 

Sleep 847 

Small  Farms 38 

Sod  as  a  Fertilizer 179 

Soil— Analysis  of 127-I31 

Covering 201 

Deficiencies  of 22 1 

Exhaustion  by  Crops 207 

Formation  of. 155 

Loosening 134 

Preparation 1 33 

Testing 130 

Soiling  Cattle 676 

Crops  for 677 

Sorgo 343 

Specially  System 435 

Springs 422 

Squash 815 

Stables 107,  566,  61 2 

Steers,  Training  of. 608 

Stone  Drains 410 

Stone  Walls 486 

Store- Hnuse ;   1 20 

Storing  Crops 320,  333,  349 

Strawberry  Culture 803 

Subsoil 1 60 

Su7ar 338-352 

Sugar  Beet 346 


Summer  Fallow 20c 

Surroundings,  Influence  of 839 

Sweet  Potato 355 

iiwiNE 724-755 

Age  for  Breeding 738-740 

Berkshire , 734 

Breeds 726-734 

Chester  White 729 

Diseases  of 749  752 

Essex 733 

Feeding 746 

Magie 733 

Sows  for  Breeding 737 

Spaying  Sows 744 

Suffolk 729 

Thorough  breds 734,  738 

Yorkshire 730 

T. 

Tea  Culture 352-355 

Ticks 711 

Tile  Drains 41 1 

Tilla-e 159,  203-215,  227 

Tobacco-Growing 355-3^4 

Tool-House 118 

Tomato 815 

Transplanting 772,  ^08 

Trees,  Cultivation  of 774 

Distance  Apart 773 

For  Timber 492-494 

I''u»ing 775 

Setting 773 

Watering 555 

Turkeys 702 

Turnip-Growing 404-407,  815 

U. 

Underdraining 409 

Useful  Tables 830-836 


Ventilation 94-97 

W. 

Wngon-House 1 14 

Water 154,  419-43'.  845 

Weeds 139,  140 

Weights  and  Measures 832,  834,  835 

Wells 425 

WnEAT-Growing 257-267 

Cultivation 264 

White  Clover 388 

Windows 83,  107,  113 

Wire  Worms 306 

Wood- House 115 

Wool 6S4 


Y. 


Yam. 


364 


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